| JEE (Main) PHYSICS Mooute-5 (Class XD Medical] IIT-JEE| Foundations aThermal Properties of Matter. Thermodynamics ... Kinetic Theory of Gases. Answers ... 2129 = 131Introduction Temperature and Heat Measurement of Temperature. Ideal Gas Equation and Absolute Temperature Thermal Expansion Specific Heat Capacity Calorimetry Change of State Heat Transfer Newton's Law of Cooling ‘Some Important Definitions Formulae Chart Quick Recap INTRODUCTION When a body is heated, various changes take place. The temperature of the body may rise, accompanied by an expansion or contraction of the body ; or the body may liquefy or vaporise with no change in temperatute. In this chapter we will examine some of the thermal properties of matter and some of the important processes involving thermal energy. We will first consider thermal expansion which plays an important role in everyday life and then discuss changes of phase and latent heat. At the end, we will discuss the phenomenon of heat transfer. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT ‘Temperature is relative measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. Ahot cooker is said to have a high temperature, and ice cube to have a lower temperature. An object at a higher temperature is said to be hotter than the one at a lower temperature. The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K), whereas degree cel (ec) __ isa commonly used unit of temperature. When you put a cold spoon info a cup of hot coffee, the spoon warms up and the coffee cools down as they were trying to equalise the temperature. The interaction that causes these temperature changes is fundamentally a transfer of energy from one substance to another. Energy transfer that takes place solely because of a temperature difference is called heat flow or heat transfer a and energy transferred in this way is called heat. The SI unit of heat energy transferred is'expressed in joule (J). MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales A physical property that changes with temperature is called thermometric property. Any thermometric property can be used to establish a temperature scale, The common mercury thermometer consists of a glass bulb and tube containing a fixed amount of mercury. When this thermometer is put in contact with a hot body, the mercury expands; increasing the length of the mercury column, Scale of temperature can be created along the glass tube as,SEELLAN! Thermal Properties of Mater Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams The thermometer is first placed in ice and water in equilibrium at a pressure of 1 atm. When the thermometer attains the temperature of ice-water bath, the position of the mércury column is marked on the glass tube. This is the ice point temperature. The thermometer is next placed in boiling water at a pressure of 1 atm. When the thermometer attains the temperature of boiling water, the new position of the mercury column is marked. This is the steam point temperature. 1. Celsius Scale : This scale was designed by Andre Celsius in 1742. It defines ice-point temperature as 0°C and the steam point temperature as 100°C. The space between 0°C and 100°C marks is equally divided into 100 intervals. 2. Fahrenheit Scale : This scale was designed by Fahrenheit in 1717. It defines the ice-point temperature as 32°F and the steam point temperature as 212°F. The space between 32°F and 212°F is divided into 180 equal intervals. 3.” Relation between Celsius temperature (f,) and Fahrenheit temperature (f,) : We know that there are 100 Celsius degrees and 180 Fahrenheit degrees between ice and steam points. To convert a temperature from one scale to the other, we must take into account the fact that zero temperatures of the two scales.are not the same. Clearly fo-0 _ te-32 100-180 hen f= Ee-22) or t= e492 Ai) The normal temperature of the human body measured on the Celsius scale is 37°C whi 98.6°F. IDEAL GAS EQUATION AND ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE Experiments show that all gases at low densities exhibit same expansion behaviour. When temperature is kept constant, the pressure and volume of a quantity of gas are related as PV = constant (Boyle's law). When the pressure is held constant, the volume of a quantity of the gas v is related to the temperature as —-= constant (Charles' law). These two relations may be combined into a single relationship. . PV=K Ai) Pressure zak ii) : PV [= constant This relationship is known as ideal gas law. It can be written in fnore general way as f-200°¢ —100°¢'0°C 100°C Temperature PV -273.15°C paar PV=uRT where 1 = Number of moles of gas R= Universal gas constant (R = 8.31 J mol-* K-1) P= Pressure of gas V= Volume of gas ‘The absolute minimum temperature is equal to -273.15°C. This is also known as absolute zero. Absolute zero is the foundation of the kelvin temperature scale or absolute scale temperature.Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter (Gu Si Sass Absolute Temperature Scale : When different types of thermometers are calibrated in ice-water and steam, they agree at 0°C and 100°C, but give slightly different readings at points in between, Discrepancies increase above the steam point and below the ice-point. However, in gas thermometers, measured temperature agree closely with each other even far from the calibration points. In one type of gas thermometer, called a constant-volume gas thermometer, the volume of the gas is kept constant ‘and change in the pressure of the gas is used to indicate temperature. By placing the thermometer in ice-water and water-steam baths, ice-point pressure P, and steam-point pressure Py. are determined. The interval between Prac and P, is divided into 100 equal intervals (for Celsius scale). If P,is the pressure in a bath whose temperature fis to be determined, then P-P _ Pro Po & 100 - Fh or te= Bp * 100 Ci) Equation (i) suggests that the pressure (P) in the thermometer varies linearly with the measured temperature f, and as such a graph of P, versus fc is a straight line. Pratm) Plots of pressure as a function of temperature for gas thermometers containing different types and quantities of gas Dashed lines show the plots extrapolated to zero wessul TCC) ee -273.15 -200 -100 0° 100 200 Tw 0 100 200 300 400 «500 Fig.: The extrapolated plots all reach zero pressure at the same temperature — 273.15°C. ‘When we extrapolate this straight line to zero pressure, the temperature approaches ~ 273.15°C. This limit which is the same no matter what kind of gas is used,-is called the absolute zero. Atemperature scale based on this zero is called absolute temperature scale or Keivin scale. Thus, 0K =~273.15°C ‘The degrees (interval) on Kelvin scale are of the same size as on the celsius scale. Thus, a temperature change of 1°C is the same as change of 1 K, i.e., 1 celsius degree (C*) = 1 kelvin (K) ‘The Celsius-and Kelvin scales differ only in the choice of zero temperature. To convert from degrees celsius (f,) to kelvin (T) or vice-versa, we merely add or subtract 273.15, ie., where Tis the symbol referring to absolute temperature, For most purposes, we can round off the temperature of absolute zero to - 273°C and in that case T= te +273 oF te=T-273 uv) Now a days, instead of ice-point, triple point of water is taken to be the lower fixed for thermometric scale. This temperature is taken to be 273.16 K and the corresponding pressure is 4.58 mm of Hg. It is to be noted that triple point is unique as it occurs at one particular pressure and temperature, The triple point of water on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales has values 0.01°C and 32.018°F respectively. Thus, 0.01°C = 32.018°F = 273.16 K2A Thermal Properties of Matter To convert from degrees Fahrenheit (°F) to kelvin (K) or vice-versa, T=273.45 _ te-32 fie 100 180 7 3 te 92)+273.15 or or T= 2u-17 78+ 273.15 = Ste 255.37 9 9 and f= 3 (7=255.37)= 285.37 = ET -459.67 e k fe Steam 100.00 373.18 180.00 point Water tiple point 0.01 273.16 32.02 |ce point $0.00 27315 32.00 Normal $= 162.96 90.19 =207.33 boling Point of O, Absolute 4 -273.15 0.00 450.67 zero scale Fahrenheit Celsius scale Kevin ‘soale 10 1K 1.8F Fig: Comparison of magnitude of change in temperature in various temperature scales Thus, T= 2e+285.37 or te= 2r—asa67 ‘Acomparison of Celsius, Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales and the magnitudes of their units is shown in figures given above The triple points of neon and carbon dioxide are 24.57 K and 216.55 K respectively. Express the temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Solution : We are given that triple point of neon, T = 24.57 K and triple point of carbon dioxide, T = 216.55 K. Let the corresponding temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales to be f, and t' and f- and {', respectively.cert SKE _ Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter f Clearly, t = T-273.15 = 24.57 - 273.15 —248.58°C and fe =T-273.15 = 216.55 ~ 273.15 =~ 56.60% further, f- = ers = 2-248 58) +32 i =-447.44 +32 | =-415.44°F \ 9 9 and ot, = tc+32 = 5 (-56.60)+32 == 101.88 + 32 =~ 69.88°F | Mercury Thermometer | It is based on thermal expansion, the thermomettic property being the length L of mercury | column. Here, we measure L at ice point (L,) and steam point (L,) of water. The ice point is taken as 0°, and steam point is taken as 100°. point For an arbitrary column length L, temperature is given by Constant Volume Gas Thermometer Itis based on the fact that the absolute pressure of a gas varies linearly with temperature, when the volume is kept constant. The pressure is measured by the length of the mercury column. © Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110008. Phone 101124762348‘Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Here, we measure p at ice point (p) and steam point (p,) of water. The ice point is taken as 0°, and steam point is taken as 100°. For an arbitrary pressure p, temperature is. 100 T= @— PIXE en by THERMAL EXPANSION Most materials expand when their temperature increases. Rising temperatures decks make the liquid ‘expand in a tube thermometer (Figure (a)) and bend bimetallic strips (Figure (b)). The decks of bridges need special joints and support to allow for expansion. A completely filled and tightly capped bottle of water cracks when it is heated, but you can loosen a metal jar lid by running hot water over it. These are all examples of thermal expansion. - Thick glass wall Container of Capillary of {gas at constant small volume volume Zero feel Liquid (mercury or ethanol) Thin glass wall + (@) Changes in temperature cause the pressure of the gas to change, and mercury in the thermometer rise. ‘When heated, metal 2 expands more than metal 1 7g Linear Expansion Suppose a rod of some material has a length L, at some initial temperature T,. When the temperature changes by AT, the length changes by AL. Experiments show that if AT is not too large (say, less than 100C° or so), AL is directly.proportional to AT. If two rods made of the same material have the same temperature changes, but one is twice as long as the other, then the change in its length is also twice as great. Therefore AL must also be proportional to L.. Introducing a proportionality constant o: (which is different for different materials), we may express this relationship in the form of an equation. AL=alo.AT 0) Ifa body has length Ly at temperature 7, then its length L at a temperature T'= Ty + ATis L=Lp+ AL=Ly+ aboAT L=L(1+aA7) The constant «, which describes the thermal expansion properties of a particular material, is called the coefficient of linear expansion. The unit of a are K** or (C*)*. stein —Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams + (a) For moderate temperature changes, : AL is directly proportional to AT k———-2, Tear Fig.: (b) AL is also directly proportional to L, The direct proportionality expressed by Equation (i) is not exact; it is approximately correct only for sufficiently small temperature changes. For a given material, c varies somewhat with the initial temperature T, and the size of the temperature interval. We will ignore this | complication here, however. Volume Expansion Increasing temperature also causes increase in volume for both solid and liquid materials. Experiments show that ifthe temperature change ATs not too great (less than 100C° or so), the increase in volume AV is approximately proportional to both temperature change AT and the initial volume Ve: AVE y.VoAT (il) The constant y characterizes the volume expansion properties of a particular material, it is called the coefficient of volume expansion. The unit of y are K* or (C*)*. As with linear expansion, y varies ‘somewhat with temperature, and equation is an approximate relationship that is valid only for small temperature changes. For many substances, y decreases at low temperatures. Relation Between Volume Expansion and Linear Expansion For solid materials there is a simple relationship between the volume expansion coefficient y and the linear expansion coefficient a. To derive this relationship we consider a cube of material with side length L and volume V = L°. At the initial temperature the respective values are Ly and Vo, When the temperature increases by d7, the side length increases by dL. and the volume increases by an amount dV given by Now we replace L and V by the initial values L, and Vs. From equation (i), dL is dL = aly.dT Since Vo= L3, means that dV can also be expressed as AV= SLjaLodT = 3aVedT This is.consistent with infinitesimal form of equation (iii) i.e. dV = Ved T, only if dT is very small => y=30 iv) ‘You should check this relationship for some of the materials listed in tables, above. Thermal Propertis of Mater seanOT EAE, Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams xpansion and the fractional Similarly, the expansion in area is called area expansion or superfici change in area, a is given by Bepar, where P is called coefficient of area expansion. It is related to a by the relation B = 2a \ . EEFE 4 surveyor uses a stee! measuring tape that is exactly 50.000 m long at a temperature ‘of 20°C. What is its length on a hot summer day when the temperature is 35°C? (tea = 1.2%10%K!) > Solution: The temperature change is AT = T— T, = 15C", so from equation (ji) the change in length ‘AL and final length L = Lp+ AL are AL = aloAT = (1.2 x 10° K*) (60 m) (15K) = 9.0 x 10° m=9.0 mm Ly + AL = 50.000m + 0.009 m = 50.009 m Thus, the length at 35°C is 50.009 m. This example shows that metals expand very tte under moderate temperature changes. Even a metal baking pan in a 200°C oven is only slightly larger than itis at room temperature. A glass flask with volume 200 cm? is filled to the brim with mercury at 20°C. How much ‘mercury overflows when the temperature of the system is raised to 100°C? The coefficient of linear expansion of the glass is 0.40 x 10-§ K-. Cubical expansion of mercury = 18 * 109K". Solution : The coefficient of volume expansion for the glass is yee = Sctyjass = 1.2 * 10 K* | The increase in volume of the glass flask is | us VoAT (1.2 * 10 K~*) (200 em’) (100°C - 20°C) = 0.19 cm* The increase in volume of the mercury is AVenaeany = Yeerory Vo-ST Vinay = Yineeary VoAT = (18 10 K~) (200 cm*) (100°C ~ 20°C) = 2.9 cm* ‘The volume of mercury that overflow is AVporcy ~ AVpjass = 2.7 crn? Bimeti ic Strip | Different substances expand at different rates This has the consequence that when two strips of different metals, such as brass and iron, are welded or riveted together, the greater expansion of one metal results in a bending. Such a compound thin bar is called a bimetallic strip. When the strip is heated, one side of the double strip becomes longer than the other, causing the strip to bend into a curve. When the strip is cooled, it tends to bend in the opposite direction, because the metal that expands more (brass) also shrinks more. The movement of the strip may be used to turn a pointer, regulate a valve, or close a switch. Steel Steel. - omer NS Briss Brasé Room temperature Higher temperature A practical application is the thermostat. The back-and-forth bending of the bimetallic coil opens and closes an electric circuit. Refrigerators are equipped with thermostats to prevent them from becoming either too hot or too cold.~ Board, JEE-(Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter Change of density with temperature The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit voiume. Since the volume of a given mass" of a substance changes with temperature while its mass remains constant, the density undergoes a change with the temperature. Consider a body (solid) of mass m. Let v, and p, be its volume and density respectively at temperature and v, and p. the corresponding values at f. Clearly, m= vip, = vipa =v; (1+ 7AT)pa, where AT = t~ f Ey Thus, p, = Gryary PAT) =p: (1-yAT) (as is small) jen pe=p(1-yAT) lv) Heat In macroscopic view, it is a form of energy (Unit : Joule) that flows from body to body in response to temperature differences. It is convertible to other forms of energy (mechanical and electrical) subject to some constraints. Thermal Expansion and interatomic Energy : We can understand thermal expansion qualitatively on the molecular level. Consider the interatomic forces in a solid as springs, as in figure (a) below. There is an analogous relationship between spring forces and interatomic forces. Each atom vibrates about its equilibrium position. When the temperature increases, the energy and amplitude of the vibration also increase. The interatomic spring forces are not symmetrical about the equilibrium position, they usually behave like a spring that is easier to stretch than to compress. As a result, when the amplitude of vibration increases, the average distance between atoms also increases. As the atoms get farther apart, every dimension increases. Yeo x= distance between atoms ‘Average distance between atoms ‘= average distance between atoms ‘AS energy increase from E, to E,to E,, average distance between atoms increases, Fig.: (a) A model of the forces between (©) A graph of the ‘spring’ potential neighbouring atoms in a solid energy U(x) Thermal Stress. If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent its expansion or contraction and then change the temperature, tensile or compressive stress developed is called thermal stress. The rod would like to ‘expand or contract but clamps won't allow it. (as shown in the figure).aa, ROR BESS 10 ‘Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams rigid support rod within a rigid support The resulting stresses may become large enough to strain the rod irreversibly or even break it, Calculation of Thermal Stress | To calculate the thermal stress in a clamped rod, we have to find how much the rod would expand (or \ contract) f not held rigidly and then find the stress needed to compress (or stretch) it back to its original length. Suppose that a rod with length Ls and cross-sectional area A is held at constant length while the temperature is reduced (negative A7), causing a tensile stress. The fractional change in length if | the rod were free to contract wouldbe j | | (a =aAT (vi) | Both AL and AT are negative. The tension must increase by an amount F that is just enough to produce an equal and opposite fractional change in length Eh. from the definition of Young's modulus ™, , A A x Lb wo (F) (vi) Le hanson AY ~ If the length is to be constant, the total fractional change in length must be zero. This means that (Tana Toa? F +e | AT +5550 | £ =-YoAT (wii) F For a decrease in temperature, AT is negative, so F and “> are positive. This means that a tensile force and stress are needed to maintain the length. If AT is positive, F and £ are negative, and the | required force and stress are compressive, If there are temperature differences within a body, nonuniform expansion or contraction will result and thermal stresses can be induced. You can break a glass bowl by pouring hot water into it. The thermal stress between the hot and cold Parts of the bow! exceeds the breaking stress of the glass, causing cracks. The same phenomenon make ice cubes crack when dropped into warm water. An aluminium cylinder 10 cm long, with a cross-sectional area of 20 cm, is to be used as a spacer between two steel walls. At 17.2°C it just slips in between the walls. When it warms to 22.3°C, calculate the stress in the cylinder and the total force it exerts on each wall, assuming that the walls are perfectly rigid-and a constant distance apart.Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter (fea Solution: For aluminium, Y = 7.0 * 10" Pa and o = 2.4 x 10 K"", The temperature change is AT, AT=5.1C°=5.1K F Stress = G=-YuaT = -(0.70X10"Pa)( 2.4x10°K™) (5.1K) Stress = - 8.6 x 10° Pa The total force F is the cross-sectional times the stress. =(£ F=(R)A = (20 x 10m?) (8.6 10° Pa) ==1.7«108N SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY ifan amount of heat Q, when given to a body of mass m, increases its temperature by an amount AT, then Q=mcaT (i) where cis a constant and is called the specific heat capacity or simply specific heat ofthe material of the body. Its value depends upon the nature of the material of the body and temperature range. ‘Specific heat of the material of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through 1C°. Units of Specific Heat : min g and ATin C° and as such the unit of cis cal/gC°. In SI, Qis measured in joule (J), min kg and AT in K and as such the unit of cis Jikg K. * Molar specific heat or molar heat capacity: If instead of unit mass, we consider one mole of a substance, we talk of molar specific heat of the substance. Molar specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance through 1C°.Itis denoted by C. Clearly; C= Me, where M isthe molar mass of the substance Asc= 2 and m = Mx n [nis the number of moles of the substance of mass m) Q Cs Mar _ MQ MnaT ar (2) n\ar Clearly, the SI unit of Cis Jmol K. Heat capacity or Thermal capacity of a body : If instead of unit mass, we consider the whole body, we talk of its heat capacity or thermal capacity. Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the body by one degree. Itis denoted by C’. Clearly, heat capacity Cc =me * ( ) @ ~ Nat] AT ‘Tha SI unit of heat capacity is J/K. - Water Equivalent : If the heat capacity of a body is expressed in term of mass.of water, itis called water equivalent of the body. - a‘Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Water equivalent of a body is the quantity of water whose temperature would be raised through 1C* (ort K) by the same amount of heat as required to raise the temperature ofthe body through 1C° (or1K). Itis denoted by wand is numerically equal to the product of mass (m) of the body and its specific heat (0), ie, w= mc Ail) wis measured in g in ogs units and in kg in St units. Latent Heat : It is the amount of heat required to change the state of a unit mass of a substance without change in its temperature, and pressure. Q= mL (ii) where Lis the latent heat. Its SI unit is Jikg. Itdepends on (i) Pressure, Its value is usually quoted at standard atmospheric pressure. i) Nature of the phase change and Properties of the substance. ‘The latent heat of fusion (L,) is the heat gained when the phase change is from a solid to a liquid. For water at 1 atm, its value is 79.7 cal/g = 3.33 x 10° J/kg. It is called latent heat of ice. The latent heat of vaporisation (L,) coesponds to liquid to gas phase change. Its value for water at 1 atm is 540 cal/g = 22.6 x 10° J/kg. It is also callad the latent heat of steam. CALORIMETRY Solution: Given mass of metal = 0.20 kg ‘As we know that heat is a form of energy and as such is a measurable quantity. Calorimetry deals with the measurement of heat. The vessel which is largely uséd in such a measurement is called a calorimeter. Principle of Calorimetry : When two bodies at different temperatures are allowed to share heat, they attain a common temperature. If it is assumed that no heat is received from or given to anybody outside the system and if there is no ‘chemical action involved in the process of sharing, then Heat gained = Heat lost This simple statement based on the law of conservation of energy is called the principle of calorimetry. ‘Some Important Definitions : Units of Heat : in conventional system, the unit of heat is called calorie (cal). It is the historical unit of heat and was originally defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water through 1°C. Teal = 4.186 J Because we now recognise that heat is a measure of energy transfer, we define calorie in terms of SI unit of energy, i.e, joule (J), Another unit of heat is kilocalorie (kcal) 1 keal = 1000 cal = 4186 J Inan experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of metal at 150°C is dropped ina copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing 150 cc of water at 27°C. The final temperature is 40°C. Calculate the specific heat of metal. 100 g. 150 co x 1 gloc + 0.025 x 1000) g. Total mass of calorimeter = (m + w) (Density of water = 1 g/cc) Fall in temperature of metal = 150 — 40 = 110°C. Rise in temperature of water = 40 ~ 27 = 13°C. Heat lost by metal = MC (110) = 22000 C Heat gained by calorimeter = (m + w) x 1 x (13) = 2275 cal (specific heat capacity of water = 1 cal g-* As heat lost = heat gained. 22000 C = 2275 Solving we get C = 0.1 caligm*CTm joard, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams An 850 W consumer coffee maker can make 10 cups (1.75 litres) of 80°C coffee from 20°C Solution : CHANGE OF STATE ‘Thermal Properties of Mater SSeS tap waterin 10 minutes. What percentage of the elect it to.the coffee? ‘The energy needed for heating of water Qa = MeAT = (1.75 kg)(4200 Jkg-K)(80 — 20°C} = 441,000 ‘The energy consumed by the device (electrical energy) W,, = Pt= (850 W) (10 min)(60 s/min) = 510,000 J The ratio of these two quantities is the efficiency of the device 11 = Qay/Wq = (441,000 J)/(510,000 J) x 100 = 86.5% /energy consumed actually makes Phase Change and Latent Heat Depending on temperature and pressure, all matter can exist in a solid, iquid orgaseous stats. These states or forms of matter are also called the phases of matter. Itis possible to change the energy of these molecules by supplying heat which in tun can result in changé of phase. Let us illustrate this point by considering the three phages of H,O molecules ice, water and steam, Let us consider a container filed with 1 kg of ice at temperature (~ 25°C). Figure is a graph which shows the changes in the state of ice with time as more and more heat is added toit. Temperature L (ec) ‘Steam 400 water bOI AM 5 50 50) °. -25 7 0 time (minute) Graph of temperature vs water for a specimen - of water initially in the solid phase (ice) Q, = 12.5 kcal 0a = ioe Q, = 80 kcal a= melting point of ice Q5= 100 kcal ab = phase change Q, = 540 kcal be = water 0 i) As the ice is initially at (-25°C) and its specific heat is 0.5 kcal/kgC’, its temperature increases by 2C” per kcal of heat supplied. At 0°C, the steady temperature rise stops and the ice start melting ‘and consequently the point a on the curve corresponds to melting point of ice. ‘The temperature remains at 0°C while we add 80 kcal more. This is the amount of heat needed to melt 1 kg of ice at 0°C to water at 0°C. This change is indicated by the horizontal line ab. Thus ~ @ phase change has taken place from a solid to a liquid without a change in temperature. The heat supplied is used to increase the energy of the molecules so that they can break loose from boiling point of water cd = phase change de = steam(ii) ) w) i Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams When all the ice has tuned into water, the temperature rises once again as further heatis supplied. Since the specific heat of water is 1 kcal/kgC°, there is now a rise of 1C° per kcal of heat supplied. This rate of change is less than that of ice and so the slope of the graph be is smaller than that of graph oa. The point c corresponding to 100°C is the boiling point of water. ‘When 100°C is reached, the temperature again stays constant despite further heating until total ‘of 540 kcal is added. This is the amount of heat needed to vaporise 1 kg of water at 100°C to ‘steam at 100°C. Itis represented by the horizontal portion cd of the graph. Thus, a phase change has taken place from a liquid to a vapour state without change in temperature. The heat supplied is again being used to break lose the molecules of water into free molecules in the gaseous or steam phase. When all the water has become steam, the temperature increases again. The specific heat of steam is 0.48 kcal/kg C’, so the temperature increases by 2.1°C per kcal of heat supplied. The Portion of the graph which represents this change has a steeper slope than those of the portions 0a and be corresponding to ice or water. PresSure Temperature (P-7) Diagram and Triple Point Agraph between pressure (P) and temperature (7) of a substance is called P-T diagram. This diagram is also called phase diagram since all the three phases are separated from each other by three lines. In the following figure we have drawn the phase diagrams (a) and (b) for two specific substances, namely water and CO, respectively. In order to arrive at the concept of a phase diagram, we should understand vaporisation curve, fusion curve and the sublimation curve. 0 i) The boiling point of a liquid also depends upon pressure. In figure (a), curve OC shows how the boiling point of water varies with pressure (behaviour typical of other liquid as well) P(atm) Critical point OA: Sublimation curve 0B : Fusion curve OC : Vaporisation curve i TC) mal 0 00T 00 37414 ~ a) Water curve which shows the variation of boiling point with pressure is called the vaporisation curve. In case of water, this curve ([.e., OC) is also called steam line. The points on this curve represents the states in which liquid and vapour phases coexist. ‘The upper limit (C) of this curve occurs at a temperature of 374.14°C and a pressure of 218 atm and is known as the critical point, A substance cannot exist in the liquid state at a temperature above that of ts critical point, regardless of how great the pressure may be. Helium has the lowest critical temperature, ~ 268°C, and is, therefore, a gas at all temperatures above that. The melting point of a solid also depends upon pressure (although to a smaller extent than the boiling point). A curve which shows the variation of melting point with pressure is called the fusion curve. In case of water, this curve is also called the ice line. In figure (a), the curve OB represents the fusion curve of water. Itis to be noted that this curve leans slightly to the left. This implies that as the pressure is increased, the melting point is lowered. This behaviour of ice together with gallium and bismuth is unique as the melting point of all other substances increases with increasing pressure. ‘Corporate Office : Aakash TowerBoard, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams iy (iy) In an insulated vessel, 250 g of ice at 0°C is added to 600 g of water at 18° Strategy : Solution : EE TEEDS'S"'CS ‘The fusion and the vaporisation curves of water intersect at a temperature of 0.01°C and at a Pressure of 0.006 atm a shown in Figure (a). Along the fusion curve, both ice and water can simultaneously exist. Hence, under conditions corresponding to those of the intersection of the two curves, the solid, liquid and gas can all exist together. This intersection is accordingly called the triple point (0) of water. At pressure below that of its triple point, no substance can exist as a liquid. The dividing line on a pressure-temperature graph between the solid and the vapour state is called the sublimation curve since it represents the conditions required for a solid to vaporise directly or a vapour to solidify directly. . |n case of water, this curve is also called hoar-frost line and is shown by OA. At atmospheric pressure, the addition of heat causes ordinary ice to melt, since the triple point of water lies at 0.008 atm which is well below 1 atm. But the addition of heat causes solid CO, to sublime since its triple point (-S6.6°C and 5.11 atm) lies above 1 atm as shown in figure (b). Thus 73.0) 5.11] ig.: (b) Triple point of a substance is that point on the pressure temperature (P-7) diagram, whose coordinates give the particular temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid and vapour phases of the substance coexist in equilibrium without any change in their proportions. (a) What is the final temperature of the system? (0) How much ice remains when the system reaches equilibrium? Useful data : Specific heat capacity of water : 4190 WiK.kg Specific heat capacity of ice : 2100 J/K.kg Latent heat of fusion of ice : 3:34 * 10° kg A In this kind of question, you have to check that whether the complete ice will melt or not. If heat supplied by the water in cooling down to:0°C is more than sufficient to melt ice, then ice melts and temperature becomes more than 0°C. If heat supplied is less than sufficient to melt ice, some ice will remain in the mixture and final temperature will be 0°C. Heat required to melt ice is iL (250 * 10°) x 3.34 « 10 35 x 10'J. Heat available from water is Qorate = MCAT = 600 x 10° x 4190 x 1187 = 4.525 x 10* J. Quests ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower. 8, Pusa Road, New Delli-110008, Phone : 011-4782 Thermal Propertis of Mattor [iinSee Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams (@)As Heat available is not sufficient to melt ice, final temperature is zero. (b) The amount that will melt to bring down the temperature of water from 18°C to 0°C is calculated as shown. Qorateto = Mea * Lice 4.525 * 10" = m x 3.34 x 10° = My 21.35 x 10" kg = 1359. So, ice remaining = 250 - 135 = 115 g. 500 g of petroleum was burnt in a bomb calorimeter which contains 5 kg of water and has water equivalent 300 g. The rise in temperature was 10°C. Determine the calorific value of petroleum. ‘Solution : Heat absorbed by the water | Q, = mCAT = 5000 x 4 x 10 = 50 kcal ) And heat absorbed by calorimeter Q, = WCAT = 300 x 1 x 10 = 3 kcal Total heat absorbed Q= Q, + Q,. Q=50+3=53 kcal AAs heat is produced by combustion of 500 g of fuel, 53x10° 500 Calorific value of petroleum = 106 callg = 0.106 kcal | [Measurement of temperature, Gas equation, Thermal expansion, Calorimetry, Change of state, Specific heat} ° ‘A faulty celsius thermometer has its fixed points marked at 5°C and 95°C respectively. What is the actual temperature of a liquid, if this thermometer reads it 59°C? (1) 64° (2) 54°C (3) 60°C (4) 68°C 2. Afiask of volume Vis partially filed with mercury. It is found that at different room temperatures, the volume of air inside the flask remains the same. If, and y, are the coefficient of cubical expansion of glass and mercury respectively, the volume of mercury in the flask is 1 YnV 4% oe @ @ (1-2 es T 3. The time period of a pendulum is given by T= anf If the temperature rises by A@ and coefficient of linear expansion of the wire is a, the change in time period is. (1) adexT @ Faaoxt (3) 2oa0xT 4) Faso 4. The compressional force required to prevent a metallic rod of cross-sectional area A from expanding, when it is heated to increase its temperature by °C, is (modulus of elasticity is E and coefficient of linear expansion is a) EAat EAat tra ey (1) EAat (2) (4). Blot 1I | Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams 10. Paragraph (For.Q.5 and Q.6) ‘Two identical uniform rods A and B are of equal length L and have same temperature. The cross- section of the rods are square with edge length a. Rod A is kept over a smooth surface, while the rod B is kept on a rough surface with coefficient of friction u. Mass of each rod is m and coefficient of liner ‘expansion is a. —_—! — _—!+ — ‘Smooth Rough Heats are given to both the rods and temperatures are increased. Rise in temperature is same for both the rods given by AT. ‘Work done by weight mg of the rod A during expansion is (1) -mg5.aaT (2) mgSoaT 8) mpZt+aaT) (4) -mg5(t+aaT) Let Q, and Q, be the heat supplied to the rods A and B respectively to increase the temperature, then (1) = @) a> (3) lee at -20°C is added to 50 g of water at 40°C. When the temperature of the mixture reaches 0°C, it is found that 20 g of ice is still unmelted. The amount of ice added to the water was close to (Specific heat of water = 4.2 Jig/°C Specific heat of Ice = 2.1 Jig/*C Heat of fusion of water at 0°C = 334 J/g) (1) 100g (2) 40g (3) 509 (4) 60g ‘Thermal Properties of Matter @ameapee Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams 12. Two rods A and B of identical dimensions are at temperature 30°C. If A is heated upto 180°C and B upto T°C, then the new lengths are the same. if the ratio of the coefficients of linear expansion of A and Bis 4:3, then the value of Tis - (1) 270°C (2) 230°C (3) 250°C (4) 200°C 13. One kg of water, at 20°C, is heated in an electric kettie whose heating element has a mean (temperature averaged) resistance of 20.2. The rms voltage in the mains is 200 V. Ignoring heat loss from the kettle, time taken for water to evaporate fully, is close to [Specific heat of water = 4200 Ji(kg °C), . Latent heat of water = 2260 ki/kg] (1) 16 minutes (2) 3 minutes (3) 22 minutes (4) 10 minutes HEAT TRANSFER i ‘We have talked about conductors and insulators, materials that permit or preventheat transfer between bodies. Now let's look in more detail at rates of energy transfer. In the kitchen you happen to use a metal or glass pot for good heat transfer from the stove to whatever you are cooking. But your refrigerator | is insulated with a material that prevents heat from flowing into the food inside the refrigerator. How do we describe the difference between these two materials? The three mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact. Convection depends on motion of mass from one region of space to another. Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no need for matter to be present in the space between bodies. i Conduction lf you hold one end of a copper rod and piace the other end in a flame, the end you are holding gets hotter and hotter, even though it is not in direct contact with flame. Heat reaches the cooler end by ‘conduction through the material. On the atomic level, the atoms in the hotter regions have more kinetic energy, on the average, than their cooler neighbours. They warm their neighbours, giving them some of their energy. The neighbours warm their neighbours, and so on through the material. The atoms themselves do not move from one region of material to another, but their energy does. Most metals also use another, more effective mechanism to conduct heat. Within the metal, some electrons can leave their parent atoms and wander through the ‘crystal lattice. These “free” electrons can rapidly carry energy from the hotter to the cooler regions of the metals, so metals are generally ‘good conductors of heat. Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are at different temperatures, and the direction of heat flow is always from higher to lower temperature. Figure (a) below shows a rod of conducting material with cross-sectional area A and length L. The left end of the rod is kept at a temperature T, and the Tight end at a lower temperature T;, So heat flows from left to right. The sides of the rod are covered by an insulator, so no heat transfer occurs at the sides. Fig.: (a) Steady state heat flow due to conduction in a uniform rod ‘When a quantity of heat dQ is transferred through the rod in a time af, the rate of heat flow is d@Q/at. We call this rate the heat current, denoted by H. That is, H = 2 Experiments show that the heat Current is proportional to the cross-sectional area A of the rod as in Fig. (b) and to the temperature difference (T, — T,) and is inversely proportional to the rod length L as in figure (c). : Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone 011-47623486& State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter T, =F ——) St SS =a 2 T, | Doubling the cross-sectional area of the conductor doubles the heat current (H)cc A Doubling the length of the conductor halves the heat current (Hee) 'ntroducing a proportionality constant K called the thermal conductivity of the material, we have | = dQ_KA He GT) 0 (Ti ~ Te) c temperature gradient. The numerical value of K depends on the material of rod. Materials with large K ate good conductors of heat, material with small K gre poor conductors or insulators. Equation (i) also {ives the heat current through a slab or through any homogeneous body with uniform cross section A perpendicular to the direction of flow, L is the length of the heat-flow path. The unit of heat current H or power is unit of energy per unit time. The SI unit of heat current is the ' Watt (1W = ‘J/s). We can find the unit of K by using equation ('). For K, we can show that the SI units are WimK. The thermal conductivity of “dead” (that is non-moving air) is very small. A wool sweater Keeps you warm because it traps air between the fibres. In fact many insulating materials such as styrofoam and fiberglass are mostly dead air. The quantity { 's the temperature difference per unit length. It is called the magnitude of the Ifthe temperature varies in a nonuniform way along the length of the conductor rod, we introduce a aT Coordinate x long the length and generalise the temperature gradient to be (-¥) |. The corresponding ‘generalisation of equation (j) is aQ aT He A (il) } | ‘The negative sign shows that heat always flows in direction of decreasing temperature. | Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction The heat transfer rate across the cylindrical section Is given by Fourier's law as Qa npg at dx . where, Qis heat transfer rate (unit : W) | oT “ax _‘S-temperature gradient in the direction of the flow (unit : Kim) - ).| kis the thermal conductivity of the material (unit: Wim) ~ Als the cross-sectional area of heat pathBEEEEIAD! Thermal Propertis of Mattor Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Therefare, the heat transfer rate by conduction through the object in the above figure can be expressed as: (h=7) A Semi where, ‘A— Cross-sectional area of the object L—Wall thickness. T,— Tas temperature difference between two surfaces k—Thermal conductivity of object's material. Steady State Heat Conduction Consider an arrangement of two reservoirs having infinite heat capacity and temperatures T,, T. The two reservoirs are connected by a rod having length L, area of cross-section A and uniform thermal conductivity k. Let us suppose that intially the rod was at room temperature and itis just connected to the reservoirs, The temperature of the rod starts increasing (becomes unsteady). At this state, the rod absorbs heat. After some time, the temperature stops changing with time (become steady). At this situation, the heat in flow from the hot reservoir is equal to the heat out flow to the cold reservoir. Also, the rate of heat flow through any cross-section is same, /.e., Q is same everywhere. : Let Qbe the heat flow rate through a cross-section at distance x and of thickness dx. Using Fourie’’s law of heat conduction, a= Lacan ae or ar=-2ae 5 Parra Integrating within proper limits, fare fon Q kA hh Abs Q(T) ‘Temperature distribution across the ro Integrating with limits r of oT=-—~| dx joa! =a i 2 TAT yyx a or Teh) = TeK-k-1 The variation has been plotted above.Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Thermal Propertios of Matter geen Thermal Resistance The heat transfer by conduction due to temperature difference has an analogy with flow of electric current through a wire when a potential difference is applied. In that case, electrical resistance is defined as rly, thermal resistance is defined as (K-h) Q For a rod having length L, area of cross-section A and thermal conductivity k, T-h __ (h-hh) Q KAT -7)ie e > RG Having calculated the thermal resistance, we can now apply the results of series combination and parallel combination of resistors. It has been explained below. Series Combination : R= R= R=ER, at ey te sc 1 A ‘The temperature of the junctions can be calculated as given below WTizth_Ta~Te_b-he_Ti-h TTR Re RO RS _TARo+ Re) + TR: _ TiRat THR: + Re) TRE R: Ry R+R+R Parallel Combination : Fd ‘Total heat flow rate between the reservoirs is, T-h T-h hah Q=Q+Q+Q, Also, Q PECL t 7-7) R [EEERIEESEEIE ve to a spatial variation in purity, the thermal conductivity of a metal bar (cross sectional. = area 4 * 10m, length 1m) decreases linearly along its length trom 400 Wrr'k-' at one end, to 200 Wnr-'K~' at the other. Calculate the rate at which heat flows through the bar if the hot end is maintained at 200°C and the cold end'at 0°C. ‘New Dslhi-110005. Phone : 011-47628466Solution : ELIZ Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams As the thermal conductivity is not same throughout the thickness, you cannot apply Fourier’s law for the metal bar as a whole. Let one end of the bar be at x = 0 and the bar is oriented along x-axis. As the conductivity decreases linearly from 400 Wnr'K~' to 200 Wm-'k", the conductivity at the cross-section which lies at a distance x from origin is r= 409 -(400=200) k= 400 Wm"'k* k= 200 Wir'k" rorc() (Ja ore ¥ im no Me xem axis ‘The rate of heat flow through the section of thickness dx will be - aT «dT Q=-kAT- == (400 ~ 200%) 4% 10 Qax > —— 4X 10™(400 - 200x) ( Q 1 - far= [n(400 - 200x)] }x > Je pal 3% Cao0y Q (0-200) = ——S——_in(a) = ax aio*xz00 x4x104X or ge BBXAIO "X20 gy ‘Two identical rectangular rods of metal are welded as shown in figure (1) and 20 J of heat Solution : flows through the rods in’? min. How long would it take for 20 J heat fo flow through the rods if they are welded as shown in figure (2)? orc 100°C) y (Figure-1) | 100°Cf = a (Figure-2) Let R be the thermal resistance of each ha Infistcase = Ete oF Re So the rate of flow of heat in this situation will be dQ _AT_100-0 20 dR RR 60 200 x 60 R=—35— = 600°CIW Now for case (2) + R= 600 + 600 = 1200 °CWBoard, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams 4Q_ aT dt Rs 20 : er or =t=4min. Growth of Ice in Pond When temperature falls below 0°C, then pond starts freezing from the top and the thickness of ice layer grows downward towards bottom of lake. Let us consider pond has frozen up to thickness x at time t and in time af, dx thickness grows. The heat released in freezing dx layer will be conducted out through the thickness of ice already frozen. re We know that Q=mL (Ais area of surface) Lp OKT 1 ; Paya The ime taken to increase the thickness from x, to x18 t= 5 (8 —x4) EXERCISE 10.2 [Heat Transfer, Heat Conduction, Thermal Resistance, Slabs in Series and Parallel] 14, Two metallic rods of equal length and cross-section but thermal conductivities K, and K, are welded as shown (kK fk) The equivalent thermal conductivity of this resulting rod will be Kiko _ + Ky (1) KitKe . (2) K, 2K Ke Ki+Ke 8 ae 4 “> 2 Ki+KeTe ee Ty §25DAi Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams | 15, Two materials having coefficients of thermal conductivity ‘3K’ and ‘K’ and thickness ‘d’-and ‘3d’, respectively, are joined to form a slab as shown in the figure. The temperatures of the outer surfaces are 'e,' and ‘0,’ respectively, (0: > 0,). The temperature at the interface is qd 30 0, 3K K 8; 8: , 502 8, 982 8 | 20, 62+, ete @) to * 40 @ 3+g 4 —>F 16. A.uniform metal ring with centre C has two points A and 8 maintained at two different constant temperatures. The angle ACB is 6. If it is known that for @ = 180°, rate of heat flow from A to B is | 1.2 W, the rate of heat flow for @ = 90° will be (1) 0.6 W (2) 09W (3) 1.6W (4) 1.8W | Paragraph (For Q.17 to Q.19) | The following figure shows the cross-section of a wall made of white pine of thickness L, and brick of thickness L, (= 2L,), Sandwiching two layers of unknown material with identical thickness and thermal conductivities. The thermal conductivity of the pine is k, and that of the brick is K,( = 5k,). The face, area of the wall is unknown. Heat conduction through the wall has reached the steady state, the only known interface temperatures are T, = 25°C, T, = 20°C and T, = -10°C Ts I T T 17: If the temperature gradient (2) across the pine layer } and that across the brick layer [Z| m0 i: OAS, (Sls) o (Sw) (ZH) 18. The correct relation between the temperatures of the interfaces is ish Eth hth , Tah +Te+h () he (2) h= (3) T= (4) t= 2 2 4 19. The interface temperature T, is (1) -8°c (2) -8°c 3) 0 (4) 10°C Convection Convection is the transfer of heat by mass motion of a fluid from one region of space to another. There are two types of convection. () Forced convection : If the fluid is circulated by an external agent like a blower or pump, the convection process is known as forced convection. The most important mechanism for heat transfer within human body is forced convection of blood, with the heart serving as the pump.Board, JE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Thermal Properties of Matter 2/6 (i) Natural convection or free convection : If the flow is caused by difference in density due to thermal expansion, such as hot air rising, the process is called natural convection or free convection. Free convection in the atmosphere plays an important role in determining the daily weather, and convection in the oceans is an important global heat transfer mechanism. Convection heat transfer is very complex process, and there is no simple equation to desoribe it. Here are a few experimental facts: (i) The heat current due to convection is directly proportional to the surface area. This is the reason for the large surface areas of radiators and cooling fans. | (li) The viscosity of fluids slows natural convection near a stationary surface, giving a surface film that on a vertical surface typically has about the same insulating value as 1.3 om of plywood (R value = 0.7). Forced convection decreases the thickness of this film, increasing the rate of heat transfer. This is the reason for the “wind chill factor’, you get cold faster in a cold wind than in still air with the same temperature. (ii) The heat current due to convection is found fo be approximately proportional to the 2 power of the temperature difference between the surface and the main body of fluid. Radiation Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet rays. Everyone has felt the warmth of the sun's radiation and intense heat from a charcoal grill or the glowing coals in a fireplace. Most of the heat from these bodies reaches you not by conduction or ‘convection in the intervening air but by radiation. This heat transfer would occur even if there were othing but vacuum between you and the source of heat. Everybody, even at ordinary temperatures, emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. At ordinary temperature, say 20°C, nearly all the energy is carried by infrared waves with wavelengths | much longer than those of visible light. As the temperature rises, the wavelength shift to shorter values. ‘At 800°C a body emits enough visible radiation to be self-luminous and appears “red hot’, although ‘ven at this temperature most of the energy is carried by infrared waves. At 3000°C, the temperature of an incandescent lamp filament, the radiation contain enough visible light that the body appears “white-hot” Good Absorbers are Bad Reflectors Let @ be the radiant energy incident on the surface AB as stiown in Figure. @ 1a, @ + incident energy Q, + reflected eneray B @—> absorbed energy Q, + transmitted energy > ES If out of this Q incident energy, Q, is reflected, Q, is absorbed and Q, is transmitted, then ar (rotectance ofthe surtace) Q “G74 (absorptance ofthe surface) a (transmittance ofthe surface) None of these quantities (r, a and f) has a unit as thesé are pure ratios. -Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Thus, r+a+t=1 In case, the surface does not transmit radiation, t= 0 and ag r+a=1 obviously, ifa is more, ris less or vice-versa. Thus, good absorbers are bad reflectors and bad absorbers are good reflectors. Blackbody Aperfect blackbody is one which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident on it, Its absorptance is unity as it neither reflects nor transmits any radiations, We know that the colour of an opaque body depends upon the wavelength of radiation reflected by it. Since a blackbody reflects no wavelength, it appear black, whatever be the colour of the incident radiation. On the other hand, when such a body is heated, it emits radiation of all possible wavelength. ‘The radiation given out by a perfect blackbody is called Blackbody radiation. A blackbody does not mean that its colour is black, although a black-coloured body may come close to being a blackbody. Examples of black bodies, Ferry’s black body, the sun. Fery’s black body ‘ The radiation inside an enclosure whose inner walls are maintained at a constant temperature has the same properties as the black body radiation. Hole behaves like black body Conical Projection Lamp black coating Most of the energy entering through hole is absorbed (~99%). NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING {tis a common observation that bodies at temperatures higher than that of the surroundings lose heat. Newton was the first to make a scientific study in this direction, From experimental observations, he came to a conclusion which is known as the Newton's law of cooling according to which The rate of loss of heat of a body is directly proportional to the excess of the temperature (T- T,) of oT . Gr (TT) The rate of loss of heat also depends upon the nature and area of the radiating surface. Normally, the experiments are carried out in still air and the law is valid for a temperature difference of about 30°C. only. However, when the air around the body is in continuous motion, the law holds good even for higher temperature differences, Verification of Newton's law of Cooling : The law is verified in an indirect way : Itis assumed to be correct and the result so obtained is verified experimentally. the body with respect to the surroundings. ‘As per the statement of the law, — 2 «(T-T) or - = K(T-T) oli) Here, K is a constant of proportionality which is positive and its value depends upon the area and nature of the radiating surface. dQ As dQ= medT, Ge| Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Thermal Properties of Matter From equations (i) and (i T Kerr) or (ii) eS me where k= =a constant me . Integrating both sides of equation (ii), we get aT Fog 7 Ket or In(T-T)=-HM+6 Aw) where C is constant of Integration. Equation (iv) represents a straight line. Therefore, for Newton's law of cooling to be true, the graph between In(T— 7,) and t should be a straight line. Experimental arrangement : The apparatus used is shown in figure. It consists of a copper calorimeter (C) blackened from outside (so as to ensure the same nature of its entire radiating surface) and fitted with a cork containing a half degree thermometer (7) and a stirrer (S). Water heated to about 30°C to | 40°C above the room temperature is put in the calorimeter. itis then suspended in a double walled vessel V. The space between the wall of this vessels filled with water at room temperature. This serves as a constant temperature enclosure. Another half degree thermometer (7) is used to measure the temperature of the enclosure. log (TT) @ © Water is gently stirred and its temperature (7) is noted regularly first after every half minute, then after every minute and towards the end after every two minutes. The process is repeated till the temperature + of water in the calorimeter is about 5°C above the mean temperature (T,) of the enclosure. The values of (T— Tp) are calculated for various values of time t. A graph is then plotted between In(T’— T,) and The graph is found to be a straight line as shown in Figure (b) above, thereby verifying Newton's law of cooling. A body cools in 7 min from 60°C to 40°C. What will be its temperature after the next 7 minutes? The temperature of the surroundings is 10°C. Solution: In the First case, a T, = 60°C, T, = 40°C, Ty = 10°C, t= 7 min from n(Z=2) we get, oaee ee {2B_ Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams if Tis the temperature after next 7 min, T, = 40°C, T, = T; T, (40-10) in 40-10) (7-10) 10°C, t= 7 min So 77K From equations (i) & (i), 5 30 In> = In 3 T= 28°C Stefan's Law The rate P, at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, and is given by Stefan's law : pas eoncr, at Here 4. Ps the power radiated 2. Ais the surface area of the object, 3. 6 =5.67 x 10* W m* Kis the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 4. _ cis the emissivity, which is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1, characteristic of the material, (i) Dark surfaces have emissivities close to 1. (i) Shiny surfaces have emissivities close to 0. i) The emissivity of the human skin is about 0.7, (iv) Dark surfaces are not only better emitters of radiation, they are also good absorbers. . (v) Shiny surfaces are poor absorbers, since most of the incident radiation is reflected, (vi) Hence, itis better to wear light-coloured clothes in the summer, and dark-coloured clothes in the winter, Emiss Power (e) This is defined as energy radiated per second per unit area of the surface or in other words, it is the intensity of radiation. Its S. unit is W/m? or J sm, This is also known as radiant emittance. Emissive power of a surface depends on its nature and temperature. Itis maximum for perfectly black body and minimum for a smooth shining white body. Spectral Emissive Power (¢,) The emissive power corresponding to a particular wavelength is called spectral emissive power. This is also known as spectral radiant emittance. It is denoted by e, and is related to emissive power through the relation. o= fom Absorptive Power (a) This is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given time to the total radiant ‘energy incident on it in the same time, Absorptive power is dimensionless and has no units.Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter (29) Spectral Absorptive Power (a,) This is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy of given wavelength absorbed by a given surface in given time to the total radiant energy of that wavelength incident in the same time on the same surface within a unit wavelength range. It is denoted by a, and is related to absofptive power through the relation ina Emissivity (c): It is defined as emissive power of surface to the emissive power of perfectly back body. e Ose itis unitless and depend on finishing of surface If =1, surface is perfectly black = 0, surface is fully reflected 0 loge(T- Te] =— K(DS = loge(T -T,) -log. (TT. = (T~Ts) = (Ti~Ts)e* = T=Ts+(T~ Tse This gives the time taken by a body to cool down from T; to T>. Hence, we can say the rate of cooling is proportional to temperature difference between the body ‘and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small. This is called Newton's Law of, Cooling. ad ‘Temperature of body Time ( Figure shows cooling curve of a body intially at temperature Tkeptiin a surroundings of temperature Ts. Ifa body cools from T; to T; in time t, then taking the approximation T+h and, T =Tue= 5 The equation ( T)- ar Ti) becomes Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Dethi-110005, Phone : 011-47623456| | | Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter Sueact A body cools in 10.minutes from 60°C to 40°C. What-wil be its temperature after next 10 minute? The temperature of the surroundings is 10°C. Solution: According to Newton's law of cooling, F-h_ [hth 2 -1 For the given conditions, 60-40 __[60+40 aly 9] Let T be the temperature after next 10 minutes. Then 40z7, [4087 _) Ai) 10 Solving equation (i) and (ji, we get 18°C fll) Applications 1. Heat is transferred from the Sun to the Earth through (nearly) empty space by means of electromagnetic waves. 2. Ifyou stand near an open fire, you can feel the heat on your exposéd hands and face. The heat transfer is not due to convection or conduction, since heated air rises and airis a poor conductor. Visible radiation is emited from the buming material, but most of the heating effect comes from the invisible infrared radiation emitted by the glowing ember or coals. 3. Red infrared lamps are used to keep food warm in cafeterias. 4, Although infrared radiation in invisible to the human eye, it can be detected by other means. The frequency of infrared radiation is proportional to the temperature of its source. This is the basis ‘for infrared thermometers, which using infrared detectors, can measure temperature remotely. 5. "The Microwave Oven : The microwave oven is a corimon kitchen appliance which is both time- saving and energy-saving, since the oven-doesn't have to be warmed up like a conventional ‘oven. The principle of operation of the microwave oven is heat transfer by radiation. 6. The Thermo flask : The thermos bottie, sometimes called a Dewar flask, is designed to minimise heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation. Itis used to store either hot or cold liquids for long periods of time. The standard vessel is double-walled Pyrex glass with a silvered inner wall. The space between the walls is evacuated to minimise transfer by conduction and convection By reflecting most of the radiant heat, the silvered surface minimizes heat transfer by radiation. Very little heat is lost through the neck of the flask because Pyrex glass is a poor conductor. A further reduction in heat loss is achieved by reducing the size of the neck. 7. Wool sweaters and down jackets keep us warm by trapping the warmer air in regioné close to cour bodies and hence reducing heat loss by convection and conduction. In other words, what keeps us warm is not the clothing itself but the air trapped in the clothing. Energy distribution of Black Body Radiation We draw a graph showing the energy distribution with wavelength at different temperatures. eu Comorate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phoné | 01147608406Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Itis seen that the energy emitted corresponding to a particular wavelength is maximum. The area enclosed by the above graph with x-axis gives the total radiant power, which is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature. Wien’s Displacement Law The wavelength (ii,) of maximum intensity of emission of black body radiation is inversely proportional to absolute temperature (7) of the black body. 1 Demo = T EXERCISE 10.3] [Convection, Blackbody Radiation, Newton’s Law of Cooli Stefan's Law, Kirchhoff's Law, Wien’s Law] 287 Ahot body cools from 85°C to 75°C in time T,, from 75°C to 65°C in time T, and from 65°C to 55°C in time T,, then (temperature of surrounding = 30°C) (1) T= T= Ts (2) T. > Te (4) TTs y 24. A body cools by Newton's law of cooling. The surrounding temperature is 25°C. The temperature of the body falls from 60°C to 50°C in 10 min. The temperature at the end of next 10 min is (1) 42.85°C (2) 45°C (3) 40.46°C (4) 44.23°C 22. Water of volume 2 litre in a container is heated with a coil of 1 kW at 27°C. The iid of the container is ‘open and energy dissipates at the rate of 160 u/s. In how much time; temperature will rise from 27°C to 77°C? - [Given specific heat of water = 4.2 kikg] (1) 8 min 20s (2) 6 min2s (3) 7 min (4) 14 min 23. A black body at 1227°C emits radiation with maximum intensity at a wavelength of 5000 A. If the temperature of the body is increased by 1000°C, the maximum intensity will be observed at (1) 3000 A (2) 4000 A (3) 5000 A (4) 6000 A 24, Assuming the sun to be a spherical body of radius R at a temperature of TK, evaluate the total radiant power incident on earth, at a distance r from the sun. Take radius of earth as 7 (1) 4nrgRoTIe (2) ar¢RoT I? 8) WRT 4? (4) Rot? 25. Amount of solar energy received on the earth’s surface per unit area per unit time is defined a solar constant. Dimension of solar constant is, (1) MT? (2) MuT# (3) MALT (4) MTS '» Temperature : The relative measure of hotness or coldness of a body is called its temperature. a - Heat : The energy that flows between two bodies by virtue of temperature difference between them is called heat. It flows from a fot body to cold body. ~ * Specific Heat Capacity : The amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or rejected by a substance to change its temperature by one unit is called its specific heat capacity (C), ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-47623456“Thermal Properties of Mater Gi Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams Molar Specific Heat Capacity : The amount of heat per unit mole absorbed or rejected “bya substance to change its temperature by one unit is called its molar specific heat | ers ef KA Me nee /* Calorimeter : A device in which heat measurement.can be made is called a.calorimeter.. /* Melting Point : The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of @ Substance: ‘exist in thermal equilibrium with each other is called its melting point. ee hich the 1e vapour states of the substance: perature and pressure at whi : ‘triple point. ee sae Soe ‘+ Latent Heat : The heat per unit mass required (absorbed or evolved) to change the _ ‘state of a substance at the same temperature and pressure is callled its latent heat. fo + 273.15, t= T-273.15 9 5 gT~459.67, T= ote +255:37 where T, tf, stand for temperature readings on Kelvin scale, Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale respectively. 2 AL Tap abs ab aT (© p= AA or aa=paar av. (0) v= Yap Or aV= WOT where AL, AA, AV represent the change in length, change in area and change in.volume respectively, due to a change.in temperature AT. Here L, A and V stand for original length, original area, original volume respectively. a, B and y denote coefficients oflinear, area and volume expansions. 2 3. B=2a,7=3a,7= 3p or B= 31 (Relation between a, B, x) 4. Thermal sess (4) = Yaar A 5. Q=mcaT where Qis the heat required to raise the temperature by AT of a substance of mass m and of specific heat ¢. +6. C=Mc where Cis the molar specific heat of a substance of molar mass M. - a 7 C=me= o> where C’ is the heat capacity or thermal capacity of a body of mass m. ‘Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Puse Road, New Delhi410005, Phone : 011-47623486233% Thermal Properties of Matter Board, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams CMe _(mnjc c_1a@ Co me 7 me 7” (Humber of moles) or C= = Q= mL 10. 11 12, where Q is the amount of heat required for changing the phase of pure substance of mass m and L is the latent heat of the substance, a= AG x where Qs the amount of heat that flows in time f across the opposite faces of a rod of length x and cross-section A. T, and T, are the temperatures of the faces the steady state and kis the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material of the rod. oT (0) Q= -kal (Z): where (dT/dx) represents the temperature gradient, ong a(S) His called the heat current. (a) r= (b) a= (©) t= o|P olp o| Where Q, is the radiant energy reflected, Q, is the radiant energy absorbed and Q,is the radiant energy transmitted through a surface on which Qis the incident radiant energy. Further; r, a and ¢ denote reflectance, absorptance and transmittance of the surface. (@) in Dg ” =) % (Es) (i-h) pT ‘The above two equations represent Newton's law of cooling. Here, t is the time taken by a body to cool from T; to 7; in a surrounding at temperature T,. _ Temperature of a body is a relative measure or indication of its hotness or coldness. ‘The energy transferBoard, JEE (Main) & State Competitive Exams ‘Thermal Properties of Matter 35 Se 3, _ The celsius temperature (T.) and the fahrenheit temperature (7,) are related as 9 Te= (Z)te+92. 2 4, The absolute minimum temperature is same for all low density gases and is called absolute zero. The value of this temperature is found to be - 273.18°C. Itis taken as the fixed point for the kelvin temperature scale (7). To = T- 273.15 Different coefficients of thermal expansion are defined by the relations: = Coefficient of linear expansion (a) Al Fr aaT ~ Coefficient of area expansion (8) owt — Coefficient of volume expansion (y) Av ya Al, AA and AV respectively denote the change in length /, area A and volume V for a change of temperature AT. 1= 30; | \ | where m is the mass of the substance and AQ jis the heat required to change its temperature by AT. ‘The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is given by Cnr where x is the number of moles of the substance. 7. The amount of heat required to change the phase (state) of a unit mass ofa substance without any change in its temperature and pressure is called its latent heat. This is referred as the latent heat of fusion (L,) when the phase change is from solid to liquid ; and latent heat of vaporisation (Ly) when the phase change is from liquid to gas. 8 Heat transfer can take place by three modes namely, conduction, convection and radiation. Radiation is fastest of them all and does not require a material medium. 9. In conduetion, heat is transferred between neighbouring ‘parts of a body through molecular collisions, without any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform cross section A with its ends maintained at temperatures T; and To, the rate of flow. of heat His: Te-to HeKA. 4 “TL where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar. 40. Newton's Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional othe ‘excess temperature of the body over the surroundings: BKK “at where T; is the temperature of the surrounding medium and Tp s the temperature of the body. : gaa “Corporate Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005. Phone : 011-47623456 aSECTION-A Multiple Choice Questions (MQ) Type and Assertion - Reason Based Questions its 2, oS es ms ae SI unit of thermal conductivity is (1) Wine (2) wimk (3) WK (4) sim’ The heat capacity of a metal sample is 1500 J/K. If mass of the sample is 75 kg, then the specific heat capacity would be (1) 40 Jikg °C (2) 20 Jikg °C (3) 80 Jikg °C (4) 10,Jikg °C The amount of energy required per unit mass to change the liquid to gas and vice-versa without any change in temperature is termed as (1) Latent heat of fusion (2) Latent heat of vaporisation (3) Heat capacity (4) Specific heat capacity scientist raises the temperature of a solid sample of mass 20 kg from 20°C to 40°C using 4000 J of energy. The specific heat capacity of solid is (1) 40 Jikg °C (2) 10 Jikg °c (8) 20 Jikg °C. (4) 30 Jikg?c 200 g of water at 80°C is poured into 140 g of water at 30°C and then mixed uniformly. The final ‘temperature of the mixture is (assume no heat addition during mixing) (1) 47.6°C (2) 59.4°C (3) 65.3°C (4) 698°C thin metal rod is bent into a shape of ring. If itis heated then which of the following is incorrect? (1) The length of rod increases (2) The area enclosed in ting decreases (3) The radius of ring increases in the same ratio as the length of the rod (4) The radius of curvature of ring increases ‘A pendulum clock, made of a material having coéfficient of linear expansion a = 9 x 107°C has a period of 0.500 sec at 20°C. If the clock is used in a climate where temperature averages 30°C, what correction is necessary at the end of 30 days to the time given by clock? (1) 11.66's (2) 3.88 s (8) 0.100 s (4) 20s 80 gm of water at 30°C is poured on a large block of ice at O°C. The mass of ice that melts is (1) 30 gm (2) 80 gm (8) 1600 gm (4) 150 gm The ratio of thermal conductivity of two rods of different material is 5 : 4. The two rods of same area of cross-section and same thermal resistance will have the length in the ratio (1) 4:5 ort @) 1:9 . (4) 5:4 ‘Students are required to solve and write the solutions in their exercise book. 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