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Chemistry Notes (MCOKS 2025)

The document covers fundamental concepts in chemistry, including states of matter, atomic structure, bonding types, chemical calculations, energy changes, reaction rates, electrolysis, acids and bases, and organic chemistry. It outlines key processes, formulas, and definitions essential for understanding chemical principles. Additionally, it provides tips for achieving high grades in chemistry assessments.

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41 views3 pages

Chemistry Notes (MCOKS 2025)

The document covers fundamental concepts in chemistry, including states of matter, atomic structure, bonding types, chemical calculations, energy changes, reaction rates, electrolysis, acids and bases, and organic chemistry. It outlines key processes, formulas, and definitions essential for understanding chemical principles. Additionally, it provides tips for achieving high grades in chemistry assessments.

Uploaded by

hl5939
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

States of Matter and Kinetic Theory

 Three States of Matter:

o Solid: Fixed shape and volume, particles vibrate in fixed positions.

o Liquid: Fixed volume, takes container shape, particles slide past each other.

o Gas: No fixed shape/volume, particles move freely with weak forces.

 Key Processes:

o Melting, boiling, evaporation, condensation, freezing, sublimation.

o Heating Curve: Plateaus represent state changes.

2. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

 Subatomic Particles:

o Proton (+1, mass = 1), neutron (0, mass = 1), electron (-1, mass ≈ 0).

 Key Terms:

o Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons.

o Mass Number (A): Protons + neutrons.

o Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different neutrons.

 Periodic Trends:

o Group = outer-shell electrons.

o Period = number of electron shells.

3. Bonding and Structures

 Ionic Bonding: Transfer of electrons between metals and non-metals. Forms lattice
structures with high melting points and conductivity when molten/aqueous.

 Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons between non-metals. Forms simple molecules (low
melting points, non-conductive) or giant covalent structures (e.g., diamond, graphite).

 Metallic Bonding: Delocalized electrons allow malleability, ductility, and conductivity.

4. Chemical Calculations

 Moles Formula:

Moles=MassMolar Mass\text{Moles} = \frac{\text{Mass}}{\text{Molar Mass}}


 Concentration Formula:

Concentration (mol/dm3)=MolesVolume (dm3)\text{Concentration (mol/dm}^3) = \frac{\


text{Moles}}{\text{Volume (dm}^3)}

 Gas Formula:

Moles=Volume of Gas (dm3)24\text{Moles} = \frac{\text{Volume of Gas (dm}^3)}{24}

 Percentage Yield:

Percentage Yield=Actual YieldTheoretical Yield×100\text{Percentage Yield} = \frac{\text{Actual Yield}}


{\text{Theoretical Yield}} \times 100

5. Energy Changes

 Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (e.g., combustion, neutralization).

 Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (e.g., photosynthesis).

 Enthalpy Change (ΔH\Delta H): ΔH=Bond Breaking Energy−Bond Making Energy\Delta H = \


text{Bond Breaking Energy} - \text{Bond Making Energy}

o Negative ΔH\Delta H: Exothermic.

o Positive ΔH\Delta H: Endothermic.

6. Rates of Reaction

 Factors Affecting Rate:

o Temperature, concentration, pressure, surface area, catalysts.

 Collision Theory: Particles must collide with enough energy (activation energy) to react.

7. Electrolysis

 Key Terms:

o Anode: Positive electrode (attracts anions).

o Cathode: Negative electrode (attracts cations).

o Electrolyte: Ionic compound in molten/aqueous state.

 Example:

o Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide produces:

 Lead at cathode.

 Bromine gas at anode.


8. Acids, Bases, and Salts

 pH Scale: Acid (<7), neutral (7), alkali (>7).

 Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water.

 Salt Preparation:

o Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen.

o Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO₂.

o Acid + Base → Salt + Water.

9. Organic Chemistry

 Alkanes: Single bonds, saturated hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane).

 Alkenes: Double bonds, unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g., ethene).

 Polymers: Long chains of monomers (e.g., polyethylene).

Tips to Achieve B+ or Higher

1. Master Equations: Focus on moles, percentage yield, and bond energy calculations.

2. Key Concepts: Memorize periodic trends, bonding properties, and electrolysis reactions.

3. Practice Questions: Attempt past papers and focus on structured questions.

4. Application: Understand real-world uses of metals, alloys, and salts.

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