MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities

First Year Engineering
23ASH1106-Engineering Physics

Class – F.Y. (SEM-II), <10>

Unit – V Photons in Quantum Computing

Dr. Harsh Bhatkar

AY 2023-2024 SEM-II
Introduction to Quantum Computers

- Unleashing the Power of Quantum

Mechanics in Computing
Topic list

Main Topic-1: Limitation of ordinary computers.

Principles of Quantum computing. : Super position and
entanglement. Potential application of quantum
computing.
Main Topic-2: Single Quantum bit (qubit), Multiple
qubits, Quantum gates
Main Topic-3: Optical photon quantum computer
1) What is Quantum Computing? (Classical ?)
2) Why Quantum Computing? (Motivation)
3) Quantum Superposition
4) Quantum Entanglement

1) Quantum Bits: Classical vs Quantum

2) example Quantum Gates
3) Challenges in Quantum Computing
4) Applications of Quantum Computing

1) Case Study : Optical Photon Quantum

Computer
What is Quantum Computing?

Quantum computing – utilizes the principles of quantum mechanics to

perform certain types of computations more efficiently than classical
computers. Unlike classical computers that use bits (binary digits) to
represent information as 0s or 1s, quantum computers use quantum bits
or qubits.

Quantum computing – uses specialized technology—including computer

hardware and algorithms that take advantage of quantum
mechanics—to solve complex problems that classical computers or
supercomputers can’t solve, or can’t solve quickly enough.
 “I think I can safely say that nobody understands
quantum mechanics” - Feynman
 1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating
machines based on the laws of quantum mechanics
instead of the laws of classical physics.

“Nature isn't classical, dammit, and if you want to make a

simulation of nature, you'd better make it quantum
mechanical, and by golly it's a wonderful problem, because it
doesn't look so easy.” A famous proclamation by Richard
Feynman underscores the necessity of quantum computers

David Deutsch developed the quantum

turing machine, showing that quantum Lov Grover develops a quantum search
circuits are universal. algorithm with O(√N) complexity

1994

1985 1997

Peter Shor came up with a quantum

algorithm to factor very large numbers in
polynomial time.
What is happening with computer
technology?
Moore’s Law (Observation): the number of transistors in an
integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years. Moore's
law is an observation and projection of a historical trend. Rather
than a law of physics, it is an empirical relationship linked to
gains from experience in production.

Gordon Moore wrote his seminal

1965 paper while working at
Fairchild Semiconductor. Just three
years later, he and colleague
Robert Noyce left to cofound Intel
 What is difference between
entanglement and superposition?

Quantum entanglement
Superposition

1. Entanglement includes the

1. Superposition includes the
interchange of quantum
uncertainty of one particle being
information between two
in multiple states.
particles.
2. In quantum computing,
2. Entanglement is the ability of the
superposition is described as the
quantum particles to associate
ability of a quantum particle to be
their calculated results with each
the combination of all possible
other.
states.
3. It is usually non-local ( Distant)
3. It is a local property in case of Qbits.
interaction.

https://toutestquantique.fr/en/superposition/
https://youtu.be/qCmtegdqOOA?si=iLOt_a28wqwufEBQ
Why Quantum Computing?

• Discussion on the limitations of classical computers in solving

complex problems.
• -quantum computers excel at solving certain problems
exponentially faster due to their quantum parallelism.
• Computation as a simulation of the real world
- it is quantum mechanical ultimately, so – natural need to
create quantum-based simulations… and that is only possible if
computing unit itself is quantum mechanical – thus need for
quantum computing is established.
Quantum vs Classical
Bloch sphere
Bloch sphere is a geometrical representation of
the pure state space of a two-level quantum
mechanical system (qubit), named after the
physicist Felix Bloch.

A pure state ψ of a two-level quantum system

can be written as a superposition of the basis
vectors |0 and |1 , where the coefficient of
(or contribution from) each of the two basis
vectors is a complex number and can be
seen as projection on Z axis.
The phase of between these two state-vectors
is represented by phi angle.
Representation of Data - Qubits

A physical
A bit of data is
implementation of a qubit
represented by a single
could use the two energy
atom that is in one of two
levels of an atom. An
states denoted by |0>
excited state representing
and |1>. A single bit of
|1> and a ground state
this form is known as a
representing |0>.
qubit

Light pulse of
frequency  for
Excited time interval t
State

Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0> State |1>
 Representation of Data - Superposition
A single qubit can be forced into a superposition of the two states
denoted by the addition of the state vectors:

|> = 1 |0> + 2 |1>

Where 1 and 2 are complex numbers and | 12| + | 12| = 1

A qubit in superposition is in both the

states |1> and |0 at the same time

In Matrix representation the pure states are written as:

1  0
0    1   
0 1
Representation of Data - Superposition
Light pulse of frequency 
for time interval t/2

State |0> State |0> + |1>

 Data Retrieval

 In general, an n qubit register can represent the numbers 0

through 2^n-1 simultaneously.

If we attempt to retrieve the values represented within a

superposition, the superposition randomly collapses to
represent just one of the original values.

In our equation: |> =  1 |0> +  2 |1> ,  1 represents the

probability of the superposition collapsing to |0>. The ’s
are called probability amplitudes. In a balanced
superposition,  = 1/√2 where n is the number of qubits.
Quantum Superposition

 Quantum Superposition
• Delve deeper into superposition, explaining the
mathematical representation of qubits using Dirac notation
and other diagrams
• Use examples to illustrate the concept of qubits existing in
multiple states simultaneously.
Quantum
Entanglement

• Explore the concept of

entanglement with Alice
and Bob experiment.
• Entangled qubits are
correlated, and the
measurement of one
qubit instantaneously
determines the state of
the other.
 When two particles, such as a pair of photons or
electrons, become entangled, they remain
connected even when separated by vast distances.
 Entanglement is a property of more than one qubits.
 Multiple qubits are first prepared to be in a collective
superposition state such as spin up+ spin down.
 We don’t know individual spin orientations, but we
know together the are opposite spins
 Take the qubits far apart….
 Measuring one’s state will also force the other to
reveal its state! correlated measurement!
• Quantum gates as mathematical operations that transform
qubits.
• Discuss the Hadamard gate and CNOT gate as fundamental
building blocks of quantum circuits.
• Student activity : Online simulator activity/ homework/
class activity.
Operations on Qubits - Reversible Logic

Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of

information in a gate will cause heat to be evolved which can
destroy the superposition of qubits.

Ex.
Input Output
The AND Gate In these 3 cases,
A B C information is
0 0 0 being destroyed
A
0 1 0
C
B 1 0 0
1 1 1

This type of gate cannot be used.

We must use Quantum Gates.
Quantum Gates

 Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have

outputs that are identical for distinct inputs. i.e. their original
input state can be derived from their output state, uniquely.
They must be reversible.

This means that a deterministic computation can be

performed on a quantum computer only if it is reversible.
Luckily, it has been shown that any deterministic computation
can be made reversible.(Charles Bennet, 1973)
Quantum Gate example
– Hadamard Gate
Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a
Hadamard Gate (also known as a square-root of NOT
gate.) Used to put qubits into superposition.

H H

State State State

|0> |0> + |1> |1>

Note: Two Hadamard gates used in

succession can be used as a NOT gate
Quantum Gates - Controlled NOT

A gate which operates on two qubits is called a

Controlled-NOT (CN) Gate. If the bit on the control line
is 1, invert the bit on the target line.

Input Output

A - Target A’ A B A’ B’
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
B- B’ 1 0 1 0
Control
1 1 0 1

Note: The CN gate has a similar

behavior to the XOR gate with some
extra information to make it reversible.
Identity

NOT
Gates on Bloch
Sphere:

The state vector is

rotated according to
the operation of each
gate.
 Some examples of
Quantum Gates and their
matrix representation

An example showing
how to workout a
circuit diagram with its
matrix operations to
find output
Example Operation - Multiplication By 2

 We can build a reversible logic circuit to calculate

multiplication by 2 using CN gates arranged in the
following manner:

Input Output
Carry Ones Carry Ones
Bit Bit Bit Bit
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0

0 Carry Bit

Ones Bit
H
https://quantum.ibm.com/composer/
Quantum Circuits

• Various quantum circuits are constructed using quantum

gates to perform the mathematical operations in the
algorithms.
• The operations done by each quantum circuit is of a
particular mathematical feature called the unitary
transformations. This preserves the reversible-ness and
other essential properties of the qubits such as
normalization, orthogonality etc.
Quantum Algorithms
(Optional)
• Dive into notable quantum algorithms:
• Shor's algorithm for integer factorization.
• Grover's algorithm for unstructured search.
• Explain the quantum speedup achieved by these
algorithms.
Challenges in Quantum
Computing
• Discuss challenges such as decoherence and noise affecting
qubits.
• Highlight the difficulty of maintaining quantum coherence
for extended periods.
• Hardware issues – materials, cryogenics, scaling, etc
 Quantum coherence is
destroyed by smallest of
disturbances.

 Simple interaction with

neighboring atoms can
collapse a well-prepared
qubit state prematurely.

 Inherently, the entangled

states may be unstable with
time evolution. Slowly the
prepared quantum state will
degrade to other states.

 Most difficulty is in maintaing

the conditions where all noise,
disturbances and random
interactions are minimized –
at ultra low temperatures and
ultra high vacuum.
manifestation of
Quantum Computation

Conditions for Q-computation:

 1) Robustly represent quantum
information – convenient physical
method (e.g. two level systems)

 2) Perform universal family of

operations (unitary transformations)

 3) Prepare a suitable (fiducial)

quantum state to start

 4) Measure the output result

Optical Photon
Quantum Computation

Conditions for Q-computation:

 1) Robustly represent quantum
information: single photon modes or
polarization modes

 2) Unitary transformation: Phase

shifter/ beam splitters/ nonlinear Kerr
media etc.

 3) Prepare an initial quantum state:

create single photon state (
attenuated LASER light)
 4) Readout: Detect Single photons (
Photomultiplier Tube/ Single Photon
detectors)
Manifestation of QC

 Student activity
 – come with list of QC s of Google- Microsoft, etc
etc.. – PsiQuantum, Australian.. Chinese etc..
 Present on following QCs
 Optical photon QC
 Ion trap QC
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance QC
 Photonic chip based QC
 Any other
10 Applications of Quantum
1.Artificial intelligence
Computing
2.Better batteries
3.Cleaner fertilization
4.Cybersecurity
5.Drug development
6.Electronic materials discovery
7.Financial modelling
8.Solar capture
9.Traffic optimization
10.Weather forecasting and
climate change
Photonic Quantum Computing

 State of the art: Photonic chips – Videos of

Xanadu and PsiQuantum
 Student activity
Quantum Error Correction
(Optional)
• Introduce the concept of quantum error correction.
• Discuss the need for error correction in quantum computers
and mention error correction codes like the surface code.
Quantum Supremacy
(Optional)
• Define quantum supremacy as the point where a quantum
computer can outperform the most powerful classical
supercomputers.
• Discuss Google's claim of achieving quantum supremacy in
2019.
 Questions:
1) Explain the difference between a classical bit and a qubit.
2) What does it mean- that the quantum computing logic is probabilistic?
Describe with an example of a two-level atomic system.
3) Describe in simple terms, what is quantum entanglement?
4) Compare the concepts of quantum superposition and entanglement.
5) Draw circuit symbol of a Controlled NOT gate, state its matrix representation.
6) Describe the working of a Controlled NOT gate with a truth table.
7) Draw the circuit symbol of a Hadamard gate, state its matrix representation.
8) Describe how output of Hadamard gate depends on when the measurement
is done, (i.e. importance of order of operations.) in sequential operation of
Hadamard gates.
9) Describe Hadamard Gate operations with help of Bloch spheres.
10) Explain the output when two Hadamard gates are used in sequence.
11) Draw a labeled sketch of System in a chip version of Photonic quantum
computer module.
12) List four challenges to realize a practical quantum computer.
13) List four potential applications of quantum computing with a short description.