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O Level Chemistry P2 Notes

The document provides comprehensive notes on O Level Chemistry, covering key topics such as experimental techniques, atomic structure, bonding, chemical calculations, and the periodic table. It also discusses the properties and reactions of acids, bases, and organic compounds, as well as environmental issues related to air pollution. Each section outlines essential concepts and definitions necessary for understanding chemistry at the O Level.

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37 views4 pages

O Level Chemistry P2 Notes

The document provides comprehensive notes on O Level Chemistry, covering key topics such as experimental techniques, atomic structure, bonding, chemical calculations, and the periodic table. It also discusses the properties and reactions of acids, bases, and organic compounds, as well as environmental issues related to air pollution. Each section outlines essential concepts and definitions necessary for understanding chemistry at the O Level.

Uploaded by

aniqarizwan2005
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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⚗️O Level Chemistry P2 Notes

1. Experimental Chemistry

 Separation Techniques:
o Filtration: Insoluble solids from liquids.
o Crystallization: Solute from solution (heat, cool slowly).
o Distillation: Liquid from solution (different boiling points).
o Fractional distillation: Liquids with close boiling points (e.g. crude oil).
o Chromatography: Separates dyes/pigments; Rf = distance spot/distance solvent.
 Measurement: Use burette (accurate), pipette, stopwatch, thermometer.

2. Particulate Nature of Matter

 States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas.


 Diffusion: Movement of particles from high to low concentration.
 Changes of State: Melting, boiling, condensing, freezing, sublimation.

3. Atomic Structure

 Subatomic particles:
o Proton: +1, mass = 1
o Neutron: 0, mass = 1
o Electron: -1, negligible mass
 Atomic number = No. of protons = No. of electrons
Mass number = Protons + Neutrons
 Isotopes: Same protons, different neutrons.

4. Structure and Bonding

 Ionic bonding: Transfer of electrons (metal + non-metal).


 Covalent bonding: Sharing electrons (non-metal + non-metal).
 Metallic bonding: Positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons.
 Structures:
o Giant ionic: High m.p./b.p., conduct when molten/aqueous.
o Simple molecular: Low m.p./b.p., don’t conduct.
o Giant covalent: e.g. diamond (hard), graphite (conducts).
o Metals: Malleable, conduct.

5. Chemical Calculations

 Mole = 6.02 × 10²³ particles.


 Molar mass (Mr): Sum of atomic masses.
 Moles = mass / Mr
 Concentration = moles / volume (dm³)
 Empirical formula: Simplest ratio.
 Percentage yield =

Actual yieldTheoretical yield×100\frac{\text{Actual yield}}{\text{Theoretical yield}} \


times 100Theoretical yieldActual yield×100

6. Electrolysis

 Electrolyte: Substance that conducts when molten/aqueous.


 Anode: Positive electrode (attracts anions).
 Cathode: Negative electrode (attracts cations).
 Electrolysis of molten NaCl: Na⁺ → Na (cathode), Cl⁻ → Cl₂ (anode).
 Aqueous electrolysis: Water competes at electrodes (OH⁻ → O₂, H⁺ → H₂).
 Applications: Electroplating, extraction (e.g., aluminium).

7. Energy Changes

 Exothermic: Releases heat (temperature increases)


e.g. combustion, neutralization.
 Endothermic: Absorbs heat (temperature decreases)
e.g. photosynthesis, thermal decomposition.
 Energy profile diagrams: Show energy difference between reactants/products.
 Bond energy:

ΔH=Bonds broken−Bonds formed\Delta H = \text{Bonds broken} - \text{Bonds


formed}ΔH=Bonds broken−Bonds formed

8. Rate of Reaction

 Factors affecting rate:


o Temperature
o Concentration/pressure
o Surface area
o Catalyst
 Collision theory: More frequent/effective collisions = faster reaction.
 Catalysts: Lower activation energy, not used up.

9. Acids, Bases and Salts

 Acids: Produce H⁺ ions (e.g. HCl).


 Bases: Accept H⁺ / produce OH⁻ (e.g. NaOH).
 Indicators: Litmus (red/blue), phenolphthalein (colourless/pink).
 Neutralization: Acid + base → salt + water
 Acid + metal → Salt + H₂
Acid + carbonate → Salt + CO₂ + H₂O
Acid + base → Salt + H₂O
 Solubility rules:
o All nitrates soluble.
o Most chlorides soluble (except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺).
o Most sulfates soluble (except Ba²⁺, Pb²⁺, Ca²⁺).
o Most carbonates insoluble (except Group 1 and NH₄⁺).

10. The Periodic Table

 Elements arranged by increasing atomic number.


 Groups: Vertical columns → same number of valence electrons.
 Periods: Horizontal rows → same number of shells.
 Group I (alkali metals): Very reactive, form +1 ions.
 Group VII (halogens): Form -1 ions, reactivity decreases down group.
 Group 0 (noble gases): Inert, full outer shell.

11. Metals

 Properties: Conductive, malleable, ductile, high m.p./b.p.


 Reactivity series: K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au
 Extraction:
o High reactivity: Electrolysis (e.g., Al)
o Medium/low: Reduction with carbon (e.g., Zn, Fe)
 Rusting: Fe + O₂ + H₂O → rust
Prevention: Paint, oil, galvanising.
12. Air and Environment

 Pollutants:
o CO (toxic)
o SO₂, NOₓ (acid rain)
o CO₂, CH₄ (greenhouse gases)
 Acid rain: Damages buildings, kills fish/plants.
 Greenhouse effect: Global warming, climate change.
 Catalytic converters: Reduce CO, NOₓ in car exhausts.

13. Organic Chemistry

 Hydrocarbons: Made of C and H.


 Alkanes: Saturated, single bonds (CnH₂n+2).
 Alkenes: Unsaturated, double bond (CnH₂n).
 Isomerism: Same formula, different structure.
 Reactions:
o Alkene + Br₂ → Colourless (test for unsaturation).
o Combustion: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O.
 Alcohols: CnH₂n+1OH; made by fermentation or hydration of ethene.
 Carboxylic acids: End in -COOH, weak acids.
 Polymers: Long chains of monomers.
o Addition polymer: Alkene monomers (e.g., polyethene).

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