Gerald B.

Folland - Advanced Calculus

Seçilmiş Teorem ve Tanımlar (Bölüm 1-3)

May 25, 2025

Contents
1 Chapter 1: Setting the Stage 2

2 Chapter 2: Differential Calculus 6

3 Chapter 3: The Implicit Function Theorem and Its Applications 12

1
1 Chapter 1: Setting the Stage
Proposition 1.1 (Cauchy’s Inequality). For any a, b ∈ Rn ,

|a · b| ≤ |a||b|.

Proposition 1.2 (The Triangle Inequality). For any a, b ∈ Rn ,

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.

Definition 1.3. The distance from x to y = |x − y|.

Definition 1.4. Let S be a subset of Rn .

• The complement of S is the set of all points in Rn that are not in S; we denote
it by Rn \ S or by S c :

S c = Rn \ S = {x ∈ Rn : x ∈
/ S}.

• A point x ∈ Rn is called an interior point of S if all points sufficiently close to

x (including x itself ) are also in S, that is, if S contains some ball centered at x.
The set of all interior points of S is called the interior of S and is denoted by S int :

S int = {x ∈ S : B(r, x) ⊂ S for some r > 0}.

• A point x ∈ Rn is called a boundary point of S if every ball centered at x contains

both points in S and points in S c . (Note that if x is a boundary point of S, x
may belong to either S or S c .) The set of all boundary points of S is called the
boundary of S and is denoted by ∂S:

∂S = {x ∈ Rn : B(r, x) ∩ S ̸= ∅ and B(r, x) ∩ S c ̸= ∅ for every r > 0}.

• S is called open if it contains none of its boundary points.

• S is called closed if it contains all of its boundary points.

• The closure of S is the union of S and all its boundary points. It is denoted by S̄:

S̄ = S ∪ ∂S.

• Finally, a neighborhood of a point x ∈ Rn is a set of which x is an interior point.

That is, S is a neighborhood of x if and only if x is an interior point of S.

Proposition 1.5. Suppose S ⊂ Rn .

(a) S is open ⇐⇒ every point of S is an interior point.

(b) S is closed ⇐⇒ S c is open.

2
Definition 1.6 (Limit of a function). We say that

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

and call L the limit of f (x) as x approaches a, if f (x) becomes as close as we wish to
L provided x is sufficiently close to, but not equal to, a. More formally, the statement
limx→a f (x) = L means that for any positive number ϵ there is a positive number δ so
that
|f (x) − L| < ϵ whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ. (1.1)
Definition 1.7 (Continuity at a point and on a set). If limx→a f (x) and f (a) both exist
and are equal, that is, if
lim f (x) = f (a),
x→a

then f is said to be continuous at a. If f is continuous at every point of a set U ⊂ Rn ,

f is said to be continuous on U .
Theorem 1.8. Suppose f : Rn → Rm is continuous on U ⊂ Rn and g : Rm → Rk is
continuous on f (U ) ⊂ Rm . Then the composite function g ◦ f : Rn → Rk is continuous
on U .
Theorem 1.9. Let f1 (x, y) = x + y, f2 (x, y) = xy, and g(x) = 1/x. Then f1 and f2 are
continuous on R2 and g is continuous on R \ {0}.
Corollary 1.10. The function f3 (x, y) = x − y is continuous on R2 , and the function
f4 (x, y) = x/y is continuous on {(x, y) : y ̸= 0}.
Corollary 1.11. The sum, product, or difference of two continuous functions is con-
tinuous; the quotient of two continuous functions is continuous on the set where the
denominator is nonzero.
Theorem 1.12. Suppose f : Rn → Rk is continuous and U is a subset of Rk , and let
S = {x ∈ Rn : f (x) ∈ U }. Then S is open if U is open, and S is closed if U is closed.
Definition 1.13 (Convergent Sequence). A sequence {xk } in Rn is said to converge to
the limit L if for every ϵ > 0 there is an integer K such that |xk −L| < ϵ whenever k > K;
otherwise, {xk } diverges. If {xk } converges to L, we write xk → L or L = limk→∞ xk .
Theorem 1.14. Suppose S ⊂ Rn and x ∈ Rn . Then x belongs to the closure of S if and
only if there is a sequence of points in S that converges to x.
Theorem 1.15. Given S ⊂ Rn , a ∈ S, and f : S → Rm , the following are equivalent:
(a) f is continuous at a.
(b) For any sequence {xk } in S that converges to a, the sequence {f (xk )} converges to
f (a).
Definition 1.16 (Accumulation Point). A point a ∈ Rn is called an accumulation
point of a set S ⊂ Rn if every neighborhood of a contains infinitely many points of S.
Axiom 1.17 (The Completeness Axiom). Let S be a nonempty set of real numbers. If
S has an upper bound, then S has a least upper bound, called the supremum of S and
denoted by sup S. If S has a lower bound, then S has a greatest lower bound, called the
infimum of S and denoted by inf S.

3
Definition 1.18 (Bounded and Monotone Sequence). A sequence {xk } is called bounded
if all the numbers xn are contained in some bounded interval. A sequence {xn } is called
increasing if xn ≤ xm whenever n ≤ m, and decreasing if xn ≥ xm whenever n ≤ m.
A sequence that is either increasing or decreasing is called monotone (or monotonic).
Theorem 1.19 (The Monotone Sequence Theorem). Every bounded monotone sequence
in R is convergent. More precisely, the limit of an increasing (resp. decreasing) sequence
is the supremum (resp. infimum) of its set of values.
Theorem 1.20 (The Nested Interval Theorem). Let I1 = [a1 , b1 ], I2 = [a2 , b2 ], . . . be a
sequence of closed, bounded intervals in R. Suppose that (a) I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ I3 ⊃ . . . , and (b)
the length bk − ak of Ik tends to 0 as k → ∞. Then there is exactly one point contained
in all of the intervals Ik .
Definition 1.21 (Subsequence). A subsequence of {xk } is a sequence {xkj }∞ j=1 specified
by a one-to-one, increasing map j → kj from the set of positive integers into itself.
Theorem 1.22. Every bounded sequence in R has a convergent subsequence.
Theorem 1.23. Every bounded sequence in Rn has a convergent subsequence.
Definition 1.24 (Cauchy Sequence). A sequence {xk } in Rn is called a Cauchy se-
quence if xk − xj → 0 as k, j → ∞, that is, if for every ϵ > 0 there exists an integer K
such that |xk − xj | < ϵ whenever k > K and j > K.
Theorem 1.25. A sequence {xk } in Rn is convergent if and only if it is Cauchy.
Definition 1.26 (Compact Set). A subset of Rn is called compact if it is both closed
and bounded.
Theorem 1.27 (The Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem). If S is a subset of Rn , the following
are equivalent:
(a) S is compact.
(b) Every sequence of points in S has a convergent subsequence whose limit lies in S.
Theorem 1.28. Continuous functions map compact sets to compact sets.
Corollary 1.29 (The Extreme Value Theorem). Suppose S ⊂ Rn is compact and f :
S → R is continuous. Then f has an absolute minimum value and an absolute maximum
value on S; that is, there exist points a, b ∈ S such that f (a) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (b) for all
x ∈ S.
Theorem 1.30 (The Heine-Borel Theorem). If S is a subset of Rn , the following are
equivalent:
(a) S is compact.
(b) If U is any covering of S by open sets, there is a finite subcollection of U that still
forms a covering of S. (In brief: Every open covering of S has a finite subcovering.)
Definition 1.31 (Connected/Disconnected Set). A set S ⊂ Rn is disconnected if it is
the union of two nonempty subsets S1 and S2 , neither of which intersects the closure of
the other one; in this case we shall call the pair (S1 , S2 ) a disconnection of S. The set
S is connected if it is not disconnected.

4
Theorem 1.32. The connected subsets of R are precisely the intervals (open, half-open,
or closed; bounded or unbounded).

Theorem 1.33. Continuous functions map connected sets to connected sets.

Corollary 1.34 (The Intermediate Value Theorem). Suppose f : S → R is continuous

at every point of S and V ⊂ S is connected. If a, b ∈ V and f (a) < t < f (b) or
f (b) < t < f (a), there is a point c ∈ V such that f (c) = t.

Definition 1.35 (Arcwise Connected Set). A set S ⊂ Rn is called arcwise connected

(or pathwise connected) if any two points in S can be joined by a continuous curve in S.

Theorem 1.36. If S ⊂ Rn is arcwise connected, then S is connected.

Theorem 1.37. If S ⊂ Rn is open and connected, then S is arcwise connected.

Definition 1.38 (Uniform Continuity). A function f : S → Rm is said to be uniformly

continuous on S if for every ϵ > 0 there is a δ > 0 so that |f (x) − f (y)| < ϵ whenever
x, y ∈ S and |x − y| < δ.

Theorem 1.39. Suppose S ⊂ Rn and f : S → Rm is continuous at every point of S. If

S is compact, then f is uniformly continuous on S.

5
2 Chapter 2: Differential Calculus
Definition 2.1 (Differentiability in One Variable). Suppose f is a real-valued function
defined on some open interval in R containing the point a. We say that f is differen-
tiable at a if there is a number m such that

E(h)
f (a + h) = f (a) + mh + E(h), where lim = 0. (2.1)
h→0 h
The number m is uniquely determined, and it is the derivative of f at a, denoted by
f ′ (a).

Proposition 2.2. Suppose f is defined on an open interval I and a ∈ I. If f has a local

maximum or minimum at the point a ∈ I and f is differentiable at a, then f ′ (a) = 0.

Lemma 2.3 (Rolle’s Theorem). Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on

(a, b). If f (a) = f (b), there is at least one point c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Theorem 2.4 (Mean Value Theorem I). Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] and differen-
tiable on (a, b). There is at least one point c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a
Theorem 2.5. Suppose f is differentiable on the open interval I.

(a) If |f ′ (x)| ≤ C for all x ∈ I, then |f (b) − f (a)| ≤ C|b − a| for all a, b ∈ I.

(b) If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is constant on I.

(c) If f ′ (x) ≥ 0 (resp. f ′ (x) > 0, f ′ (x) ≤ 0, or f ′ (x) < 0) for all x ∈ I, then f is
increasing (resp. strictly increasing, decreasing, or strictly decreasing) on I.

Theorem 2.6 (Mean Value Theorem II). Suppose that f and g are continuous on [a, b]
and differentiable on (a, b), and g ′ (x) ̸= 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). Then there exists c ∈ (a, b)
such that
f ′ (c) f (b) − f (a)
′
= .
g (c) g(b) − g(a)
Theorem 2.7 (L’Hopital’s Rule I). Suppose f and g are differentiable functions on (a, b)
and
lim+ f (x) = lim+ g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
′
If g never vanishes on (a, b) and the limit

f ′ (x)
lim+ =L
x→a g ′ (x)

exists, then g never vanishes on (a, b) and

f (x)
lim+ = L.
x→a g(x)

(Similar results hold for left-hand, two-sided, and limits at ±∞).

6
Theorem 2.8 (L’Hopital’s Rule II). Theorem 2.7 remains valid when the hypothesis that
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0 is replaced by the hypothesis that lim |f (x)| = lim |g(x)| = ∞.
Corollary 2.9. For any a > 0 we have
xa log x log x
lim x
= lim a
= lim+ −a = 0.
x→+∞ e x→+∞ x x→0 x
Definition 2.10 (Differentiability in Several Variables). A function f defined on an open
set S ⊂ Rn is called differentiable at a point a ∈ S if there is a vector c ∈ Rn such that
f (a + h) − f (a) − c · h
lim = 0. (2.2)
h→0 |h|

In this case c (which is uniquely determined) is called the gradient of f at a and is

denoted by ∇f (a).
Theorem 2.11. If f is differentiable at a, then the partial derivatives ∂j f (a) all exist,
and they are the components of the vector ∇f (a).
Theorem 2.12. If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Theorem 2.13. Let f be a function defined on an open set in Rn that contains the point
a. Suppose that the partial derivatives ∂j f all exist on some neighborhood of a and that
they are continuous at a. Then f is differentiable at a.
Definition 2.14 (Class C1). A function f whose partial derivatives ∂j f all exist and are
continuous on an open set S is said to be of class C1 on S.
Definition 2.15 (Directional Derivative). The directional derivative of f at a in the
direction u is defined to be
d f (a + tu) − f (a)
∂u f (a) = f (a + tu) = lim ,
dt t=0
t→0 t

provided that the limit exists.

Theorem 2.16. If f is differentiable at a, then the directional derivatives of f at a all
exist, and they are given by
∂u f (a) = ∇f (a) · u. (2.3)
Theorem 2.17 (Chain Rule I). Suppose that g(t) is differentiable at t = a, f (x) is
differentiable at x = b, and b = g(a). Then the composite function ϕ(t) = f (g(t)) is
differentiable at t = a, and its derivative is given by

ϕ′ (a) = ∇f (b) · g′ (a).

Theorem 2.18 (Chain Rule II). Suppose that g1 , . . . , gn are functions of t = (t1 , . . . , tm )
and f is a function of x = (x1 , . . . , xn ). Let b = g(a) and ϕ = f ◦ g. If g1 , . . . , gn are
differentiable at a (resp. of class C1 near a) and f is differentiable at b (resp. of class C1
near b), then ϕ is differentiable at a (resp. of class C1 near a), and its partial derivatives
are given by
∂ϕ ∂f ∂x1 ∂f ∂xn
= + ··· + . (2.4)
∂tk ∂x1 ∂tk ∂xn ∂tk

7
Definition 2.19 (Homogeneous Function). A function f on Rn is called (positively)
homogeneous of degree a (a ∈ R) if f (tx) = ta f (x) for all t > 0 and x ̸= 0.

Theorem 2.20 (Euler’s Theorem). If f is homogeneous of degree a, then at any point x

where f is differentiable we have

x1 ∂1 f (x) + x2 ∂2 f (x) + · · · + xn ∂n f (x) = af (x).

Theorem 2.21. Suppose that F is a differentiable function on some open set U ⊂ R3 ,

and suppose that the set S = {(x, y, z) ∈ U : F (x, y, z) = 0} is a smooth surface. If a ∈ S
and ∇F (a) ̸= 0, then the vector ∇F (a) is perpendicular, or normal, to the surface S at
a.

Corollary 2.22. Under the conditions of the theorem, the equation of the tangent plane
to S at a is ∇F (a) · (x − a) = 0.

Theorem 2.23 (Mean Value Theorem III). Let S be a region in Rn that contains the
points a and b as well as the line segment L that joins them. Suppose that f is a function
defined on S that is continuous at each point of L and differentiable at each point of L
except perhaps the endpoints a and b. Then there is a point c on L such that

f (b) − f (a) = ∇f (c) · (b − a).

Definition 2.24 (Convex Set). A set S ⊂ Rn is called convex if whenever a, b ∈ S, the

line segment from a to b also lies in S.

Corollary 2.25. Suppose that f is differentiable on an open convex set S and |∇f (x)| ≤
M for every x ∈ S. Then |f (b) − f (a)| ≤ M |b − a| for all a, b ∈ S.

Corollary 2.26. Suppose f is differentiable on an open convex set S and ∇f (x) = 0 for
all x ∈ S. Then f is constant on S.

Theorem 2.27. Suppose that f is differentiable on an open connected set S and ∇f (x) =
0 for all x ∈ S. Then f is constant on S.

Definition 2.28 (Class Ck and C-infinity). A function f is said to be of class Ck on

an open set U if all of its partial derivatives of order ≤ k . . . exist and are continuous on
U . If the partial derivatives of f of all orders exist and are continuous on U , f is said to
be of class C∞ on U .

Theorem 2.29. Let f be a function defined in an open set S ⊂ Rn . Suppose a ∈ S and

i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}. If the derivatives ∂i f , ∂j f , ∂i ∂j f , and ∂j ∂i f exist in S, and if ∂i ∂j f
and ∂j ∂i f are continuous at a, then ∂i ∂j f (a) = ∂j ∂i f (a).

Corollary 2.30. If f is of class C2 on an open set S, then ∂i ∂j f = ∂j ∂i f on S, for all i

and j.

Theorem 2.31. If f is of class Ck on an open set S, then

∂i1 ∂i2 . . . ∂ik f = ∂j1 ∂j2 . . . ∂jk f on S

whenever the sequence {j1 , . . . , jk } is a reordering of the sequence {i1 , . . . , ik }.

8
Theorem 2.32 (The Multinomial Theorem). For any x = (x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) ∈ Rn and any
positive integer k,
X k!
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xn )k = xα .
α!
|α|=k

(j)
Definition 2.33 (Taylor Polynomial and Remainder). The polynomial Pa,k (h) = kj=0 f j!(a) hj
P

is called the kth-order Taylor polynomial for f based at a. The difference Ra,k (h) =
f (a + h) − Pa,k (h) is called the kth-order Taylor remainder.

Theorem 2.34 (Taylor’s Theorem with Integral Remainder, I). Suppose that f is of
class Ck+1 (k ≥ 0) on an interval I ⊂ R, and a ∈ I. Then the remainder Ra,k defined by
(2.53)–(2.54) is given by

hk+1 1
Z
Ra,k (h) = (1 − t)k f (k+1) (a + th)dt. (2.5)
k! 0

Theorem 2.35 (Taylor’s Theorem with Integral Remainder, II). Suppose that f is of
class Ck (k ≥ 1) on an interval I ⊂ R, and a ∈ I. Then the remainder Ra,k defined by
(2.53)–(2.54) is given by
Z 1
hk
Ra,k (h) = (1 − t)k−1 [f (k) (a + th) − f (k) (a)]dt. (2.6)
(k − 1)! 0

Corollary 2.36. If f is of class Ck on I, then Ra,k (h)/hk → 0 as h → 0.

Corollary 2.37. If f is of class Ck+1 on I and |f (k+1) (x)| ≤ M for x ∈ I, then

M
|Ra,k (h)| ≤ |h|k+1 , (a + h ∈ I).
(k + 1)!

Lemma 2.38. Suppose g is k + 1 times differentiable on [a, b]. If g(a) = g(b) and
g (j) (a) = 0 for 1 ≤ j ≤ k, then there is a point c ∈ (a, b) such that g (k+1) (c) = 0.

Theorem 2.39 (Taylor’s Theorem with Lagrange’s Remainder). Suppose f is k +1 times

differentiable on an interval I ⊂ R, and a ∈ I. For each h ∈ R such that a + h ∈ I there
is a point c between 0 and h such that

hk+1
Ra,k (h) = f (k+1) (a + c) . (2.7)
(k + 1)!
Proposition 2.40. The Taylor polynomials of degree k about a = 0 of the functions
ex , cos x, sin x, (1 − x)−1 are, respectively,
X xj X (−1)j x2j X (−1)j x2j+1 X
, , , xj .
0≤j≤k
j! (2j)! (2j + 1)! 0≤j≤k
0≤j≤k/2 0≤j≤(k−1)/2

Theorem 2.41 (Taylor’s Theorem in Several Variables). Suppose f : Rn → R is of class

Ck on an open convex set S. If a ∈ S and a + h ∈ S, then
X ∂ α f (a)
f (a + h) = hα + Ra,k (h), (2.8)
α!
|α|≤k

9
where
X hα Z 1
Ra,k (h) = k (1 − t)k−1 [∂ α f (a + th) − ∂ α f (a)]dt. (2.9)
α! 0
|α|=k

If f is of class Ck+1 on S, we also have

X hα Z 1
Ra,k (h) = (k + 1) (1 − t)k ∂ α f (a + th)dt, (2.10)
α! 0
|α|=k+1

and
X hα
Ra,k (h) = ∂ α f (a + ch) for some c ∈ (0, 1). (2.11)
α!
|α|=k+1

Corollary 2.42. If f is of class Ck on S, then Ra,k (h)/||h||k → 0 as h → 0. If f is of

class Ck+1 on S and |∂ α f (x)| ≤ M for x ∈ S and |α| = k + 1, then
M
|Ra,k (h)| ≤ ||h||k+1 ,
(k + 1)!

where ||h|| = |h1 | + |h2 | + · · · + |hn |.

Lemma 2.43. If P (h) is a polynomial of degree ≤ k that vanishes to order > k as h → 0
[i.e., P (h)/||h||k → 0], then P ≡ 0.
Theorem 2.44. Suppose f is of class C(k) near a. If f (a + h) = Q(h) + E(h) where
Q is a polynomial of degree ≤ k and E(h)/||h||k → 0 as h → 0, then Q is the Taylor
polynomial Pa,k .
Definition 2.45 (Critical Point). The point a ∈ S is called a critical point for f if
∇f (a) = 0.
Definition 2.46 (Local Maximum/Minimum). We say that f has a local maximum (or
local minimum) at a if f (x) ≤ f (a) (or f (x) ≥ f (a)) for all x in some neighborhood
of a.
Proposition 2.47. If f has a local maximum or minimum at a and f is differentiable
at a, then ∇f (a) = 0.
Definition 2.48 (Hessian Matrix). The n × n matrix of second partial derivatives of f
at a is called the Hessian of f at a: H = H(a) = (∂i ∂j f (a)).
Theorem 2.49. Suppose f is of class C2 at a and that ∇f (a) = 0, and let H be the
Hessian matrix (2.79). For f to have a local minimum at a, is it necessary for the
eigenvalues of H all to be nonnegative and sufficient for them all to be strictly positive.
For f to have a local maximum at a, it is necessary for the eigenvalues of H all to be
nonpositive and sufficient for them all to be strictly negative.
Definition 2.50 (Saddle Point, Degenerate Critical Point). If there are two eigenvalues
of opposite signs, then f is said to have a saddle point. A critical point for which zero
is an eigenvalue of the Hessian matrix H is called degenerate.
Theorem 2.51. Suppose f is of class C2 on an open set in R2 containing the point a,
and suppose ∇f (a) = 0. Let α = ∂12 f (a), β = ∂1 ∂2 f (a), γ = ∂22 f (a). Then:

10
 (a) If αγ − β 2 < 0, f has a saddle point at a.

(b) If αγ − β 2 > 0 and α > 0, f has a local minimum at a.

(c) If αγ − β 2 > 0 and α < 0, f has a local maximum at a.

(d) If αγ − β 2 = 0, no conclusion can be drawn.

Theorem 2.52. Let f be a continuous function on an unbounded closed set S ⊂ Rn .

(a) If f (x) → +∞ as |x| → ∞ (x ∈ S), then f has an absolute minimum but no

absolute maximum on S.

(b) If f (x) → 0 as |x| → ∞ (x ∈ S) and there is a point x0 ∈ S where f (x0 ) > 0 (resp.
f (x0 ) < 0), then f has an absolute maximum (resp. minimum) on S.

Definition 2.53 (Differentiable Mapping). A mapping f from an open set S ⊂ Rn into

Rm is said to be differentiable at a ∈ S if there is an m × n matrix L such that

|f (a + h) − f (a) − Lh|
lim = 0. (2.12)
h→0 |h|

L is called the (Fréchet) derivative of f at a, denoted Df (a).

Proposition 2.54. An Rm -valued function f is differentiable at a precisely when each of

its components f1 , . . . , fm is differentiable at a. In this case, Df (a) is the matrix whose
jth row is the row vector ∇fj (a).

Theorem 2.55 (Chain Rule III). Suppose g : Rk → Rn is differentiable at a ∈ Rk and

f : Rn → Rm is differentiable at g(a) ∈ Rn . Then H = f ◦ g : Rk → Rm is differentiable
at a, and
DH(a) = Df (g(a))Dg(a).

Definition 2.56 (Norm of a Linear Mapping). The norm of a linear mapping A :

Rn → Rm is the smallest constant C such that |Ax| ≤ C|x| for all x ∈ Rn . The norm of
A is denoted by ||A||.

Theorem 2.57. Suppose f is a differentiable Rm -valued function on an open convex set

S ⊂ Rn , and suppose that ||Df (x)|| ≤ M for all x ∈ S. Then

|f (b) − f (a)| ≤ M |b − a| for all a, b ∈ S.

Definition 2.58 (Jacobian). If f : Rn → Rn , Df is an n × n matrix. Its determinant is

called the Jacobian of f , denoted Jf or ∂(y1 , ..., yn )/∂(x1 , ..., xn ) if y = f (x).

11
3 Chapter 3: The Implicit Function Theorem and Its
Applications
Theorem 3.1 (The Implicit Function Theorem for a Single Equation). Let F (x, y) be
a function of class C1 on some neighborhood of a point (a, b) ∈ Rn+1 . Suppose that
F (a, b) = 0 and ∂y F (a, b) ̸= 0. Then there exist positive numbers r0 , r1 such that the
following conclusions are valid.
(a) For each x in the ball |x − a| < r0 there is a unique y such that |y − b| < r1 and
F (x, y) = 0. We denote this y by f (x); in particular, f (a) = b.
(b) The function f thus defined for |x−a| < r0 is of class C1 , and its partial derivatives
are given by
∂j F (x, f (x))
∂j f (x) = − . (3.1)
∂y F (x, f (x))
Corollary 3.2. Let F be a function of class C1 on Rn , and let S = {x : F (x) = 0}. For
every a ∈ S such that ∇F (a) ̸= 0 there is a neighborhood N of a such that S ∩ N is the
graph of a C1 function.
Theorem 3.3 (The Implicit Function Theorem for a System of Equations). Let F(x, y)
be an Rk -valued function of class C1 on some neighborhood of a point (a, b) ∈ Rn+k and
let Bij = (∂Fi /∂yj )(a, b). Suppose that F(a, b) = 0 and det B ̸= 0. Then there exist
positive numbers r0 , r1 such that the following conclusions are valid.
(a) For each x in the ball |x − a| < r0 there is a unique y such that |y − b| < r1 and
F(x, y) = 0. We denote this y by f (x); in particular, f (a) = b.
(b) The function f thus defined for |x − a| < r0 is of class C1 , and its partial derivatives
∂xj f can be computed by differentiating the equations F(x, f (x)) = 0 with respect to
xj and solving the resulting linear system of equations for ∂xj f1 , . . . , ∂xj fk .
Theorem 3.4. (a) Let F be a real-valued function of class C1 on an open set in R2 ,
and let S = {(x, y) : F (x, y) = 0}. If a ∈ S and ∇F (a) ̸= 0, there is a neighborhood
N of a in R2 such that S ∩ N is the graph of a C1 function f (either y = f (x) or
x = f (y)).
(b) Let f : (a, b) → R2 be a function of class C1 . If f ′ (t0 ) ̸= 0, there is an open interval
I containing t0 such that the set {f (t) : t ∈ I} is the graph of a C1 function f
(either y = f (x) or x = f (y)).
Definition 3.5 (Smooth Curve). A set S ⊂ R2 is a smooth curve if (a) S is connected,
and (b) every a ∈ S has a neighborhood N such that S ∩ N is the graph of a C1 function
f (either y = f (x) or x = f (y)).
Theorem 3.6. (a) Let F be a real-valued function of class C1 on an open set in R3 ,
and let S = {(x, y, z) : F (x, y, z) = 0}. If a ∈ S and ∇F (a) ̸= 0, there is a
neighborhood N of a in R3 such that S ∩ N is the graph of a C1 function f (either
z = f (x, y), y = f (x, z), or x = f (y, z)).
(b) Let f be a C1 mapping from an open set in R2 into R3 . If [∂u f × ∂v f ](u0 , v0 ) ̸= 0,
there is a neighborhood N of (u0 , v0 ) in R2 such that the set {f (u, v) : (u, v) ∈ N }
is the graph of a C1 function.

12
Definition 3.7 (Nonparametric Form of a k-manifold). A k-dimensional manifold S
in Rn can be described as the set of simultaneous solutions of n − k equations, S =
{x : F(x) = 0}, where F = (F1 , . . . , Fn−k ) is a C1 mapping from U ⊂ Rn into Rn−k .
The regularity condition is that the matrix DF(x) has rank n − k at every x ∈ S (or
equivalently, ∇F1 (x), . . . , ∇Fn−k (x) are linearly independent at each x ∈ S).

Definition 3.8 (Parametric Form of a k-manifold). Given a C1 map f from some open set
V ⊂ Rk into Rn , S = {f (u) : u ∈ V }. The regularity condition is that the matrix Df (u)
has rank k at each u ∈ V (or equivalently, ∂u1 f (u), . . . , ∂uk f (u) are linearly independent
at each u ∈ V ).

Theorem 3.9 (The Inverse Mapping Theorem). Let U and V be open sets in Rn , a ∈ U ,
and b = f (a). Suppose that f : U → V is a mapping of class C1 and the Fréchet
derivative Df (a) is invertible (that is, the Jacobian det Df (a) is nonzero). Then there
exist neighborhoods M ⊂ U and N ⊂ V of a and b, respectively, so that f is a one-to-
one map from M onto N , and the inverse map f −1 from N to M is also of class C1 .
Moreover, if y = f (x) ∈ N , D(f −1 )(y) = [Df (x)]−1 .

Definition 3.10 (Functional Dependence). Suppose f1 , . . . , fn are C1 real-valued func-

tions on an open set U ⊂ Rm . We say that f1 , . . . , fn are functionally dependent on
U if there is a C1 function Φ : Rn → R such that

Φ(f1 (x), . . . , fn (x)) = 0 and ∇Φ(f1 (x), . . . , fn (x)) ̸= 0 for x ∈ U. (3.2)

Theorem 3.11. Suppose f = (f1 , . . . , fn ) is a C1 map on some open set U ⊂ Rn . If

f1 , . . . , fn are functionally dependent on U , then the Jacobian det Df vanishes identically
on U .

Theorem 3.12. Let f = (f1 , . . . , fn ) be a C1 map from a connected open set U ⊂ Rm

into Rn . Suppose that the matrix Df (x) has rank k at every x ∈ U , where k < n. Then
every x0 ∈ U has a neighborhood N such that f1 , . . . , fn are functionally dependent on N
and f (N ) is a smooth k-dimensional submanifold of Rn .

Theorem 3.13. (Special case of 3.12 for m = n = 3) Let f = (f, g, h) be a C1 map

from a connected open set U ⊂ R3 into R3 . Suppose that the matrix Df (x) has rank k at
every x ∈ U , where k = 1 or 2. Then every x0 ∈ U has a neighborhood N such that the
functions f, g, h are functionally dependent on N and f (N ) is a smooth curve (if k = 1)
or a smooth surface (if k = 2).

13