PHYSICS FOR YOU Dr.

Nagaraja D 1

Chapter – 14
Oscillations
14.1 Introduction

Our world is filled with oscillations in which objects move back and forth repeatedly. Some
examples for oscillations are

 The vibration of strings of guitar,

 Movement of the fluid in a U-tube column
 To and fro motion of pendulum
 Floating of ships in the sea.
 Windows vibrate when a heavy truck moves nearby
 A child in a swing
 The cone inside a speaker
 Atoms in a crystal
 Heart beats

The study and control of oscillations are two of the primary goals of both physics and engineering.
Some of the basic terminologies associated with the oscillatory motion (or simply oscillation) are
time period, displacement, frequency, amplitude and phase. These are discussed in detail as below

14.2 Periodic and oscillatory motion:

An event is said to be periodic if it is repeating itself in regular intervals of time. For ex, your class
period, seasons occurring are periodic, day and night is periodic, breathing is periodic, heart beat
is periodic. (Think of many more such examples!!)

If the motion is repeated in equal intervals of time then it is Periodic motion.

Ex: rotation of earth, motion of electrons around the nucleus, rotation of car wheel, bouncing ball,
pendulum in wall clock, vibrating string etc.

An oscillatory motion is one in which the rigid body moves back and forth between two points.

Ex: simple pendulum in wall clock, strings in musical instruments, a spring attached with load etc,
bouncing of a ping pong ball when dropped on the solid floor

When the body stops oscillation due to external oppositions like friction and resistance it comes to
rest at a common position. This position is known as equilibrium position.

There is hardly any difference between oscillation and vibration. If the movement takes place at low
frequencies the object is said to be oscillating and at higher frequencies it is vibrating!!. Movement
of leaves in a tree is oscillations, strings in guitar- vibration
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Time period (T) and Frequency (f):

Time taken by the body for one complete oscillation is known as time period (T). The SI unit is second
The number of oscillations produced by the body in one second is known as frequency (f). The SI unit
is hertz (Hz)

The relation between T and f is

1
𝑓=
𝑇

Displacement:

The position of the body changes with respect to its equilibrium

position. The distance traveled by it from the equilibrium position in given interval of time is known
as displacement. Its SI unit is meter. It can be positive or negative.

In the above fig O is the initial (or equilibrium) position of the pendulum and P is the position after t
second, x is the displacement.

The graphs of displacement v/s time in different types of periodic motion are as follows. All of them
represent periodic motions but Fig (iv) represents a special type of motion called simple harmonic
motion

14.3 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

Introduction

During oscillation if the displacement of a body is sinusoidal function of time then it is called
simple harmonic motion (SHM) During oscillation the restoring force pulls (restore) the body
towards equilibrium position.

Ex: Oscillations of pendulum, Vertical oscillations of mass attached to a spring, The motion of
piston of a cylinder (suspension system), Movement of the fluid in a U-tube column etc
Displacement in SHM is represented by
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
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Where A,  and  are the quantities having definite meaning

A graph of displacement x(t) at different time intervals is as follows

Amplitude (A)

The maximum displacement of the body from its equilibrium position is known as amplitude. Its SI
unit is meter (m)

Phase and phase constant (or epoch)

Phase of an oscillator determines its position and direction of motion at a particular instant of time.
It tells about the state of vibration. It is expressed in terms of fraction of time period.

In the above fig, oscillator at position 1 and 5 are vibrating in the same sense (upward). Hence they
are in phase. They are separated by a time gap of T. similarly 2 and 6 are in phase, 3 and 7 are in
phase. But position 1 and 3 correspond to out of phase and the time gap is T/2.

Epoch: One can start measuring the oscillation from a fixed position (standard position) or from
some arbitrary position. This arbitrary position may be  ahead or behind the fixed position. This
initial phase is known as phase constant or Epoch. Epoch is slightly different from phase. Phase
continuously changes whereas epoch remains same all through.

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) With respect to some arbitrary position

In the above equation (t + ) is known as phase of the motion and  is known as phase constant or
epoch
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡) with respect to fixed position
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Angular frequency ()

The frequency with which the body is vibrating is known as angular frequency. Its SI unit is
rad/s. It is given by
2𝜋
𝜔= where T is time period
𝑇
Amplitude, angular frequency, phase and phase constant are the characteristics of SHM. In SHM it is
possible to have

i. Different amplitudes with same  and  (fig i)

ii. Different  with same A and  (fig.ii)
iii. Different  with same A and  (fig.iii)
iv.

14.4 Simple harmonic motion and Uniform circular motion

In 1610 Galileo discovered four moons of Jupiter. Each moon seemed to move back and forth (we
would call it as simple harmonic motion). What was Galileo really seeing? He was seeing the
essentially uniform circular motion of each moon, but he was looking at the motion edge-on. So,
we can say, “Uniform circular motion of a body is equivalent to SHM”. As the particle moves
along the circular track its projection on x-axis executes SHM. It can be proved as follows.

Consider a particle P moving in a circular orbit of radius A with

angular velocity . Let it make certain initial angle  with +x-axis.
After t second it moves to P/ by covering an extra angle t so that the
total angle is (t + ). OX is the projection on x- axis. From triangle
OXP/ we get
𝑂𝑋
cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) =
𝑂𝑃/
Put OX = x(t) and OP/ = A
𝑥(𝑡)
cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) =
𝐴
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
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This is the equation for SHM. Similarly, we can show that the projection on y-axis is also SHM
and the displacement along y-axis is given by
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

14.5 Velocity and acceleration in SHM

The oscillating body has velocity v and acceleration a during the oscillation. They are calculated
as follows
The SHM is represented by
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
For the sake of simplification let us assume that the initial phase is zero (ie  = 0 ). Then
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) − − − (1)
Differentiate the equation (1) w.r.t t
𝑑𝑦
= 𝐴𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
But = 𝑣 velocity
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 − − − (2)
This is the expression for velocity of the body at any instant of time t. v is maximum (A) at
equilibrium position and minimum (zero) at extreme positions

Differentiate the equation (2) w.r.t t

𝑑𝑣
= −𝐴𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
But = 𝑎 acceleration
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑎 = −𝐴𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − (3)
or 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦

Acceleration is maximum (A2) at extreme positions and minimum at equilibrium position

A graph of y (displacement), v (velocity) and a (acceleration) is as follows
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14.6 Force law for SHM and expression for angular frequency

When a body is oscillating it experiences an inward pulling force or a force acing towards its
equilibrium position. It is called restoring force.

The force which always tries restore the position of the oscillating body to its equilibrium position
is known as restoring force. It is directly proportional to displacement and acting in the opposite
direction. This is also known as Hookes’ law. It is given by
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦 where k is a constant called spring constant
But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ∴ 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑦
Put 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦 𝑚(−𝜔2 𝑦) = −𝑘𝑦
𝑘
𝜔2 =
𝑚

𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚

This is the expression for angular frequency. It is also called as natural frequency of the oscillation.

14.7 Energy in SHM

An oscillating body possess both KE and PE. KE is given by
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝐴𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡)2
2
1
𝐾𝐸 = (𝑚𝜔2 )𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
2
put 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 − − − (1)
2
According to this equation KE is periodic and its period is T/2
PE is given by
1
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝑦 2
2
1
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘(𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡)2
2
1
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 − − − (2)
2
According to this equation PE is periodic and its period is T/2
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The total energy is the sum of KE and PE.

𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
1 1
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
2 2
1
𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴2
2

As the body moves from extreme position to equilibrium position its energy changes from PE to KE and
vice versa. KE is maximum at equilibrium position and PE is maximum at extreme positions. A graph of
KE and PE is as follows

Characteristics of SHM

(i) In SHM, acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its displacement, and
directed towards the mean position.
(ii) Velocity is maximum at the equilibrium position and zero at the maximum positions
(iii) Acceleration is maximum at extreme positions and zero at the equilibrium position
(iv) SHM can be represented by a single harmonic function of sine or cosine.
(v) Total energy of the particle executing SHM remains conserved.
(vi) SHM is a periodic motion.
(vii) The maximum displacement on either side of the equilibrium position is known as
amplitude
(viii) Time period (T): It is the time taken for one complete oscillation. The reciprocal of
time period is frequency

14.8 Some examples for SHM

Oscillation due to spring

The simplest example for mechanical SHM is a block attached to spring executing oscillations.
The block and the spring are placed on a smooth frictionless horizontal surface. One end of the
spring is attached to a rigid supporter and the other end is attached with block.

The block is initially at x = 0. If we pull the block to position A it oscillates front and back between
A and – A about its initial (equilibrium) position. By neglecting all damping factors the net force
on the oscillator can be described by Hookes’ law
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𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦
Where k is known as force constant or stiffness constant or spring constant
The frequency of the oscillations is given by

1 𝑘
𝜔 = √𝑘⁄𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = √
2𝜋 𝑚

And the time period of oscillation is

T= 2𝜋√𝑚⁄𝑘

Simple Pendulum

Simple pendulum is another familiar example for SHM. It consists of a long mass less string whose
one end is fixed at rigid support and the other end is attached with a bob of mass m.

Initially the bob will be at rest at its equilibrium position (O). When the bob is pulled to one side
and released it oscillates between two positions X and Y.

At position Y the bob experiences two forces namely tension T in the string and weight W. W is
resolved into two components mg cos  & mg sin  as shown in fig.
The restoring force acting towards O is mg sin 
𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 − − − (1)
If  is very small then sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
∴ 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃 − − − (2)
𝑥
In OO/Y, 𝜃=𝐿
Eq (2) becomes
−𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝐹= − − − (3)
𝐿
Put F = ma, we get
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−𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝑚𝑎 =
𝐿
Put a = -2x and simplify
−𝑔𝑥
−𝜔2 𝑥 =
𝐿
𝑔
𝜔2 =
𝐿
𝑔
𝜔=√
𝐿
2𝜋 𝑔
=√
𝑇 𝐿

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

This is the expression for time period (T) of simple pendulum.

Alternate method:
If L is the length of the string then resorting torque is
𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝐿 = −𝑚𝑔 L sin 𝜃 − − − (1)
Torque is also given in terms of moment of inertia I and angular acceleration  as
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 − − − (2)
∴ 𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 L sin 𝜃
If  is very small then sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔 L 𝜃 − − − (3)
But 𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜃
−𝜔2 𝜃𝐼 = −𝑚𝑔 L 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔2 =
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔=√
𝐼

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚𝑔𝐿
Put 𝐼 = 𝑚𝐿2
𝑚𝐿2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚𝑔𝐿
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𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

Based on the amplitude of vibration, SHM can be classified into three types namely
 Free oscillations
 Damped oscillations
 Forced oscillations

Free oscillations:

If there are no oppositions to the oscillation then the body continues to oscillate for infinite time
without decrease in amplitude. Such oscillations are called free oscillations. The body oscillates
with natural frequency. Free oscillation is given by

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Ex: By neglecting air resistance and friction one can take simple pendulum and load attached to a
spring as examples for free oscillations

14.9 damped oscillations (NOT IN THE SYLLABUS)

Under ideal conditions a body executing SHM has constant amplitude. But in all practical cases
vibrating system experiences a resistance force or damping force from the surrounding and hence
amplitude decays. Forces like friction, viscosity or air drag oppose the motion. Now the oscillation
is said to be damped.

Oscillations in which amplitude decreases due to damping forces are called damped oscillations.

Ex: pendulum oscillating in air, pendulum oscillating in liquid medium, shock absorbers in
vehicles, A swing left free to oscillate after being pushed once etc
In damped oscillations energy is dissipated to the surrounding in the form of heat

Theory of damped oscillation

When a body executes damped oscillations, it is subjected to two forces. They are
i) A restoring force, Fr = -ky, where k is force constant and y is the displacement.
𝑑𝑦
ii) A damping force, given by 𝐹𝑓 = −𝑏 𝑑𝑡 where ‘b’ is damping coefficient

The total force acting on the body is

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑓
𝑑𝑦
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑟 − − − (1)
𝑑𝑡
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According to Newton’s 2nd law

𝑑2𝑦
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡 2
From eqns (1) and (2) we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
−𝑘𝑦 − 𝑟 =𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 +𝑟 + 𝑘𝑦 = 0 − − − (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
From eq (3) we can show that
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡⁄2𝑚 sin(𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜑)
According to this equation amplitude of damped oscillations decreases periodically. A graph of
y v/s t is as follows

The frequency of oscillation is /. It is given by

𝑏 2
𝜔 = √𝜔 2 − (
′
)
2𝑚
Energy is given by
1
𝐸 = 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡⁄𝑚
2
14.10 Forced Oscillations and resonance (NOT IN THE SYLLABUS)

The amplitude of the oscillation decreases due to external damping force. When external periodic
force is applied the body will oscillate with constant amplitude. These oscillations are called
Forced Oscillations.

Examples:
i) Vibrations of a bridge under the influence of marching soldiers.
ii) Vibrations of a tuning fork when exposed to the periodic force of sound waves.
iii) The motion of diaphragm in a telephone receiver or a loud speaker and etc...

There are three forces acting during forced oscillations. They are

i) a restoring force (-ky)

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𝑑𝑦
ii) a frictional force (−𝑟 𝑑𝑡 ) and

iii) the external periodic force represented by F0 sin(d t)

where F0 is the maximum force and ‘d ’ is angular frequency of applied periodic force.

Therefore net force F is

𝑑𝑦
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑏 + 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 (1)
𝑑𝑡
But, by Newton’s II law
𝑑2𝑦
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 2 (2)
𝑑𝑡
From eqns (1) and (2) we get
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2
= −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑏 + 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑦 = 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − − − (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

This is the equation for forced oscillations. From this equation we can show that

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)

Where ‘A’ is steady state amplitude

𝐹0
𝐴= − − − (4)
√𝑚2 (𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑2 )2 + 4𝑏 2 𝜔𝑑2
For small damping b can be neglected. Hence
𝐹0
𝐴=
𝑚(𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑2 )

If the driving frequency is very close to natural frequency ie d = , then Eq (4) becomes
𝐹0 𝐹0
𝐴= =
√𝑚2 × 0 + 4𝑏 2 𝜔𝑑2 √4𝑏 2 𝜔𝑑2
𝐹0
− − − (5)
2𝑏𝜔𝑑
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According to this equation amplitude is maximum. A graph of amplitude v/s driving frequency is
as follows

A becomes maximum when d = ,. This is known as resonance

The phenomena of matching of driving frequency and natural frequency and hence amplitude
becomes maximum is known as resonance

We see many examples for resonance in our daily life. Some of them are here

i. In musical instruments (like veena, guitar etc) hallow cavity is provided. When sound
enters this doom air inside starts vibrating, resonance occurs and amplitude increases
ii. While crossing the bridge soldiers break the steps because the sound produced by their
footsteps set the bridge in resonance oscillation and bridge may collapse
iii. Windows vibrate when a heavy truck moves near our buildings. This is due to
resonance
iv. Resonance concept is used in LCR circuit (you will study in II PUC)