POWER ELECTRONICSAND DRIVES

(THEORY & PRACTICALS)

UNIT 2
RECTIFIERS & CHOPPERS

 Single phase and three phase rectifiers

 Dual converters.

 Basic Principles of Chopper

 Step down and step up chopper

 Time ratio control and current limit control

 Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost converters.

 UNIT – II
Single phase and three phase controlled rectifiers
Phase control technique – Single phase Line commutated converters

Unlike diode rectifiers, PCRs or phase controlled rectifiers has an advantage of regulating the output
voltage. The diode rectifiers are termed as uncontrolled rectifiers. When these diodes are switched with
Thyristors, then it becomes phase control rectifier. The o/p voltage can be regulated by changing the
firing angle of the Thyristors. The main application of these rectifiers is involved in speed control of DC
motor.

What is a Phase Controlled Rectifier?

The term PCR or Phase controlled rectifier is a one type of rectifier circuit in which the diodes are
switched by Thyristors or SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers). Whereas the diodes offer no control over
the o/p voltage, the Thyristors can be used to differ the output voltage by adjusting the firing angle or
delay. A phase control Thyristor is activated by applying a short pulse to its gate terminal and it is
deactivated due to line communication or natural. In case of heavy inductive load, it is deactivated by
firing another Thyristor of the rectifier during the negative half cycle of i/p voltage.

Types of Phase Controlled Rectifier

The phase controlled rectifier is classified into two types based on the type of i/p power supply. And each
kind includes a semi, full and dual converter.

Figure: 2.1. Classification of rectifiers

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Single-phase Controlled Rectifier

This type of rectifier which works from single phase AC i/p power supply

Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are classified into different types

Half wave Controlled Rectifier: This type of rectifier uses a single Thyristor device to provide o/p
control only in one half cycle of input AC supply, and it offers low DC output.

Full wave Controlled Rectifier: This type of rectifier provides higher DC output

 Full wave controlled rectifier with a center tapped transformer requires two Thyristors.

 Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers do not need a center tapped transformer

Three-phase Controlled Rectifier

This type of rectifier which works from three phase AC i/p power supply

 A semi converter is a one quadrant converter that has one polarity of o/p voltage and current.

 A full converter is a a two quadrants converter that has polarity of o/p voltage can be either +ve or –ve
but, the current can have only one polarity that is either +ve or -ve.

 Dual converter works in four quadrants – both o/p voltage and o/p current can have both the polarities.

Operation of Phase Controlled Rectifier

The basic working principle of a PCR circuit is explained using a single phase half wave PCR circuit with
a RL load resistive shown in the following circuit.

A single phase half wave Thyristor converter circuit is used to convert AC to DC power conversion. The
i/p AC supply is attained from a transformer to offer the required AC supply voltage to the Thyristor
converter based on the o/p DC voltage required. In the above circuit, the primary and secondary AC
supply voltages are denoted with VP and VS.

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 Figure: 2.2. Single phase half wave rectifier circuit

During the +ve half cycle of i/p supply when the upper end of the transformer secondary winding is at a +
ve potential with respect to the lower end, the Thyristor is in a forward biased state.

The thyristor is activated at a delay angle of ωt =α, by applying an appropriate gate trigger pulse to the
gate terminal of thyristor. When the thyristor is activated at a delay angle of ωt =α, the thyristor behaviors
and assuming a perfect thyristor. The thyristor acts as a closed switch and the i/p supply voltage acts
across the load when it conducts from ωt =α to π radians For a purely resistive load, the load current io
that flows when the thyristor T1 is on, is given by the expression.

Io= vo/ RL, for α≤ ωt ≤ π

Applications of Phase Controlled Rectifier

Phase controlled rectifier applications include paper mills, textile mills using DC motor drives and DC
motor control in steel mills.

 AC fed traction system using a DC traction motor.

 Electro-metallurgical and Electrochemical processes.

 Reactor controls.

 Magnet power supplies.

 Portable hand instrument drives.

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 Flexible speed industrial drives.

 Battery charges.

 High voltage DC transmission.

 UPS (Uninterruptible power supply systems).

Operation of half converter with R and RL loads

Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘R’ load:

As shown in figure below primary of transformer is connected to ac mains supply with which SCR
becomes forward bias in positive half cycle. T1 is triggered at an angle α, T1 conducts and voltage is
applied across R.

Figure: 2.3 Single phase half wave rectifier with R load with waveforms

The load current i0 flows through ‘R’

the waveforms for voltage & current are as shown above.
As load is resistive,
Output current is given as,

Hence shape of output current is same as output voltage

As T1 conducts only in positive half cycle as it is reversed bias in negative cycle, the ripple frequency of
output voltage is-
fripple= 50 Hz (supply frequency)

Average output voltage is given as,

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i.e Area under one cycle.
Therefore T=2π&Vo(ωt) = Vm sinωt from α to π& for rest of the period Vo(ωt)=0

Power transferred to load,

Thus, power & voltage can be controlled by firing angle.

Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘RL’ load:

Figure: 2.4 Single phase half wave rectifier with RL load with waveforms

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Figure above shows the single phase half wave rectifier with RL Load.

 Normally motors are inductive loads

L= armature of field coil inductance

R= Resistance of coil.

 In positive half cycle, SCR starts conduction at firing angle “α”.

 Drop across SCR is small & neglected so output voltage is equal to supply voltage.

 Due to ‘RL’ load, current through SCR increases slowly.

 At ‘π’, supply voltage is at zero where load current is at its max value.

 In positive half cycle, inductor stores energy & that generates the voltage.

 In negative half cycle, the voltage developed across inductor, forward biases SCR & maintains its
conduction.

 Basically with the property of inductance it opposes change in current.

 Output current & supply current flows in same loop, so all the time io=is.

 After π the energy of inductor is given to mains & there is flow of ‘io’. The energy reduces as if gets
consumed by circuit so current also reduces.

 At ‘β’ energy stored in inductance is finished, hence ‘io’ becomes zero & ‘T1’ turns off.

 ‘io’ becomes zero from ‘β’ to ‘2π+α’ hence it is discontinuous conduction.

The average output voltage V0 = = π

α β

I0 = π
α β

RMS load voltage V0r =

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Single phase half controlled converter with RLE load

The diode D2 and D4 conducts for the positive and negative half cycle of the input voltage waveform
respectively. On the other hand T1 starts conduction when it is fired in the positive half cycle of the input
voltage waveform and continuous conduction till T3 is fired in the negative half cycle. Fig. shows the
circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase half controlled converter supplying an R – L – E
load.

Figure: 2.5 single phase half controlled converter with RLE load

Referring to Fig T1 D2 starts conduction at ωt = α. Output voltage during this period becomes equal to
vi. At ωt = π as vi tends to go negative D4 is forward biased and the load current commutates from D2 to
D4 and freewheels through D4 and T1. The output voltage remains clamped to zero till T3 is fired at ωt =
π + α. The T3 D4 conduction mode continues upto ωt = 2π. Where upon load current again free wheels
through T3 and D2 while the load voltage is clamped to zero. From the discussion in the previous
paragraph it can be concluded that the output voltage (hence the output current) is periodic over half the
input cycle. Hence

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Single phase half controlled converter with RLE load and freewheeling diode

Figure: 2.6 single phase half controlled converter with RLE load and freewheeling diode

Numerical problems

1. A single phase 230V, 1 Kwheater is connected across 1 phase 230V, 50Hz supply through an
SCR. For firing angle delay of 450 and 900, calculate the power absorbed in the heater element.

Solution: Heater resistance R = 2302/1000 Ω

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 The rms value of voltage is Vor =

= = 155.071V

Power absorbed by the heater element for α = 450 is

= 454.57W

for α = 900 the rms voltage is

Vor = = 115V

Power absorbed by the heater element for α = 900 is

= 250W

2. A resistive load of 10Ω is connected through a half-wave controlled rectifier circuit to 220V, 50
Hz, single phase source. Calculate the power delivered to the load for a firing angle of 60ᵒ. Find
also the value of input power factor
3. A single phase semi converter delivers to RLE load with R=5Ω, L = 10mH and E = 80V. The source
voltage is 230V, 50Hz. For continuous conduction, Find the average value of output current for
firing angle = 50o.

Single phase full wave controlled rectifier

Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘R’ load:

Figure below shows the Single phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifiers with R load

Figure: 2.7 single phase full converter circuit with R load

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 Figure: 2.8 single phase full converter circuit with R load input and output waveforms

• The single phase fully controlled rectifier allows conversion of single phase AC into DC. Normally this
is used in various applications such as battery charging, speed control of DC motors and front end of UPS
(Uninterruptible Power Supply) and SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply).
• All four devices used are Thyristors. The turn-on instants of these devices are dependent on the firing
signals that are given. Turn-off happens when the current through the device reaches zero and it is reverse
biased at least for duration equal to the turn-off time of the device specified in the data sheet.
• In positive half cycle Thyristors T1 & T2 are fired at an angle α .
• When T1 & T2 conducts
Vo=Vs
IO=is=Vo/R=Vs/R
• In negative half cycle of input voltage, SCR’s T3 &T4 are triggered at an angle of (π+α)
• Here output current & supply current are in opposite direction
∴ is=-io
T3 & T4 becomes off at 2π.
V0 = =

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Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier with ‘RL’ load:
Figure below shows Single phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifiers with RL load.

Figure: 2.9 single phase full converter circuit with RL load

Figure: 2.10 single phase full converter circuit with RL load input and output waveforms

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Operation of this mode can be divided between four modes

Mode 1 (α toπ)

• In positive half cycle of applied ac signal, SCR’s T1 & T2 are forward bias & can be turned on at an
angle α.
• Load voltage is equal to positive instantaneous ac supply voltage. The load current is positive, ripple
free, constant and equal to Io.
• Due to positive polarity of load voltage & load current, load inductance will store energy.

Mode 2 (π toπ+α)

• At wt=π, input supply is equal to zero & after π it becomes negative. But inductance opposes any
change through it.
• In order to maintain a constant load current & also in same direction. A self inducedemf appears across
‘L’ as shown.
• Due to this induced voltage, SCR’s T1 & T2 are forward bais in spite the negative supply voltage.
• The load voltage is negative & equal to instantaneous ac supply voltage whereas load current is positive.
• Thus, load acts as source & stored energy in inductance is returned back to the ac supply.

Mode 3 (π+α to 2π)

• At wt=π+α SCR’s T3 & T4 are turned on & T1, T2 are reversed bias.
• Thus , process of conduction is transferred from T1,T2 to T3,T4.
• Load voltage again becomes positive & energy is stored in inductor
• T3, T4 conduct in negative half cycle from (π+α) to 2π
• With positive load voltage & load current energy gets stored

Mode 4 (2π to 2π+α)

• At wt=2π, input voltage passes through zero.

• Inductive load will try to oppose any change in current if in order to maintain load current constant & in
the same direction.
• Induced emf is positive & maintains conducting SCR’s T3 & T4 with reverse polarity also.

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• Thus VL is negative & equal to instantaneous ac supply voltage. Whereas load current continues to be
positive.
• Thus load acts as source & stored energy in inductance is returned back to ac supply
• At wt=α or 2π+α, T3 & T4 are commutated and T1,T2 are turned on.

V0 = =

Single phase fully controlled converters with RLE load

The circuit diagram of a full wave bridge rectifier using thyristors in shown in figure below. It consists of
four SCRs which are connected between single phase AC supply and a load.

This rectifier produces controllable DC by varying conduction of all SCRs.

Figure: 2.11 single phase full converter circuit with RLE load

Figure: 2.12 single phase full converter circuit with RLE load input and output waveforms

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In positive half-cycle of the input, Thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased while T3 and T4 are reverse
biased. Thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously at some firing angle in the positive half cycle,
and T3 and T4 are triggered in the negative half cycle.

The load current starts flowing through them when they are in conduction state. The load for this
converter can be RL or RLE depending on the application.

By varying the conduction of each thyristor in the bridge, the average output of this converter gets
controlled. The average value of the output voltage is twice that of half-wave rectifier.

The average output voltage is

V0 = =

Line commutated converters

For single phase half wave converter

1. Average DC load voltage: (Voavg)

Voavg = V0 = where T is time period

Voavg =
π

= π

= π

= π

=
π

If Voavg max = π

If Voavg = 0

2. Average DC load current is given as

Ioavg =

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 Ioavg = π

3. RMS load voltage

Vrms =

Vrms =

Vrms =

If Vrms =

If Vrms = 0

The RMS voltage may be varied from 0 to by varying from 180 to 0

4. Power delivered to the resistive load is given

PL = (RMS load voltage)( RMS load current)

= VrmsX Irms

= =

5. Input volt amperes = (RMS source voltage)( RMS line current)

= Vs Irms

= Vs

6. Input power factor: It is defined as the ratio of total mean input power to the total rms input volt
amperes

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 Input power factor =

7. Form factor: Form factor is defined as the ratio of RMS voltage to the average DC voltage

Form Factor =

8. Effective value of the AC component of the output voltage

Vac =

9. Ripple factor (Rf)

It is defined as the ratio of AC component to the DC. Where ripple is the amount of AC
component present in DC component

Rf = = = =

10. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

It is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the volt ampere rating of the transformer

TUF =

11. Rectifier efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input ac power

12. Peak inverse voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum voltage that an SCR can be subjected to in the reverse biased
condition
In the case of Half wave rectifier it is Vm

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Effect of source inductance in single phase rectifier

Fig. below shows a single phase fully controlled converter with source inductance. For simplicity it has
been assumed that the converter operates in the continuous conduction mode. Further, it has been
assumed that the load current ripple is negligible and the load can be replaced by a dc current source the
magnitude of which equals the average load current. Fig. shows the corresponding waveforms

It is assumed that the Thyristors T3 and T4 were conducting at t = 0. T1 and T2 are fired at ωt = α. If
there were no source inductance T3 and T4 would have commutated as soon as T1 and T2 are turned ON.

The input current polarity would have changed instantaneously. However, if a source inductance is
present the commutation and change of input current polarity cannot be instantaneous. s. Therefore, when
T1 and T2 are turned ON T3 T4 does not commutate immediately. Instead, for some interval all four
Thyristors continue to conduct as shown in Fig. 2.14. This interval is called “overlap” interval.

Figure: 2.13 single phase full converter circuit with source inductance

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 Figure: 2.14 single phase full converter output waveforms with source inductance

1. During overlap interval the load current freewheels through the thyristors and the output voltage
is clamped to zero. On the other hand, the input current starts changing polarity as the current
through T1 and T2 increases and T3 T4 current decreases. At the end of the overlap interval the
current through T3 and T4 becomes zero and they commutate, T1 and T2 starts conducting the
full load current
2. The same process repeats during commutation from T1 T2 to T3T4 at ωt = π + α . From Fig. 2.14
it is clear that, commutation overlap not only reduces average output dc voltage but also reduces
the extinction angle γ which may cause commutation failure in the inverting mode of operation if
α is very close to 180º.
3. In the following analysis an expression of the overlap angle “μ” will be determined. From the
equivalent circuit of the converter during overlap period.

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The Equation can be represented by the following equivalent circuit

Figure: 2.15 Equivalent circuit of the given equation

Equivalent circuit representation of the single phase fully controlled rectifier with source inductance

The simple equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.15 represents the single phase fully controlled converter with
source inductance as a practical dc source as far as its average behavior is concerned. The open circuit
voltage of this practical source equals the average dc output voltage of an ideal converter (without source
inductance) operating at a firing angle of α. The voltage drop across the internal resistance “RC”
represents the voltage lost due to overlap shown in Fig. 2.14 by the hatched portion of the Vo waveform.
Therefore, this is called the “Commutation resistance”. Although this resistance accounts for the voltage
drop correctly there is no power loss associated with this resistance since the physical process of overlap
does not involve any power loss. Therefore this resistance should be used carefully where power
calculation is involved.

Numerical problems

1. For the single phase fully controlled bridge is connected to RLE load. The source voltage is 230
V, 50 Hz. The average load current of 10A continuous over the working range. For R= 0.4 Ω and
L = 2mH, Compute (a) firing angle for E = 120V (b) firing angle for E = -120V (c) in case output
current is constant find the input power factors for both parts a and b

Solution:
a) For E = 120 the full converter is operating as a controlled rectifier
= E+I0R

= 120+ 10X0.4 = 124V

= 53.210

For = 53.210 power flows from ac source to DC load.

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 b) For E = -120 the full converter is operating as a controlled rectifier
= E+I0R

= -120+ 10X0.4 = -116V

= 124.10

For = 124.10 power flows from DC source to ac load.

c) For constant load current, rms value of load current is

Ior = Io = 10A
Vs Ior cosФ = EIo+Ior2R

For = 53.210 cosФ =

For = 124.10 cosФ =

2. A single phase two pulse converter feeds power to RLE load with R= 6Ω, L= 6mH, E= 60V, AC
source voltage is 230V, 50Hz for continuous condition. Find the average value of load current for
a firing angle of 50ᵒ. In case one of the 4 SCRs gets open circuited. Find the new value of average
load current assuming the output current as continuous.
3. For the single phase fully controlled bridge converter having load of ‘R’, determine the average
output voltage, rms output voltage and input power factor if the supply is 230V, 50 Hz, single
phase AC and the firing angle is 60 degrees

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Operation of three phase half wave rectifier with R and RL loads

Figure: 2.16 circuit diagram three phase half wave rectifier

Figure: 2.17 input and output waveforms of three phase half wave rectifier

Three phase supply voltage equations

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We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows

V RN = V an = V m sinwt where V m is the maximum voltage

V YN = V bn = V m sin (wt-

V BN = V cn = V m sin (wt-

The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half wave controlled
rectifiers in one single circuit feeding a common load. The thyristor T 1 in series with one of the
supply phase windings 'a-n' acts as one half wave controlled rectifier The second thyristor T 2 in
series with the supply phase winding 'b-n' acts as the second half wave controlled rectifier. The
third thyristor T 3 in series with the supply phase winding acts as the third half wave controlled
rectifier.

The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply transformer as shown in
the figure. The common neutral point of the supply is connected to one end of the load while the
other end of the load connected to the common cathode point.

When the thyristor T 1 is triggered at ωt=(∏/6 + α)=(30° + α) , the phase voltage V an appears
across the load when T 1 conducts. The load current flows through the supply phase winding 'a-
n' and through thyristor T 1 as long as T 1 conducts.
When thyristor T 2 is triggered at ωt=(5∏/6α), T 1 becomes reverse biased and turns-off. The load
current flows through the thyristor and through the supply phase winding 'b-n' . When
T 2 conducts the phase voltage v bn appears across the load until the thyristor T 3 is triggered .
When the thyristor T 3 is triggered at ωt=(3∏/2 + α)=(270°+α) , T 2 is reversed biased and hence
T 2 turns-off. The phase voltage V an appears across the load when T 3 conducts.
When T 1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next input cycle the thyristor T 3 turns off as it
is reverse biased naturally as soon as T 1 is triggered. The figure shows the 3-phase input supply
voltages, the output voltage which appears across the load, and the load current assuming a
constant and ripple free load current for a highly inductive load and the current through the
thyristor T 1 .
For a purely resistive load where the load inductance ‘L = 0’ and the trigger angle α >(∏/6) , the
load current appears as discontinuous load current and each thyristor is naturally commutated
when the polarity of the corresponding phase supply voltage reverses. The frequency of output

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ripple frequency for a 3-phase half wave converter is f s , where f s is the input supply frequency.
3
The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical converter systems because of
the disadvantage that the supply current waveforms contain dc components (i.e., the supply
current waveforms have an average or dc value).

To derive an expression for the average output voltage of a 3-phase half wave converter for
continuous load current

The reference phase voltage is v RN =v an =V m sinωt. The trigger angle is measured from the cross
over points of the 3-phase supply voltage waveforms. When the phase supply voltage V an begins
its positive half cycle at ωt=0 , the first cross over point appears at ωt=(∏/6)radians 30°.
The trigger angle α for the thyristor T 1 is measured from the cross over point at . The
thyristor T 1 is forward biased during the period ωt=30° to 150° , when the phase supply
voltage v an has higher amplitude than the other phase supply voltages. Hence T 1 can be triggered
between 30° to 150°. When the thyristor T 1 is triggered at a trigger angle α, the average or dc
output voltage for continuous load current is calculated using the equation

π
α
Vavg = π
π
α

Operation of three phase half controlled rectifier with R and RL loads

Figure: 2.18 circuit diagram three phase half controlled rectifier

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Three phase half wave controlled rectifier output voltage waveforms for different trigger
angles with R load

Figure: 2.19 input and output waveforms of three phase half controlled rectifier with R load

Three single phase half wave converters can be connected to form a three phase half wave converter.
Similarly three phase semi converter uses 3 SCRs T1, T3 & T5 and 3 diodes D2, D4&D6 In the circuit
shown above when any device conducts, line voltage is applied across load. so line voltage are necessary
to draw Phase shift between two line voltages is 60 degree & between two phase voltages it is 120 degree
Each phase & line voltage is sine wave with the frequency of 50 Hz.
R,Y,B are phase voltages with respect to ‘N’.
In the case of a three-phase half wave controlled rectifier with resistive load, the thyristor T 1 is
triggered at ωt=(30°+α)and T 1 conducts up to ωt=180°=&pron; radians. When the phase supply
voltage decreases to zero at , the load current falls to zero and the thyristor T 1 turns off.
Thus T 1 conducts from ωt=(30° + α) to (180°).

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Hence the average dc output voltage for a 3-pulse converter (3-phase half wave controlled
rectifier) is calculated by using the equation

π π
α
The average output voltage V avg = π π
π α

Figure: 2.19 Input and output waveforms of three phase half controlled rectifier with RL load

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Numerical Problems on three phase rectifiers:

1. A three phase semi converter feeds power to a resistive load of 10Ω. For a firing angle delay of
300 the load takes 5 Kw. Find the magnitude of per phase input supply voltage.

Solution:

π π
α
Vor = π π π
α

Vor2 =

Vor =

For α = 300

P = V2/R

5000x10 =

Vs = 175.67V and Vph = 101.43V

2. A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier has a supply of 200V/phase. Determine the average
load voltage for firing angle of 0o, 30oand 60o assuming a thyristor volt drop of 1.5V and
continuous load current
3. A three phase half wave converter is supplying a load with a continuous constant current of 50A
over a firing angle from 0o to 600. What will be the power dissipated by the load at these limiting
values of firing angle. The supply voltage is 415V (line).

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Operation of three phase fully controlled rectifier with R and RL loads

Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled rectifier using six thyristors
connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. All the six thyristors are controlled
switches which are turned on at a appropriate times by applying suitable gate trigger signals.
The three phase full converter is extensively used in industrial power applications upto about
120kW output power level, where two quadrant operations is required. The figure shows a three
phase full converter with highly inductive load. This circuit is also known as three phase full
wave bridge or as a six pulse converter.
The thyristors are triggered at an interval of (∏/3) radians (i.e. at an interval of 30°). The
frequency of output ripple voltage is 6f s and the filtering requirement is less than that of three
phase semi and half wave converters.

Figure: 2.20 circuit diagram three phase fully controlled rectifier with R and RL load
At ωt=(∏/6 +α) , thyristor is already conducting when the thyristor is turned on by applying the
gating signal to the gate of . During the time period ωt=(∏/6 +α) to (∏/2 +α), thyristors and
conduct together and the line to line supply voltage appears across the load.
At ωt=(∏/2 +α), the thyristor T 2 is triggered and T 6 is reverse biased immediately and T 6 turns
off due to natural commutation. During the time period ωt=(∏/ +α) to (5∏/6 +α),
thyristor T 1 and T 2 conduct together and the line to line supply voltage appears across the load.
The thyristors are numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the order in which they are
triggered. The trigger sequence (firing sequence) of the thyristors is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61, 12,
23, and so on. The figure shows the waveforms of three phase input supply voltages, output
voltage, the thyristor current through T 1 and T 4 , the supply current through the line ‘a’.

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We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows

V RN = V an = V m sinwt where V m is the maximum voltage

V YN = V bn = V m sin (wt-

V BN = V cn = V m sin (wt-

The corresponding line to line voltages are

π
V RY = V ab = V an - V bn =

π
V YB = V bc = V bn – V cn =

π
V BR = V ca = V cn – V an =

To derive an expression for the average output voltage of three phase full converter with highly
inductive load assuming continuous and constant load current

The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage pulses over a period of 2∏ radians, hence the
average output voltage is calculated as

π
α
Vavg = π
π
α

π
Vo = Vab =
π
α π
Vavg = π
π α

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The RMS value of the output voltage is found from
π
α
Vorms = π
π
α

π
α
= π
π
α

π
α π
= π
π
α

Figure: 2.21 Input and output waveforms of three phase fully controlled rectifier

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Operation of three phase half wave rectifier with RLE loads

A three phase fully controlled converter is obtained by replacing all the six diodes of an uncontrolled
converter by six thyristors as shown in Figure

Figure: 2.22 circuit diagram of three phase fully controlled rectifier with RLE load

For any current to flow in the load at least one device from the top group (T1, T3, T5) and one from the
bottom group (T2, T4, T6) must conduct. It can be argued as in the case of an uncontrolled converter only
one device from these two groups will conduct.
Then from symmetry consideration it can be argued that each thyristor conducts for 120° of the input
cycle. Now the thyristors are fired in the sequence T1 → T2 → T3 → T4 → T5 → T6 → T1 with 60°
interval between each firing. Therefore thyristors on the same phase leg are fired at an interval of 180°
and hence can not conduct simultaneously. This leaves only six possible conduction mode for the
converter in the continuous conduction mode of operation. These are T1T2, T2T3, T3T4, T4T5, T5T6,
T6T1. Each conduction mode is of 60° duration and appears in the sequence mentioned. Each of these
line voltages can be associated with the firing of a thyristor with the help of the conduction table-1. For
example the thyristor T1 is fired at the end
of T5 T6 conduction interval. During this period the voltage across T1 was vac. Therefore T1 is fired α
angle after the positive going zero crossing of vac. similar observation can be made about other thyristors.

Fig. 2.23 shows the waveforms of different variables. To arrive at the waveforms it is necessary to draw
the conduction diagram which shows the interval of conduction for each thyristor and can be drawn with
the help of the phasor diagram of fig. 2.22. If the converter firing angle is α each thyristor is fired “α”

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angle after the positive going zero crossing of the line voltage with which it’s firing is associated. Once
the conduction diagram is drawn all other voltage waveforms can be drawn from the line voltage
waveforms and from the conduction table of fig. 2.22. Similarly line currents can be drawn from the
output current and the conduction diagram. It is clear from the waveforms that output voltage and current
waveforms are periodic over one sixth of the input cycle. Therefore this converter is also called

the “six pulse” converter. The input current on the other hand contains only odds harmonics of the input
frequency other than the triplex (3rd, 9th etc.) harmonics. The next section will analyze the operation of
this converter in more details.

Figure: 2.23 Input and output waveforms of three phase fully controlled rectifier in rectifier mode

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 Figure: 2.24 Input and output waveforms of three phase fully controlled rectifier in inversion mode
Effect of source inductance in three phase rectifiers

The three phase fully controlled converter was analyzed with ideal source with no internal impedance.
When the source inductance is taken into account, the qualitative effects on the performance of the
converter is similar to that in the case of a single phase converter. Fig. 2.25 shows such a converter. As in
the case of a single phase converter the load is assumed to be highly inductive such that the load can be
replaced by a current source.

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 Figure: 2.25 circuit diagram for three phase rectifier with source inductance

Figure: 2.26 waveforms for three phase rectifier with source inductance

As in the case of a single phase converter, commutations are not instantaneous due to the presence of
source inductances. It takes place over an overlap period of “μ ” instead. During the overlap period three
1

thyristors instead of two conducts. Current in the outgoing thyristor gradually decreases to zero while the
incoming thyristor current increases and equals the total load current at the end of the overlap period. If
the duration of the overlap period is greater than 60º four thyristors may also conduct clamping the output
voltage to zero for some time. However, this situation is not very common and will not be discussed any
further in this lesson. Due to the conduction of two devices during commutation either from the top group
or the bottom group the instantaneous output voltage during the overlap period drops (shown by the

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hatched portion of Fig. 2.26 resulting in reduced average voltage. The exact amount of this reduction can
be calculated as follows.
In the time interval α < ωt ≤ α + μ, T and T from the bottom group and T from the top group conducts.
6 2 1

The equivalent circuit of the converter during this period is given by the circuit diagram of Fig. 2.27

Figure: 2.27 Equivalent circuit of waveforms with source inductance

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Introduction to dual converters

Dual converter, the name itself says two converters. It is really an electronic converter or circuit which
comprises of two converters. One will perform as rectifier and the other will perform as inverter.
Therefore, we can say that double processes will occur at a moment. Here, two full converters are
arranged in anti-parallel pattern and linked to the same dc load. These converters can provide four
quadrant operations. The basic block diagram is shown below

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 Figure: 2.28 Block diagram of dual converter

Modes of Operation of Dual Converter

There are two functional modes: Non-circulating current mode and circulating mode.

Non Circulating Current Mode

 One converter will perform at a time. So there is no circulating current between the converters.
 During the converter 1 operation, firing angle (α1) will be 0<α1< 90o; Vdc and Idc are positive.
 During the converter 2 operation, firing angle (α2) will be 0<α2< 90o; Vdc and Idc are negative.

Circulating Current Mode

 Two converters will be in the ON condition at the same time. So circulating current is present.
 The firing angles are adjusted such that firing angle of converter 1 (α1) + firing angle of converter 2
(α2) = 180o.
 Converter 1 performs as a controlled rectifier when firing angle be 0<α1< 90o and Converter 2
performs as an inverter when the firing angle be 90o<α2< 180o. In this condition, Vdc and Idc are
positive.
 Converter 1 performs as an inverter when firing angle be 90o<α1< 180o and Converter 2 performs
as a controlled rectifier when the firing angle be 0<α2< 90o In this condition, Vdc and Idc are
negative.
 The four quadrant operation is shown below

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 Figure: 2.29 Four quadrant operations of dual converter

Ideal Dual Converter

The term ‘ideal’ refers to the ripple free output voltage. For the purpose of unidirectional flow of DC
current, two diodes (D1 and D2) are incorporated between the converters. However, the direction of
current can be in any way. The average output voltage of the converter 1 is V01 and converter 2 is V02. To
make the output voltage of the two converters in same polarity and magnitude, the firing angles of the
Thyristors have to be controlled.

Figure: 2.30 Ideal dual converter

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Single Phase Dual Converter

The source of this type of converter will be single-phase supply. Consider, the converter is in non-
circulating mode of operation. The input is given to the converter 1 which converts the AC to DC by the
method of rectification. It is then given to the load after filtering. Then, this DC is provided to the
converter 2 as input. This converter performs as inverter and converts this DC to AC. Thus, we get AC as
output. The circuit diagram is shown below.

Figure: 2.31 Single phase Dual converter

Average output voltage of Single-phase converter=

Average output voltage of Three-phase converter =

For converter 1, the average output voltage,

For converter 2, the average output voltage,

Output voltage,

The firing angle can never be greater than 180o. So,

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 Figure: 2.32 output voltage variation with firing angle

Three Phase Dual Converter

Here, three-phase rectifier and three-phase inverter are used. The processes are similar to single-phase
dual converter. The three-phase rectifier will do the conversion of the three-phase AC supply to the DC.
This DC is filtered and given to the input of the second converter. It will do the DC to AC conversion and
the output that we get is the three-phase AC. Applications where the output is up to 2 megawatts. The
circuit is shown below.

Figure: 2.33 Three phase dual converter

Application of Dual Converter

 Direction and Speed control of DC motors.

 Applicable wherever the reversible DC is required.
 Industrial variable speed DC drives.

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 UNIT – IV
DC – DC converters
Introduction to Choppers

A chopper uses high speed to connect and disconnect from a source load. A fixed DC voltage is applied
intermittently to the source load by continuously triggering the power switch ON/OFF. The period of
time for which the power switch stays ON or OFF is referred to as the chopper’s ON and OFF state
times, respectively.

Choppers are mostly applied in electric cars, conversion of wind and solar energy, and DC motor
regulators.

Symbol of a Chopper

Figure: 3.1 symbol of chopper

Control strategies of Chopper

In DC-DC converters, the average output voltage is controlled by varying the alpha (α) value. This is
achieved by varying the Duty Cycle of the switching pulses. Duty cycle can be varied usually in 2 ways:

1. Time Ratio Control

2. Current Limit Control

In this post we shall look upon both the ways of varying the duty cycle. Duty Cycle is the ratio of ‘On
Time’ to ‘Time Period of a pulse’.

Time Ratio Control: As the name suggest, here the time ratio (i.e. the duty cycle ratio Ton/T) is varied.
This kind of control can be achieved using 2 ways:

• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) • Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)

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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

In this technique, the time period is kept constant, but the ‘On Time’ or the ‘OFF Time’ is varied. Using
this, the duty cycle ratio can be varied. Since the ON time or the ‘pulse width’ is getting changed in this
method, so it is popularly known as Pulse width modulation.

Figure: 3.2 pulse width modulation waveforms

Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)

In this control method, the ‘Time Period’ is varied while keeping either of ‘On Time’ or ‘OFF time’ as
constant. In this method, since the time period gets changed, so the frequency also changes accordingly,
so this method is known as frequency modulation control.

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 Figure: 3.3 Frequency modulation waveforms

Current Limit Control:

As is obvious from its name, in this control strategy, a specific limit is applied on the current variation.

In this method, current is allowed to fluctuate or change only between 2 values i.e. maximum current (I
max) and minimum current (I min). When the current is at minimum value, the chopper is switched ON.
After this instance, the current starts increasing, and when it reaches up to maximum value, the chopper is
switched off allowing the current to fall back to minimum value. This cycle continues again and again.

Figure: 3.4 current limit control waveforms

Classification of Choppers
Depending on the voltage output, choppers are classified as −

1. Step Up chopper (boost converter)

2. Step Down Chopper(Buck converter)

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 3. Step Up/Down Chopper (Buck-boost converter)

Depending upon the direction of the output current and voltage, the converters can be classified into five
classes namely

1. Class A [One-quadrant Operation]

2. Class B [One-quadrant Operation]
3. Class C [Two-quadrant Operation]
4. Class D Chopper [Two-quadrant Operation]
5. Class E Chopper [Four-quadrant Operation]

Step Down Chopper

This is also known as a buck converter. In this chopper, the average voltage output V O is less than the
input voltage VS. When the chopper is ON, VO = VS and when the chopper is off, VO = 0

When the chopper is ON −

VS=(VL+V0), VL=VS−V0,

Ldi/dt=VS−V0,

LΔi/TON=Vs+V0

VS=(VL+V0),

VL=VS−V0,

Ldi/dt=VS−V0,

LΔi/TON=Vs+V0

Thus, peak-to-peak current load is given by,

Δi= TON

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 Figure: 3.5 Step down chopper
Where FD is free-wheel diode.

When the chopper is OFF, polarity reversal and discharging occurs at the inductor. The current passes
through the free-wheel diode and the inductor to the load. This gives,

Ldi/dt=V0

Rewritten as LΔi/TOFF=V0
LΔi/TOFF=V0
Δi=V0TOFF/L

From the above equations

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Current and Voltage Waveforms

The current and voltage waveforms are given below −

For a step down chopper the voltage output is always less than the voltage input. This is shown by the
waveform below.

Figure: 3.6 Input and output waveforms

Step Up Chopper

The average voltage output (Vo) in a step up chopper is greater than the voltage input (Vs). The figure
below shows a configuration of a step up chopper.

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 Figure: 3.7 circuit diagram of step up chopper

Current and Voltage Waveforms

V0 (average voltage output) is positive when chopper is switched ON and negative when the chopper is
OFF as shown in the waveform below.

Figure: 3.8 Input and output waveforms of step up chopper

Where

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TON – time interval when chopper is ON

TOFF – time interval when chopper is OFF

VL – Load voltage

Vs – Source voltage

T – Chopping time period = TON + TOFF

Vo is given by −

V0 =

When the chopper (CH) is switched ON, the load is short circuited and, therefore, the voltage output for
the period TON is zero. In addition, the inductor is charged during this time. This gives VS = VL

Δi = is the inductor peak to peak current. When the chopper (CH) is OFF, discharge occurs through the
inductor L. Therefore, the summation of the Vs and VL is given as follows −

V0=VS+VL, VL=V0−VS

Equating from on state to off state

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Step Up/ Step Down Chopper

his is also known as a buck-boost converter. It makes it possible to increase or reduce the voltage input
level. The diagram below shows a buck-boost chopper

Figure: 3.9 circuit diagram of step up chopper

When the chopper is switched ON, the inductor L becomes charged by the source voltage Vs. Therefore,
Vs = VL.

When the chopper is switched OFF, the inductor’s polarity reverses and this causes it to discharge
through the diode and the load.

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Hence,

V0 = −VL

By comparing the above equations

V0 =

Principle of operation of class A chopper

Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper

• When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load.
• When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the same direction through the
FWD.
• The average values of output voltage and current are always positive. Class A Chopper is a first
quadrant chopper
• When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load.
• When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the same direction through the
FWD.
• The average values of output voltage and current are always positive.
• Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows form source to load.
• It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
• The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the
performance of Class A Chopper.

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Figure: 3.10 circuit diagram and quadrant operation of Type A chopper

Figure: 3.11 Output voltage and current waveforms of type A chopper

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130 | P a g e
Class B Chopper

Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper

• When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure.
• During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy.
• When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the
supply.
• Average output voltage is positive. Average output current is negative.
• Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant.
• In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
• Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor.

Figure: 3.12 circuit diagram and quadrant operation of Type B chopper

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 Figure: 3.13 Output voltage and current waveforms of type B chopper

Class C chopper

Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper

• Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.
• For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts.
• For second quadrant operation, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts.
• When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive.
• The output voltage is equal to ‘V’ & the load receives power from the source.
• When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the diode D2
and the output voltage is zero.
• Current continues to flow in positive direction.
• When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite direction through L and CH2 .
• The output voltage is zero.
• On turning OFF CH2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and the
supply
• Output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
• Average output voltage is positive
• Average output current can take both positive and negative values.
• Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the
supply.
• Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor.

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 Figure: 3.14 circuit diagram and quadrant operation of Type C chopper

Figure: 3.15 Output voltage and current waveforms of type C chopper

Class D chopper

• Class D is a two quadrant chopper.

• When both CH1 and CH2 are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V and output current
flows through the load.
• When CH1 and CH2 are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in the same direction through
load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor L.

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• Output voltage vO = – V.
• Average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is more than the OFF time
• Average output voltage becomes negative if tON < tOFF .
• Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be positive or negative.

Figure: 3.16 circuit diagram and quadrant operation of Type D chopper

Figure: 3.17 Output voltage and current waveforms of type D chopper

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Class E Chopper
• Class E is a four quadrant chopper
• When CH1 and CH4 are triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction through CH1 and CH4,
and with output voltage vO = V.
• This gives the first quadrant operation.
• When both CH1 and CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D2 and D3 in
the same direction, but output voltage vO = -V.
• Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant.
• When CH2 and CH3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction & output voltage vO
= -V.
• Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant.
• When both CH2 and CH3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction D1 and
D4 and the output voltage vO = V.
• Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative.

Figure: 3.18 circuit diagram and quadrant operation of Type E chopper

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Numerical problems

1. A step up chopper has an input voltage of 150V. The voltage output needed is 450V. Given, that the
thyristor has a conducting time of 150μseconds. Calculate the chopping frequency.

Solution −

The chopping frequency (f)

The new voltage output, on condition that the operation is at constant frequency after the halving the
pulse width.

Halving the pulse width gives −

2. In a type A chopper, the input supply voltage is 230 V the load resistance is 10Ω and there is a
voltage drop of 2 V across the chopper thyristor when it is on. For a duty ratio of 0.4, calculate the
average and rms values of the output voltage. Also find the chopper efficiency
3. A step-up chopper supplies a load of 480 V from 230 V dc supply. Assuming the non conduction
period of the thyristor to be 50 microsecond, find the on time of the thyristor

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Buck regulator

With power being a key parameter in many designs, step down or "buck" regulators are widely used.

Although a resistor would enable voltage to be dropped, power is lost, and in applications such as the
many battery powered items used today, power consumption is a crucial element.

As a result step down switch mode converters or as they are more commonly termed, buck regulators are
widely used.

Linear step down

The most basic form of step down transition is to use a resistor as a potential divider or voltage dropper.
In some cases a zener diode may also be used to stabilize the voltage.

Figure: 3.19 Potential divider circuits

The issue with this form of voltage dropper or step down converter is that it is very wasteful in terms of
power. Any voltage dropped across the resistor will be dissipated as heat, and any current flowing through
the zener diode will also dissipate heat. Both of these elements result on the loss of valuable energy.

Basic buck converter or regulator

The fundamental circuit for a step down converter or buck converter consists of an inductor, diode,
capacitor, switch and error amplifier with switch control circuitry.

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 Figure: 3.20 circuit diagram of Buck regulator

The circuit for the buck regulator operates by varying the amount of time in which inductor receives
energy from the source.

In the basic block diagram the operation of the buck converter or buck regulator can be seen that the
output voltage appearing across the load is sensed by the sense / error amplifier and an error voltage is
generated that controls the switch.

Typically the switch is controlled by a pulse width modulator, the switch remaining on of longer as more
current is drawn by the load and the voltage tends to drop and often there is a fixed frequency oscillator to
drive the switching.

Buck converter operation

When the switch in the buck regulator is on, the voltage that appears across the inductor is Vin - Vout.
Using the inductor equations, the current in the inductor will rise at a rate of (Vin-Vout)/L. At this time
the diode D is reverse biased and does not conduct.

Figure: 3.21 circuit diagram of Buck regulator during switch on condition

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When the switch opens, current must still flow as the inductor works to keep the same current flowing. As
a result current still flows through the inductor and into the load. The diode, D then forms the return path
with a current Idiode equal to Iout flowing through it.

With the switch open, the polarity of the voltage across the inductor has reversed and therefore the current
through the inductor decreases with a slope equal to -Vout/L.

Figure: 3.22 circuit diagram of Buck regulator during switch off condition

Figure: 3.23 Input and output waveforms of Buck regulator

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In the diagram of the current waveforms for the buck converter / switching regulator, it can be seen that
the inductor current is the sum of the diode and input / switch current. Current either flows through the
switch or the diode.

It is also worth noting that the average input current is less than the average output current. This is to be
expected because the buck converter circuit is very efficient and the input voltage is greater than the
output voltage. Assuming a perfect circuit, then power in would equal power out, i.e. Vin ⋅ In = Vout ⋅
Iout. While in a real circuit there will be some losses, efficiency levels greater than 85% are to be
expected for a well-designed circuit.

It will also be seen that there is a smoothing capacitor placed on the output. This serves to ensure that the
voltage does not vary appreciable, especially during and switch transition times. It will also be required to
smooth any switching spikes that occur.

Boost regulator

One of the advantages of switch mode power supply technology is that it can be used to create a step up
or boost converter / regulator.

Boost converters or regulators are used in many instances from providing small supplies where higher
voltages may be needed to much higher power requirements.

Often there are requirements for voltages higher than those provided by the available power supply -
voltages for RF power amplifiers within mobile phones is just one example.

Step-up boost converter basics

The boost converter circuit has many similarities to the buck converter. However the circuit topology for
the boost converter is slightly different. The fundamental circuit for a boost converter or step up converter
consists of an inductor, diode, capacitor, switch and error amplifier with switch control circuitry.

Figure: 3.24 circuit diagram of Boost regulator

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The circuit for the step-up boost converter operates by varying the amount of time in which inductor
receives energy from the source.

In the basic block diagram the operation of the boost converter can be seen that the output voltage
appearing across the load is sensed by the sense / error amplifier and an error voltage is generated that
controls the switch.

Typically the boost converter switch is controlled by a pulse width modulator, the switch remaining on of
longer as more current is drawn by the load and the voltage tends to drop and often there is a fixed
frequency oscillator to drive the switching.

Boost converter operation

The operation of the boost converter is relatively straightforward.

When the switch is in the ON position, the inductor output is connected to ground and the voltage Vin is
placed across it. The inductor current increases at a rate equal to Vin/L.

When the switch is placed in the OFF position, the voltage across the inductor changes and is equal to
Vout-Vin. Current that was flowing in the inductor decays at a rate equal to (Vout-Vin)/L.

Figure: 3.25 circuit diagram of Boost regulator during switch off condition

Referring to the boost converter circuit diagram, the current waveforms for the different areas of the
circuit can be seen as below.

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 Figure: 3.26 Input and output waveforms of Boost regulator

It can be seen from the waveform diagrams that the input current to the boost converter is higher than the
output current. Assuming a perfectly efficient, i.e. lossless, boost converter, the power out must equal the
power in, i.e. Vin ⋅ Iin = Vout ⋅ Iout. From this it can be seen if the output voltage is higher than the input
voltage, then the input current must be higher than the output current.

In reality no boost converter will be lossless, but efficiency levels of around 85% and more are achievable
in most supplies.

Buck boost regulator

A simple buck converter can only produce voltages lower than the input voltage, and a boost converter,
only voltages higher than the input. To provide voltages over the complete range a circuit known as a
buck-boost converter is required.

There are many applications where voltages higher and lower than the input are required. In these
situations a buck-boost converter is required.

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Buck-Boost Converter basics

The buck-boost DC-DC converter offers a greater level of capability than the buck converter of boost
converter individually, it as expected it extra components may be required to provide the level of
functionality needed.

There are several formats that can be used for buck-boost converters:

 +Vin, -Vout: This configuration of a buck-boost converter circuit uses the same number of
components as the simple buck or boost converters. However this buck-boost regulator or DC-DC
converter produces a negative output for a positive input. While this may be required or can be
accommodated for a limited number of applications, it is not normally the most convenient
format.

Figure: 3.27 circuit diagram of buck boost regulator

 When the switch in closed, current builds up through the inductor. When the switch is opened the
inductor supplies current through the diode to the load.

Obviously the polarities (including the diode) within the buck-boost converter can be reversed to
provide a positive output voltage from a negative input voltage.

 +Vin, +Vout: The second buck-boost converter circuit allows both input and output to be the
same polarity. However to achieve this, more components are required. The circuit for this buck
boost converter is shown below.

Figure: 3.28 circuit diagram of buck boost regulator with two switches

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In this circuit, both switches act together, i.e. both are closed or open. When the switches are open, the
inductor current builds. At a suitable point, the switches are opened. The inductor then supplies current to
the load through a path incorporating both diodes, D1 and D2.

Numerical probelms

1. In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250 Hz. Supply
voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if the load resistance is 2
ohms.
Solution:

2. A step up chopper has input voltage of 220 V and output voltage of 660 V. If the non-conducting
time of thyristor chopper is 100 micro sec compute the pulse width of output voltage. In case the
pulse width is halved for constant frequency operation , find the new output voltage
3. A chopper operating from 220V dc supply with for a duty cycle of 0.5 and chopping frequency of
1KHz drives an R L load with R = 1Ω , L=1mH and E = 105V. Find whether the current is
continuous and also find the values of Imax and Imin.

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