5.1 WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?

Life processes are defined as the essential functions that living organisms perform to
maintain their survival and health.

These processes are necessary for an organism to stay alive and include things like
nutrition, respiration, transportation, and excretion. Without these processes, an
organism cannot survive.

Here's a more detailed look:

• Nutrition: The process of obtaining and utilizing food for energy and building
blocks.

• Respiration: The process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide to

generate energy from food.

• Transportation: The movement of nutrients, gases, and waste products

throughout the body.

• Excretion: The removal of waste products from the body.

• Reproduction: The process by which organisms create new individuals, ensuring

the continuation of the species.

5.2 NUTRITION (the food that you eat and the way that it affects your health)

Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain and utilize food to support their
life processes. It involves taking in food, breaking it down into nutrients, and utilizing
those nutrients for energy, growth, and various bodily functions.

• Autotrophs, include green plants and some bacteria.

• Heterotrophs survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs.
• Heterotrophic organisms include animals and fungi.

5.2.1 Autotrophic Nutrition

The term “autotrophic” is formed by the combination of two terms, “auto” meaning self,
and “trophic” meaning nutrition, i.e; Autotrophic Nutrition, also known as "self-
nourishment.
Autotrophic nutrition is the process by which organisms, like plants, algae and some
bacteria, create (prepares/synthesize) their own food from simple inorganic substances
like water and carbon dioxide, using sunlight or chemical energy.

Examples of organisms that utilize autotrophic nutrition:

Plants, algae, and some bacteria. Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic
organism are fulfilled by photosynthesis.

Key Ingredients or components necessary for photosynthesis:

Carbon Dioxide, Water, and sunlight are essential for autotrophic nutrition, along with
the green pigment chlorophyll.

Note :
This self-sufficient nutritional mode allows organisms to produce organic molecules,
primarily glucose, without relying on other organisms for food. Autotrophs are the
foundation of the food chain, as they produce the initial source of energy for other
organisms.

Photosynthesis :
The most common example of autotrophic nutrition is photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms, like green plants, algae and some
bacteria, create (prepare/synthesize) their own food from simple inorganic substances
like, water and carbon dioxide, using sunlight and chlorophyll to produce glucose (sugar)
and oxygen.

Equation:

The general equation for photosynthesis is :

chlorophyll
6CO2 + 12H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
Sunlight
→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
(Glucose)

In the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) is converted into
carbohydrates (C6H12O6) in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are
utilized for providing energy to the plant.

The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch,
which serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when required by the
plant. A similar situation is seen in human body where some of the energy derived from
the food we eat is stored in our body in the form of glycogen.

The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:

(i) Absorption of light energy (sunlight) by chlorophyll.

(ii) Conversion of light energy (sunlight) to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Process:

Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil, and with the help of
sunlight and chlorophyll, they convert these into glucose (food) and release oxygen into
the air.

Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots in terrestrial plants.
Other materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are taken up from the
soil. Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds. This is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken up
as organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.

Location:

The process of photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts (found in the leaves and other green
parts of plants), specialized organelles containing chlorophyll, a green pigment that
captures light energy.

Importance:

Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth because it produces oxygen, which is vital for
respiration, and provides food for plants and other organisms.

Note :

• Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare a material which is acted
upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
• If you carefully observe a cross-section of a leaf under the microscope, you will
notice that some cells contain green dots. These green dots are cell organelles
 called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll. chlorophyll is essential for
photosynthesis.

How the plant obtains carbon dioxide

Plant obtains carbon dioxide through stomata.

Stomata :

These are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.

Opening and closing of the pore :

Massive amounts of gaseous exchange take place in the leaves through these pores for
the purpose of photosynthesis. But it is important to note here that exchange of gases
occurs across the surface of stems, roots and leaves as well. Since large amounts of water
can also be lost through these stomata, the plant closes these pores when it does not
need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The opening and closing of the pore is a function
of the guard cells. The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal
pore to open. Similarly, the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
5.2.2 Heterotrophic Nutrition

Heterotrophic nutrition is a mode of nutrition where organisms obtain their food from
other organisms or dead organic matter.

Heterotrophic nutrition can be broadly classified into three main types: holozoic,
saprophytic, and parasitic.

Holozoic Nutrition:

This involves taking in whole solid food particles and breaking them down inside the
body. Animals like humans, dogs, and amoebas are examples of organisms that utilize
holozoic nutrition.

Some organisms take in whole material and break it down inside their bodies. What can
be taken in and broken down depends on the body design and functioning.

Saprophytic Nutrition:

This type of nutrition involves obtaining nourishment from dead and decaying organic
matter. Fungi and some bacteria are examples of saprophytes.

Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then absorb it.
Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms.

Parasitic Nutrition:

Parasites obtain their nutrients from a living host (plants or animals) without killing them.
Examples include cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
5.2.3 How do Organisms obtain their Nutrition?

The digestive system is different in various organisms.

In single-celled organisms, the food taken in by the entire surface.

For example, Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell
surface which fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole. Inside the food vacuole,
complex substances are broken down into simpler ones which then diffuse into the
cytoplasm. The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and
thrown out.

In Paramecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite shape and
food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia
which cover the entire surface of the cell.

In multi-celled organisms, different parts become specialised to perform different

functions. Multicellular organisms include all species of animals, land plants, and most
fungi.

5.2.4 Nutrition in Human Beings

Alimentary canal

Also known as “digestive tract” or “gastro intestinal (GI) tract”.

Key features of the alimentary canal

Continuous Tube:

It is a continuous and long tube-like muscular structure for food processing that extends
from the mouth to the anus. The tube has different parts which is specialised to perform
different functions.

Openings:

It has openings at both ends: the mouth and the anus.

Main function:

The primary function of the alimentary canal is to process food, absorb nutrients, and
eliminate undigested food.

Length:

In humans, the alimentary canal is approximately 9 meters (30 feet) long.

Organs involved in alimentary canal:

The main organs of the alimentary canal include the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

Associated glands:

Accessory digestive glands like the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas also
play a role in digestion.

Processes within the alimentary canal:

Ingestion: Food enters the alimentary canal through the mouth.

Digestion: Food is broken down into smaller molecules, both mechanically (by teeth)
and chemically (by digestive enzymes).

Absorption: Nutrients from the digested food are absorbed into the bloodstream.

Elimination: Undigested food is expelled through the anus.

The rectum

• It is the final, straight segment of the large intestine, connecting the sigmoid colon
to the anal canal.
• It's located within the pelvic cavity and serves as a temporary reservoir for stool.
• The rectum's function is to store stool until it's ready to be eliminated through the
anus.

Location:

The rectum is the most distal (far) portion of the large intestine, situated in the pelvic
cavity. It's located posterior (back) to the bladder and uterus in women, and the prostate
in men.

Function:

The rectum stores stool until the urge to defecate is triggered by nerve signals. When the
rectum is full, the anal sphincters relax, allowing the stool to be expelled.
What happens to the food once it enters our body?

We eat various types of food which has to pass through the same digestive tract. Naturally
the food has to be processed to generate particles which are small and of the same
texture. This is achieved by crushing the food with our teeth. Since the lining of the canal
is soft, the food is also wetted to make its passage smooth. When we eat something,
we like, our mouth ‘waters’. This is actually not only water, but a fluid called
saliva secreted by the salivary glands.

Another aspect of the food we ingest is its complex nature. If it is to be absorbed from
the alimentary canal, it has to be broken into smaller molecules. This is done with the
help of biological catalysts called enzymes. The saliva contains an enzyme
called salivary amylase that breaks down starch which is a complex molecule to give
simple sugar. The food is mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved around the mouth
while chewing by the muscular tongue.

It is necessary to move the food in a regulated manner along the digestive tube so that
it can be processed properly in each part. The lining of alimentary canal has muscles that
contract rhythmically in order to push the food forward. These peristaltic movements
occur all along the gut. From the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through
the food-pipe or oesophagus or esophagus.

The stomach is a large organ which expands when food enters it. The muscular walls of
the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with more digestive juices. The digestion
in stomach is taken care of by the gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach.
These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and mucus.
The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme
pepsin.

The mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under
normal conditions. We have often heard adults complaining about ‘acidity’.

The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases it in
small amounts into the small intestine. From the stomach, the food now enters the small
intestine.
Small Intestine (Small Bowel)

• The longest part of the alimentary canal. It is about 20 feet long and folds many
times (coiling structure) to fit inside the abdomen/stomach.
• It connects the stomach to the large intestine. The small intestine is further divided
into three sections : the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
• It is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It
receives the secretions of the liver (Bile Juice) and pancreas (Pancreatic Juice) for
this purpose. The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made
alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes to act. Bile juice from the liver accomplishes
this in addition to acting on fats.
• Fats are present in the small intestine in the form of large globules which makes
it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts (a key component of Bile Juice)
break large globules of fats into smaller globules of fat increasing the efficiency of
enzyme action. This is similar to the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt.
• Digested food is taken up by the walls of the small intestine.
• The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice.
• Intestinal juice contains various digestive enzymes, including amylase, lipase, and
proteases, which break down proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into
glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol respectively.
• The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called
villi which increase the surface area for absorption. The villi are richly supplied with
blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body,
where it is utilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair of
old tissues.

How the small intestine works

• It receives food from the stomach.

• It receives bile juice from the liver, which is produced there and then stored and
concentrated in the gallbladder. The gallbladder releases bile into the small
intestine through a bile duct when needed for digestion.
• It receives pancreatic juice from the pancreas. This pancreatic juice, secreted by
the pancreas, enters the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. The small
intestine then uses the enzymes in the pancreatic juice to aid in the digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

• The small intestine absorbs nutrients, salt, and water.

• The small intestine sends undigested food waste to the large intestine

Enzymes:

• Intestinal juice contains various digestive enzymes, including amylase, lipase, and
proteases, which break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, respectively.

Neutralization:

• It contains substances that neutralize the acidic hydrochloric acid (HCl) coming
from the stomach, creating a more alkaline environment in the small intestine,
which is essential for the proper functioning of digestive enzymes.

Hormones:

• Intestinal juice also releases gastrointestinal hormones into the bloodstream,

which help regulate the digestive process.

Mucus:

• It contains mucus, which lubricates the intestinal lining and protects it from
damage.
 Key Enzymes and Their Functions:

• Enterokinase: Converts trypsinogen to trypsin, which is necessary for protein

digestion.
• Erepsin: Further digests polypeptides into amino acids.
• Lactose: Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose.
• Sucrose: Breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose.
• Maltose: Breaks down maltose into glucose.

Secretion and Stimulation:

• Intestinal juice is secreted by the intestinal glands located in the small intestine.
• Its secretion is stimulated by hormones, the vagus nerve, and mechanical
stimulation from the presence of food in the intestine.
• Overall, intestinal juice is a vital component of the digestive system, working in
coordination with other secretions like pancreatic juice and bile to complete the
breakdown of food and facilitate nutrient absorption.

Small intestine diseases

Celiac disease, Crohn's disease, Enteritis, Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and Small
intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO)

Tests for small intestine problems

Barium x-ray, Blood tests, Endoscopy, CT scan, MRI, and Ultrasound.

Bile juice – A digestive fluid

Bile ducts

Bile ducts carry bile juice from liver (where it is made) to your gallbladder (where it is
stored). When we eat, our gallbladder releases bile juice back into the bile ducts. It flows
to the small intestine where it breaks down fat in the food we eaten. This makes it easier
for our body to use the food.

• Produced/secreted by the liver

• Stored in the gallbladder (GB)

• Alkaline in nature
 • Helps to break down fats
• Helps to eliminate waste products

• Plays a crucial role in digestion by emulsifying fats (the process of breakdown of

large droplets of fat into smaller and more digestible particles is called
emulsification) and thus it allows pancreatic enzyme lipase to efficiently break
down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

• Bile juice also neutralizes the acidic chyme (digested food) from the stomach,
making it alkaline, which is necessary for the proper function of digestive enzymes
in the small intestine.

Emulsification of fats:

Bile salts (a key component of bile juice) act as surfactants that reducing the surface
tension between water and fat and thus breaking down large fat globules into smaller
droplets.

Neutralization of stomach acid:

Bile juice is alkaline that helps to neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach, which
can damage the small intestine.

Absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins:

The emulsified fats and the resulting fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the small
intestine, aided by bile salts.

Excretion of waste products:

Bile juice is involved in the excretion of bilirubin (a breakdown product of red blood cells)
and other waste products.

Cholesterol metabolism:

Bile juice plays a role in cholesterol metabolism, contributing to the elimination of excess
cholesterol from the body.
Note :

The length of the small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they
eat. Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be
digested. Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small
intestine.

The pancreas

It is located behind the stomach and plays a crucial role in breaking down food and
regulating blood sugar levels. It has both digestive and endocrine functions.

Functions:

Exocrine Function (Digestion):

The pancreas produces digestive enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats in the small intestine. These enzymes are released into the duodenum via the main
pancreatic duct.

Endocrine Function (Hormone Production):

The pancreas produces hormones like insulin and glucagon, which are essential for
regulating blood sugar levels. These hormones are released directly into the bloodstream.

Location and Anatomy:

The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ, approximately 6-10 inches long, located in
the upper abdomen behind the stomach.
It has a head (widest part, in the C-loop of the duodenum), a neck, a body, and a tail
(extending towards the spleen).

The pancreas is surrounded by other organs like the stomach, intestines, liver, and
spleen.

In Summary:

The pancreas is a dual-function organ that aids in digestion by producing enzymes and
regulates blood sugar levels by producing hormones like insulin and glucagon.

Secretion by the Pancreas

• secretes pancreatic juice

• pancreatic juice contains enzymes like trypsin and lipase
• trypsin digesting proteins
• lipase breaking down emulsified fats

Pancreatic juice/pancreatic fluid/pancreatic secretion

It's a liquid secreted by the pancreas that contains digestive enzymes. These enzymes
help break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the small intestine. Pancreatic juice
contains a variety of enzymes, including:

Amylase: Breaks down starch into simpler sugars.

Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Proteases: (Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase) break down proteins into smaller

peptides and amino acids.

Other Components:

Pancreatic juice also contains bicarbonate, which helps to neutralize the acidic chyme
from the stomach and create an alkaline environment for the enzymes to work effectively.

Function:

The main function of pancreatic juice is to aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats in the small intestine.
The large intestine

• The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine. Also known as the “colon” or
“the large bowel”. It is the final part of the digestive tract, where water and
electrolytes are absorbed from undigested food, and the rest of the material is
removed from the body via the anus as stool. The exit of stool is regulated by the
anal sphincter.
Biliary System/Biliary Tract

It is a network of organs and ducts responsible for producing, storing, and transporting
bile from the liver to the duodenum (initial part of small intestine). It includes the liver,
gallbladder, and bile ducts. Bile, a digestive fluid, is secreted by the liver and helps break
down fats in the small intestine.

Key Components:
• Liver: Produces bile.
• Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile between meals.

• Bile Ducts: A network of ducts that transport bile from the liver to the gallbladder
and then to the duodenum.

Bile Duct Anatomy:

• Intrahepatic Bile Ducts:
Small ducts within the liver that collect bile from hepatocytes and form the right
and left hepatic ducts.

• Extrahepatic Bile Ducts:

The right and left hepatic ducts merge to form the common hepatic duct, which
joins with the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct.

• Common Bile Duct:

Carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum.
• Hepato-pancreatic Ampulla (Ampulla of Vater):

The point where the common bile duct and pancreatic duct join and empty into
the duodenum.
Bile Flow:
1. Bile is produced by liver cells (hepatocytes) and collected by intrahepatic bile
ducts.
2. The right and left hepatic ducts merge to form the common hepatic duct.
3. The common hepatic duct joins with the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form
the common bile duct.
4. The common bile duct carries bile to the duodenum, where it aids in digestion.
5. Some bile is stored in the gallbladder between meals.
6. During digestion, the gallbladder contracts and releases bile into the duodenum.
Bile
Bile is a greenish-brown, thick substance produced in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder. It is made from water, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids, bile pigments
(such as bilirubin), and electrolytes. It is important in enabling the body to digest and
absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins like vitamins D and K.
Once food has gone through the initial process of digestion in the stomach, it moves
into the first segment of the small intestine. This is where bile and other digestive
secretions continue the digestive process by breaking down food so nutrients can be
absorbed.
Terms
To fully understand how the biliary system works, it’s important to know the definition
of some related medical terms, including the following:
• Duodenum: This is the first of three sections of the small intestine. It receives
food from the stomach and digestive juices from the liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas via the biliary tract. This part of the small intestine is primarily involved
in breaking down food so that nutrients can later be absorbed in the middle
section of the small intestine, called the jejunum.2
• Liver: This large glandular organ performs many vital metabolic functions, such
as the digestion of fats to make energy in the body. The liver cells make bile.
• Bile duct: This is a small, hollow tube that functions to transport bile. The biliary
system is comprised of a system of these ducts, which flow from the liver to the
gallbladder for storage and then into the small intestine (duodenum).3
• Gallbladder: A pear-shaped organ located in front of the duodenum, just
underneath the liver, its gallbladder's main function is to store bile. It connects to
the cystic duct.
• Pancreas: A large gland located behind the stomach, the pancreas secretes
pancreatic enzymes (such as lipase, which breaks down fats) into the biliary
system via the pancreatic duct.
• Gallstone: Abnormal, small, hard masses comprised of bile pigments,
cholesterol, and calcium salts. Gallstones can cause a blockage of bile ducts, a
condition called cholestasis
Bile Flow Through the Biliary System
Bile travels in a controlled manner through the system of ducts and other structures of
the biliary system:5
• Bile is made in the liver cells and flows from the liver into a system of ducts
located inside and outside of the liver. These ducts function to collect the bile.
Once collected, the bile travels to the right and left hepatic ducts.
 • It then flows from the right and left hepatic ducts into the common hepatic
duct, then into the cystic duct, which is connected to the gallbladder.
• From the cystic duct, the bile flows into the common bile duct (CBD). The
common bile duct (CBD) is located where the common hepatic duct and the
cystic duct join. It runs from the liver through the pancreas and into the
duodenum.
• The lower portion of the CBD joins the pancreatic duct before entering the
duodenum. This is where pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes enter
the biliary system.
• Bile is excreted into the duodenum through a muscular opening called
the sphincter of Oddi.
• The sphincter of Oddi relaxes to allow bile to enter the duodenum. Once the bile
enters the duodenum, it begins to break down ingested fats. Only half of the bile
ends up in the duodenum, while the other half travels into the gallbladder
through the common bile duct.
• The bile received by the gallbladder is stored in the gallbladder for future use.
• Once bile is stored in the gallbladder, it isn’t released until a large meal is eaten
and a hormone called cholecystokinin is secreted. This hormone stimulates the
release of bile to begin the process of breaking down fats.

Summary

The biliary system includes the series of ducts and organs that produce, secrete, and
store bile. Bile is a greenish-brown substance that helps break down fats and absorb
nutrients. Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It is released when
you eat a fatty meal.

Gallstones can cause problems in the biliary system when they block bile ducts.
Conditions of the biliary system are usually diagnosed with liver function tests and/or
imaging tests or biopsy.
Dental caries or tooth decay

It causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine.

It begins when bacteria acting on sugars produce acids that softens or demineralizes
the enamel. Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to
form dental plaque.

Saliva cannot reach the tooth surface to neutralise the acid as plaque covers the teeth.
Brushing the teeth after eating removes the plaque before the bacteria produce acids.

If untreated, microorganisms may invade the pulp, causing inflammation and infection.
 Q&A

Q. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-

cellular organisms like humans?

A. Diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-cellular

organisms like humans because diffusion is slow and the body is large and
complex.

Diffusion : The process by which substances move from areas of high

concentration to areas of low concentration is called diffusion.

To meet their oxygen requirements, multicellular organisms have specialized

organs, cells, respiratory pigments and tissues. For example, humans have
hemoglobin in their blood that carries oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the
body. The human body is large, so it takes a long time for oxygen to diffuse to all
the cells. These cells aren't in direct contact with the external environment.
Diffusion is a slow process, so it can't transport oxygen quickly enough to all the
cells.

Q. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

A. To determine whether something is alive, we look for the presence of life

processes, such as movement, respiration, and growth. These processes are
essential indicators of life, even if they are not always visible.

Q. What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?

A. Organisms use outside raw materials like food, oxygen, and water for vital life
processes. These materials are crucial for energy production, digestion, and overall
bodily functions. Plants also utilize carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to
synthesize their food through photosynthesis.

Q. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?

A. Ten essential processes for maintaining life include nutrition, respiration,

transportation, excretion, reproduction, growth, movement, control and
coordination, sensitivity, and metabolism. These processes are vital for an
organism's survival, growth, and reproduction.
Q. What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and
heterotrophic nutrition?

A. Autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition represent distinct ways organisms

obtain energy. Autotrophs, like plants, synthesize their own food from inorganic
substances using light or chemical energy, often through
photosynthesis. Heterotrophs, like animals, obtain their energy by consuming
other organisms or organic matter.

Q. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for

photosynthesis?

A. For photosynthesis, plants get the raw materials like carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through stomata, water from the soil through roots, and sunlight
directly from the sun, which is absorbed by chlorophyll.

(Stomata - small openings on the underside of their leaves)

(Water from the soil through roots is transported to the leaves through the plant's
vascular system, specifically the xylem)

Q. What is the role of the acid in our stomach?

A. The primary role of stomach acid, especially hydrochloric acid (HCl), in the
digestive system is to create an acidic environment that activates digestive
enzymes, particularly pepsin, which breaks down proteins into smaller molecules.
HCl converts the inactive enzyme pepsinogen into its active form, pepsin, which is
essential for protein digestion. In addition to this, the acid kills harmful bacteria
present in the food, preventing potential infections.

Q. What is the function of digestive enzymes?

A. Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the
breaking down of complex food particles into simple ones. These simple particles
can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus transported to all the cells of the
body.
Q. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

A. The small intestine is designed for efficient absorption of digested food due to its
length, internal folds (villi), and presence of blood vessels. The small intestine is
long and coiled, providing a large surface area for absorption. Its inner lining has
millions of tiny, finger-like projections called villi, which further increase the surface
area. These villi are richly supplied with blood vessels that transport the absorbed
food to the rest of the body.
Life Processes:

All living organisms engage in fundamental processes like taking in food (nutrition),
breathing (respiration), moving substances around the body (transportation), getting rid
of waste (excretion), coordinating bodily functions (control and coordination), becoming
bigger and more complex (growth), and creating new individuals (reproduction).

Life processes

• Movement: Living things can move, even if the movement is difficult to see.

• Respiration: Living things use oxygen to oxidize food.

• Growth: Living things grow and develop.

• Reproduction: Living things can reproduce.

• Excretion: Living things eliminate waste products.

• Metabolism: Living things carry out chemical reactions that sustain life.

• Homeostasis: Living things maintain a balance of their internal environment.

• Response to stimuli: Living things react to changes in their environment.

• Adaptability: Living things adapt to their environment to survive.