UNIT-III

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION OVERVIEW:

Syllabus: Satellite Orbits, Satellite communication systems, Satellite subsystems, Ground Stations
Satellite Applications, Global Positioning systems

Satellite orbits refer to the paths that satellites follow as they move around celestial bodies, like Earth,
under the influence of gravity. There are different types of satellite orbits, each suited for specific
purposes based on altitude, purpose, and velocity.

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO):

1. Altitude Range: Between 160 km and 2,000 km above Earth’s surface.

2. Orbital Period: Typically 90 to 120 minutes to complete one orbit.
3. Speed: Satellites in LEO travel at high speeds (~7.8 km/s).
4. Uses: Ideal for Earth observation, scientific research, weather satellites, and communication
satellites (including CubeSats).
5. Atmospheric Drag: Satellites experience atmospheric drag, requiring occasional altitude
boosts.
6. Coverage Area: Limited coverage; needs a constellation of satellites for global coverage.
7. Latency: Low latency for communication, ideal for real-time applications.
8. Cost: Generally cheaper to launch and maintain than GEO satellites.
9. Orbital Decay: Satellites in LEO are more susceptible to orbital decay due to atmospheric
resistance.
10. Applications: Includes satellites like the International Space Station (ISS), Starlink (for
internet), and many weather monitoring satellites.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):

1. Altitude Range: Between 2,000 km and 35,786 km above Earth.

2. Orbital Period: Typically several hours (about 12 hours).
3. Speed: Slower than LEO but faster than GEO satellites.
4. Uses: Primarily used for global navigation systems (e.g., GPS, Galileo, GLONASS).
5. Coverage Area: Provides better global coverage compared to LEO, but fewer satellites are
needed than in LEO.
6. Reliability: Less affected by atmospheric drag, providing more stable orbits.
7. Satellite Lifespan: Longer operational life compared to LEO satellites.
8. Latency: Moderate latency, higher than LEO but lower than GEO.
9. Applications: Used in navigation, timing, and positioning systems.
10. Challenges: Can require more ground stations and higher power for communication with
Earth.

3. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO):

 1. Altitude: Fixed at about 35,786 km above the equator.
2. Orbital Period: Exactly 24 hours, matching Earth’s rotation.
3. Fixed Position: Satellites appear stationary relative to a specific location on Earth's surface.
4. Uses: Mainly for communication (TV broadcasting, internet), weather satellites, and military
applications.
5. Coverage Area: Provides continuous coverage over a specific area, often a large portion of
Earth.
6. Power Requirements: Requires large solar arrays due to the distance from Earth.
7. Latency: Higher latency due to the long distance from Earth (~250 ms).
8. Reliability: Stable orbit, ideal for applications that need continuous service.
9. Orbital Slot: Requires careful coordination to avoid interference with other satellites in GEO.
10. Applications: Used for weather monitoring (e.g., GOES satellites) and communication (e.g.,
Intelsat, Direct TV).

Some definition

i) Apogee:

 Definition: Apogee is the point in an elliptical orbit where the satellite is farthest from the
central body (usually Earth). For Earth-bound satellites, this would be the farthest point in the
orbit relative to the Earth.
 Significance: At apogee, the satellite has the lowest speed in its orbit because gravitational
force is weakest here.
 Formula: The distance to the center of the Earth at apogee is greater than at perigee,
depending on the orbit’s eccentricity.

ii) Perigee:

 Definition: Perigee is the point in an elliptical orbit where the satellite is closest to the central
body (Earth).
 Significance: At perigee, the satellite has the highest speed in its orbit, as it is closest to Earth
and the gravitational force is strongest.
 Formula: The distance to the center of the Earth at perigee is shorter than at apogee, again
depending on the orbit's eccentricity.

iii) Line of Apsides:

 Definition: The line of apsides is an imaginary straight line that connects the apogee and
perigee points of an elliptical orbit.
 Significance: This line defines the orientation of the ellipse and is key for understanding how
the satellite moves through its orbit.
 Application: In highly elliptical orbits, the line of apsides helps describe the elliptical shape
and orientation relative to Earth.

iv) Eccentricity:
  Definition: Eccentricity is a measure of how much an orbit deviates from being a perfect
circle. It is a ratio of the distance between the two foci of the ellipse to the length of the major
axis.
 Range: Eccentricity ranges from 0 (a perfect circle) to 1 (a highly elongated ellipse). A higher
eccentricity means a more elongated orbit.
 Significance: Eccentricity helps define how elongated or circular the satellite's orbit is. A
satellite with high eccentricity will experience significant variations in speed and altitude,
while a satellite with low eccentricity will have a nearly circular orbit.

What is satellite? Explain satellite communication system

 An object revolves around celestial body (the sun, earth etc) is known as a satellite. There are
two major types of categorization when it comes down to satellites, one is natural and the
other is man-made.
 Some examples of natural satellites are planets, moons, and comets. Jupiter has 67 natural
satellites. The earth has one permanent natural satellite, the moon we know, which causes the
tides in the sea. Sometimes other objects (like asteroids) can enter into temporary orbits of the
earth and become a natural satellite for a span.
 In satellite communication, the artificial satellite in the orbit of the earth acts as a relay station.
It receives signals from one location on the earth and retransmits them to another location on
the earth. Some most common examples of satellite communication include GPS navigation
and remote internet access.

It comprises the following main components −

 Transmitter (Transmitting Earth Station) − It is a device located at a point on the earth
and it sends information signals to the satellite.

Uplink:

The uplink is the transmission of data from a ground station or device to a satellite in space. It
typically involves powerful radio waves sent through a high-gain antenna. Uplinks are crucial for
sending signals, such as TV broadcasts, internet data, or phone calls, to satellites. Frequencies for
uplinks often range from 1.7 GHz to 30 GHz (e.g., Ku-band: 12–18 GHz, Ka-band: 27–40 GHz).
The ground station sends data to a satellite in a fixed or low Earth orbit. The uplink requires a high-
powered transmitter to cover the vast distance to the satellite. This process is essential for satellite
communication systems.

 Satellite Transponder (Satellite) − It is a device located on the communication satellite in

the space. It receives information signals from the earth station, amplify and retransmits them to
another location on the earth. A transponder is a key component on satellites, responsible for
receiving, amplifying, and transmitting signals. It typically receives uplinked signals from Earth
stations and processes them. The transponder shifts the frequency of the received signal for
downlinking, preventing interference with the uplink signal. Transponder frequencies vary but
common downlink frequencies are 10.7–12.7 GHz (C-band), 12–18 GHz (Ku-band), and 17.7–21.2
GHz (Ka-band). It amplifies the signal so that it can travel back to Earth over long distances.
Multiple transponders can operate on a satellite at the same time, each on different frequencies. The
transponder ensures data integrity and reliable communication.

 Receiver (Receiving Earth Station) − It is the destination device in the satellite

communication, located on the earth. It captures the retransmitted data from the satellite and process
them.

 Downlink:
The downlink is the transmission of data from a satellite back to Earth, either to a ground station or a
user terminal. After receiving data via uplink, the satellite processes and sends it back down using its
transponder. Downlinked data includes internet traffic, TV signals, or communication data. Downlink
frequencies typically range from 1 GHz to 50 GHz, with common ranges being 3.7–4.2 GHz (C-
band), 11.7–12.2 GHz (Ku-band), and 17.7–21.2 GHz (Ka-band). A dish or antenna on Earth
receives the downlinked signal, which is then decoded for use. The downlink ensures information is
efficiently sent back to Earth for user consumption.

Working of Satellite Communication

Satellite communication completes its process of information transmission between two locations on
the earth in the following three simple steps −

Step 1 − First of all, a device or station on the earth sends information signals to the
communication satellite in the space. This process is called uplinking.
Step 2 − The satellite transponder processes the uplinked signals to amplify them.
Step 3 − The processed signals are retransmitted by the satellite transponder back to a device or
station at another location on the earth. This process is called downlinking.

In satellite communication, the Space Segment and Earth Segment (or Ground Segment) are two
major components that together form the complete satellite communication system.

Space Segment Subsystems:

The space segment refers to the satellites themselves and everything that is onboard the satellite. It
includes the systems that enable the satellite to carry out its mission while in orbit.

1. Communication Subsystem (within Space Segment):

o Transponders: These are responsible for receiving signals from Earth, amplifying
them, and then retransmitting them back to Earth.
o Antennas: Various antennas on the satellite send and receive signals from Earth
stations or other satellites.
o Amplifiers: These boost the signal strength to maintain clear and reliable
communication.
o Modulators/Demodulators: These convert the signals into a format that can be
transmitted over radio frequencies and vice versa.
2. Power Subsystem:
o Solar Panels: Provide energy by converting sunlight into electrical power.
o Batteries: Store power generated by the solar panels to keep the satellite operational
when in the Earth’s shadow.
o Power Distribution Unit (PDU): Distributes power to various subsystems onboard
the satellite.
3. Thermal Subsystem:
o Thermal Insulation: Protects the satellite from extreme temperature variations in
space.
o Heat Pipes/Radiators: Regulate the satellite's internal temperature by conducting and
radiating heat to maintain operational temperatures.
4. Attitude and Orbit Control Subsystem (AOCS):
o Gyroscopes: Measure the satellite's orientation and angular velocity.
o Reaction Wheels: Adjust the satellite's attitude (orientation) without using fuel.
o Thrusters: Used for fine-tuning the satellite's orientation and maintaining orbit.
o Star Trackers: Help to determine the satellite’s position in space with precision.
5. Propulsion Subsystem:
o Main Propulsion: Used to launch the satellite into orbit and adjust its orbit during its
mission.
o Thrusters: Smaller propulsion units used for maintaining position, attitude control,
and small orbital adjustments.
o Fuel: Propellant used for various maneuvers and orbital changes.
6. Structure Subsystem:
o Satellite Frame: The structural foundation that holds all components and subsystems
together.
 oDeployable Structures: Parts such as solar panels, antennas, and radiators that fold
during launch and deploy once the satellite is in orbit.
7. Payload Subsystem:
o Payload Equipment: This is the mission-specific equipment, such as sensors,
cameras, transponders, or communication equipment, depending on the satellite’s
purpose (e.g., Earth observation, communication, scientific data collection).
o Data Storage: Temporarily stores collected data before transmitting it to Earth.
8. Onboard Data Handling Subsystem (OBDH):
o CPU (Central Processing Unit): Acts as the "brain" of the satellite, managing all
commands and communication.
o Memory: Stores data, commands, and mission parameters.
o Data Bus: Enables data transfer between subsystems on the satellite.

Earth Segment Subsystems:

The Earth segment includes the ground-based infrastructure that interacts with the satellite. It
comprises all the stations, networks, and systems that enable control, monitoring, and communication
with the satellite.

1. Earth Stations:
o Transmitters and Receivers: Ground-based stations that send and receive signals
to/from the satellite. These stations are equipped with large antennas (often dish-
shaped) to ensure strong signal reception and transmission.
o Tracking and Control Stations: These stations continuously monitor the satellite's
position, status, and health, ensuring it's operating properly and within the correct
orbital parameters.
2. Hub Stations (Ground Segment):
o Centralized Communication Centers: These stations are responsible for managing
communication and data routing between satellites and Earth-based networks (like
telecommunications, internet, etc.).
o Signal Processing: Hub stations process the signals received from satellites and
distribute them to their final destinations.
3. Tracking and Telemetry Stations:
o Telemetry Data: These stations receive and monitor data sent back from the satellite,
including health and status information, and send it to mission control.
o Tracking: Ensure the satellite's position is accurately tracked in orbit to facilitate
communication and orbital corrections.
4. User Terminals:
o Satellite Terminals: The individual user equipment on the ground that communicates
with the satellite. This can include satellite phones, satellite TV dishes, or internet
modems.
o Mobile Terminals: Satellite communication devices used in vehicles, ships, airplanes,
etc., that connect to the satellite to relay data or voice.
5. Ground Control Stations:
 o Mission Control: Centralized operations centers where commands are sent to the
satellite, and where its status is monitored. These stations ensure that the satellite
performs its tasks correctly.
o Signal Monitoring: Ground control stations track the health and performance of
communication links and check for any interference or signal loss.

Advantages of Satellite Communication:

1. Global Coverage:
o Satellites provide coverage over large, remote, and rural areas, including regions with
limited infrastructure. They enable communication in places where ground-based
communication systems are unavailable or impractical.

2. Reliable Connectivity:
o Satellite communication is highly reliable, especially in areas prone to natural
disasters. It remains functional when terrestrial communication networks are down,
making it crucial for emergency and disaster response.

3. Wide Bandwidth:
o Satellites offer a large bandwidth, making them suitable for high-capacity applications
like broadcasting, internet services, and data transmission. This allows multiple
channels of communication simultaneously.

4. Fast Deployment:
o Satellites can be launched quickly to provide communication capabilities in a short
period. Unlike terrestrial networks that require extensive infrastructure, satellites can
be set up rapidly for specific needs, like disaster recovery or military operations.

5. Mobility:
o Satellite communication systems are portable and mobile, which is ideal for aircraft,
ships, or vehicles that need to maintain connectivity while moving across large
distances or remote regions.

6. Reduced Infrastructure Costs:

o Satellite communication reduces the need for extensive terrestrial network
infrastructure (like cables, towers, and ground stations) that would be costly to build
and maintain, especially in hard-to-reach areas.

7. Secure Communication:
o For military and government use, satellite communication can be highly secure, with
advanced encryption techniques to prevent unauthorized access, offering secure
communication channels for sensitive information.

8. High-Speed Data Transmission:

o Satellites support high-speed internet, allowing for smooth communication and quick
data transfer, even in areas without terrestrial broadband access.
 9. Weather Monitoring:
o Satellites play a key role in meteorology, providing real-time data for weather
forecasting, disaster management, and climate monitoring, which benefits agriculture,
aviation, and environmental protection.

10. Telemedicine and Education:

 Satellite communication enables remote areas to access health care through telemedicine and
education through e-learning platforms, improving access to vital services in underserved
regions.

Disadvantages of Satellite Communication:

1. High Initial Cost:

o The cost of building, launching, and maintaining satellites can be very high. The
infrastructure needed for ground stations, satellite launching, and maintenance is
expensive.

2. Latency:
o Satellite communication generally experiences higher latency compared to terrestrial
communication due to the long distance the signals must travel (especially with GEO
satellites). This can cause delays in real-time communication, such as voice or video
calls.

3. Weather Sensitivity:
o Weather conditions, such as heavy rain, storms, or snow, can interfere with satellite
signals. This phenomenon is known as rain fade and can lead to signal degradation or
interruptions.

4. Limited Lifespan:
o Satellites have a finite operational lifespan (typically 10–15 years). After this period,
satellites may need to be replaced or decommissioned, adding to the costs of
maintaining communication services.

5. Congestion in GEO Orbit:

o The geostationary orbit (GEO) is becoming crowded as more satellites are launched
for communication purposes. This can lead to signal interference and challenges in
assigning orbital slots.

6. Environmental Impact:
o Satellite launches and the disposal of defunct satellites can contribute to space debris,
which poses risks to both operational satellites and future space missions.

7. Limited Bandwidth for High-Demand Applications:

 o While satellites provide a large bandwidth, it can still be insufficient for certain high-
demand applications, especially when dealing with large data transfers or areas with
many users, resulting in potential bottlenecks.

8. Vulnerability to Interference and Jamming:

o Satellite communication is vulnerable to signal interference, jamming, and hacking.
Malicious actors could disrupt communication services, posing a significant risk to
security and stability.

9. Power Consumption:
o Satellites need substantial power to operate, especially for transmission and receiving
functions. While solar power is often used, there are still limitations related to energy
production and consumption.

10. Limited Coverage in Polar Regions:

 While geostationary satellites offer broad coverage over the equator, their coverage near the
poles is limited. Polar regions often rely on lower orbits, which can require more satellites to
provide consistent coverage.

Application of Satellite communication:

1. Television Broadcasting

 Satellite TV: Provides television signals directly to homes via satellite dishes, offering global
coverage and access to international channels.
 DTH (Direct-to-Home) Services: Allows households to receive digital TV signals without
needing a cable connection.

2. Internet Access

 Broadband Internet: Satellite communication enables internet access in remote or rural areas
where traditional fiber or cable infrastructure is not feasible.
 VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal): Provides internet, data, and voice services in
remote locations, often used by businesses, government, and military personnel.

3. Global Positioning System (GPS)

 Navigation: Satellites help provide real-time positioning data, guiding navigation systems in
vehicles, planes, ships, and even smartphones.
 Timing: GPS satellites also provide precise time synchronization, which is essential for
financial transactions, telecommunications, and power grids.

4. Military Communications
  Secure Communication: Military operations often rely on satellite communication for
secure, long-distance communication in remote or conflict areas.
 Reconnaissance and Surveillance: Satellites play a crucial role in military intelligence by
providing real-time images and data on enemy movements or strategic locations.

5. Weather Forecasting and Monitoring

 Weather Satellites: Satellites are used to monitor climate patterns, track storms, and provide
early warnings about severe weather (like hurricanes or typhoons).
 Environmental Monitoring: Satellites help in tracking natural phenomena, such as
deforestation, droughts, and global warming effects.

6. Disaster Management and Emergency Communications

 Emergency Response: In areas hit by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, or tsunamis,
satellites provide critical communication links for rescue operations and coordination.
 Remote Sensing: Satellites provide imagery and data for assessing the extent of damage after
disasters, aiding in relief efforts.

7. Remote Education and Telemedicine

 E-Learning: Satellite communication can be used for distance learning and online education,
especially in areas with limited infrastructure.
 Telemedicine: Enables remote consultations between doctors and patients, particularly in
isolated regions, by transmitting medical data (like X-rays, CT scans) for diagnosis.

8. Satellite Radio

 Global Broadcasting: Satellite radio provides uninterrupted global radio service, offering
music, news, and talk shows to listeners worldwide, especially in areas with limited terrestrial
radio coverage.

9. Business and Corporate Communication

 Enterprise Connectivity: Satellite communication is used for connecting offices in remote

locations, providing video conferencing, and facilitating secure communications across
businesses with a global presence.
 VPNs and Data Transfer: Used for establishing secure virtual private networks (VPNs) for
global business operations and transferring large volumes of data between offices.

10. Science and Research

 Space Research: Satellites are used in astronomical and space research to monitor space
weather, cosmic radiation, and other phenomena beyond Earth.
 Earth Observation: Provides essential data for climate research, agriculture, resource
management, and environmental protection.
11. Aerospace Communication

 In-flight Communication: Commercial airlines use satellite communication for in-flight

connectivity, providing Wi-Fi and communication services for passengers and flight crews.
 Space Missions: Satellites communicate with spacecraft, space stations, and astronauts,
relaying data to and from space.

12. Broadcasting of Live Events

 Global Coverage: Satellite communication is used to broadcast live events such as sports,
concerts, and political events globally, making it possible for viewers to watch in real-time
from anywhere.

13. Agriculture

 Precision Farming: Satellite communication is used for precision agriculture to monitor crop
health, soil moisture, and climate conditions, enabling farmers to optimize yields.
 Agricultural Monitoring: Satellites help in monitoring large-scale farming activities,
providing data on crop growth, pests, and weather conditions.

Global Positioning System

GPS, or the Global Positioning System, is a global navigation satellite system that
provides location, velocity and time synchronization.

What is GPS and how does it work?

The satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites in six Earth-centered orbital
planes, each with four satellites, orbiting at 13,000 miles (20,000 km) above Earth and traveling at a
speed of 8,700 mph (14,000 km/h).
While we only need three satellites to produce a location on earth’s surface, a fourth satellite
is often used to validate the information from the other three. The fourth satellite also moves us into
the third-dimension and allows us to calculate the altitude of a device.

GPS is made up of three different components, called segments, that work together to provide
location information. The three segments of GPS are:
Space (Satellites) — The satellites circling the Earth, transmitting signals to users on geographical
position and time of day.
Ground control — The Control Segment is made up of Earth-based monitor stations, master control
stations and ground antenna. Control activities include tracking and operating the satellites in space
and monitoring transmissions. There are monitoring stations on almost every continent in the world,
including North and South America, Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia.
User equipment — GPS receivers and transmitters including items like watches, smartphones and
telematic devices.
How does GPS technology work?
GPS works through a technique called trilateration. Used to calculate location, velocity and
elevation, trilateration collects signals from satellites to output location information. It is often
mistaken for triangulation, which is used to measure angles, not distances.
Satellites orbiting the earth send signals to be read and interpreted by a GPS device, situated on or
near the earth’s surface. To calculate location, a GPS device must be able to read the signal from at
least four satellites.
Each satellite in the network circles the earth twice a day, and each satellite sends a unique signal,
orbital parameters and time. At any given moment, a GPS device can read the signals from six or
more satellites.

A single satellite broadcasts a microwave signal which is picked up by a GPS device and used to
calculate the distance from the GPS device to the satellite. Since a GPS device only gives information
about the distance from a satellite, a single satellite cannot provide much location information.
Satellites do not give off information about angles, so the location of a GPS device could be
anywhere on a sphere’s surface area.

When a satellite sends a signal, it creates a circle with a radius measured from the GPS device to the
satellite.

When we add a second satellite, it creates a second circle, and the location is narrowed down to one
of two points where the circles intersect.

With a third satellite, the device’s location can finally be determined, as the device is at the
intersection of all three circles.

That said, we live in a three-dimensional world, which means that each satellite produces a sphere,
not a circle. The intersection of three spheres produces two points of intersection, so the point nearest
Earth is chosen.

Here is an illustration of satellite ranging:

As a GPS device moves, the radius (distance to the satellite) changes. When the radius changes, new
spheres are produced, giving us a new position. We can use that data, combined with the time from
the satellite, to determine velocity, calculate the distance to our destination and the ETA.

BT
Q. Question Marks CO
Level
1 List the applications of satellite communication 04 1 CO3
2 Discuss the satellite communication system 06 2 CO3
3 Explain LEO,MEO and GEO 06 2 CO3
4 Explain satellite subsystem 06 2 CO3
5 Explain Global Positioning system 05 2 CO3
6 List advantages and disadvantages of satellite communication 04 1 CO3
7 Define i)Apogee, ii) perigee, iii)Line of Apsides iv)Eccentricity
04 2 CO3
for satellite
8 Explain geostationary satellite ( Self Study) 04 2 CO3