1.

Physics and Its Scope:

o "Physics is the branch of science that involves the study of the physical world in
specific and physical universe in general: energy, matter, and how they are
related."
o "In physics modeling of the natural world is made with theory, and is usually
expressed quantitatively with mathematical description."
o "Physics is also called ‘the fundamental science’ because the subject of study of
all branches of natural science like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology
are constrained by laws of physics."
o "All other natural sciences stem from physics. Chemistry is essentially applied
physics and biology is applied chemistry."
o "For technologies to develop physics is essential."
o "Physics generates fundamental knowledge needed for the future technological
advances that will continue to drive the economic engines of the world."
2. System International (SI):
o "The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from systems internationale,
the French version of the name) is a scientific method of expressing the
magnitudes or quantities of important natural phenomena."
o "Science require that quantities must be defined and measured. Things that
cannot be measured like beauty, love, hate, are all not science."
3. Physical Quantities and System of Units:
o "Quantities like length, time, density, temperature, electric fluxes
can be measured therefore they are called physical quantities."
o "A complete set of units for all physical quantities is called
system of units."
o "We take only a few quantities (called base quantities) and base
units to agree on accessible and invariable standards for
measurement such that all other quantities and units are
expressed in terms of those quantities."
4. Historical Systems and Introduction of SI:
o "Three such systems, the MKS, the CGS and the FPS (or British)
system were in use extensively till recently."
o "In 1960 an international committee agreed on a single system
for whole world, the system's official name is the Système
International, or SI, meaning International System."
o "We can use other systems and its units (Fahrenheit, pounds,
and miles) for our convenience but in science we must always
use SI."
5. Base Units in SI:
 "In SI SEVEN physical quantities chosen arbitrarily as base and
o
their corresponding units are defined and standardized and are
called base units."
o "The definition of each base unit of the SI is carefully drawn up
so that it is unique and provides a sound theoretical basis upon
which the most accurate and reproducible measurements can be
made."
6. Table 1.1: SI Base Quantities and Base Units (Memorize for
NMDCAT):

SI Base
Base Quantity Symbol Symbol
Unit

Length l, x, r, etc. Meter m

Mass m Kilogram kg

Time, duration T Second s

Electric current I Ampere A

Thermodynamic
T Kelvin K
temperature

Amount of substance N Mole mol

Luminous intensity I Candela cd

1. Derived Units:
 "A quantity and its unit obtained and developed from base quantities and their
respective units without giving any consideration to the directional properties are called
derived quantities and its units."
 "Units for all other physical quantities can be derived from the seven base units."
Table 1.2: SI Derived Quantities and Derived Units (Memorize for NMDCAT):

Derived
Symbol SI Derived Unit Base Terms
Quantity

Area A square meter m²

Volume V cubic meter m³

Derived
Symbol SI Derived Unit Base Terms
Quantity

Speed, velocity V meter per second m/s

meter per second

Acceleration A m/s²
squared

 "The number of derived quantities of interest in science and technology has no limit."
2. Supplementary Units (Now Grouped as Derived Units):
 "Pure geometrical units (radian and steradian) were classified by the System
International (SI) as supplementary units."
 "This designation was abrogated in 20th CGPM in 1995 and the units were grouped as
derived units."
3. Radian (Angle Measurement):
 "One radian (1 rad) is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc with a
length equal to the radius of the circle."
 Formula:
Number of radians (θ)=Arc Length (S)/Radius (r)
 Relation between radians and degrees:
2π rad=360∘ or 1 rad=360∘/2π≈57.3∘
 "An angle of approximately 57° corresponds to 1 radian."
Key Takeaways for NMDCAT:
1. Derived units (e.g., m², m/s) are combinations of base units.
2. Radian definition and conversion to degrees (1 rad≈57.3∘).
3. Practical application (gear problem) using arc length and angular displacement.
1. Steradian (Solid Angle)
 "Steradian is defined as the solid angle subtended at the center of sphere by an area of
its surface equal to the square of radius of that sphere."
 Formula:
Number of steradians in sphere=Area of Sphere/r^2=4πr^2/r^2=4π sr
 Key fact: A full sphere subtends 4π steradians at its center.

1. Definition of Scientific Notation:

o "Scientific notation is an easy way of writing numbers that are too big or too
small to be written in decimal form."
o "In scientific notation a big number is written as the product of a number
greater than 1 and less than 10 (called the mantissa) and a power (or exponent)
of 10:"
number=mantissa×10^exponent
2. Example:
o "The number of atoms in the human body can thus be written compactly
as 7×10^27, where 7 is the mantissa and 27 is the exponent."
3. Advantage:
o "Another advantage of scientific notation is that it makes it easy to add,
subtract, multiply and divide large numbers. For example, to multiply two
numbers in scientific notation, we multiply their mantissas and then add their
exponents."

4. Calculation Example for Scientific Notation:

o "If we wanted to estimate, as how many atoms are contained in the bodies of all
the people on Earth, we could do this calculation easily. The population of earth is
approximately 7 billion (or 7×10^9). To find our answer we have to
multiply 7×10^27 by 7×10^9. We do this by multiplying the two mantissas
and adding their exponents:"

(7×10^27)×(7×10^9)=(7×7)×10^27+9=49×10^36=4.9×10^37

o "In the last step, we follow the common convention of keeping only one digit in
front of the decimal point of the mantissa and adjusting the exponent
accordingly."
1. Definition of Prefixes:
o "A mechanism through which a term in scientific notation is expressed by giving
a proper name to its power of ten is called prefix to the power of ten."
 o "A useful set of prefixes in SI replace given powers of 10, Prefixes makes standard
form to be written even more easily."
2. Examples of Prefix Usage:
o "For example, the length of a housefly, 5×10^−3 m, is equivalent to 5 millimeters
(mm), and the distance of a satellite 8.25×10^5 m from Earth's surface can be
expressed as 825 kilometers (km)."
Key takeaways:
 Prefixes provide named shortcuts for powers of ten in SI units
 They simplify the expression of very large or very small quantities
 Examples show conversion between scientific notation and prefixed units (mm for 10^-3,
km for 10^3)
WRITING UNIT SYMBOLS & NAMES
1. General Rules for Unit Symbols:
o "Unit symbols are printed in roman (upright) type regardless of the type used in
the surrounding text. For example m for metre, s for second and Pa for pascal."
2. Prefix Usage Rules:
o "A multiple or sub-multiple prefix, if used, is part of the unit and precedes the
unit symbol without a separator. A prefix is never used in isolation, and
compound prefixes are never used. For example nm, not mµm or pm not µµ."
3. Multiplication and Division of Units:
o "Multiplication must be indicated by a space or a half-high (centred) dot (·), since
otherwise some prefixes could be misinterpreted as a unit symbol."
o "Division is indicated by a horizontal line, by a solidus (oblique stroke, /) or by
negative exponents. For example N m or N·m, for a newton metre and m/s or m
s⁻¹ for metre per second."
4. Prohibited Abbreviations:
o "It is not permissible to use abbreviations for unit symbols or unit names, such as
sec (for either s or second), sq. mm (for either mm² or square millimetre), cc (for
either cm³ or cubic centimetre), or mps (for either m/s or metre per second)."
Key Takeaways:
 Unit symbols must always be in roman type
 Prefixes must be attached directly to unit symbols without spaces
 Proper notation is required for multiplication (space or dot) and division (/ or negative
exponent)
 Common abbreviations like "sec" or "cc" are not allowed in formal scientific writing
5. Unit Names and Powers:
o "When multiple of unit is raised to the power the power applies to the whole
multiple not just the unit."
2. Rules for Unit Names:
o "Unit names are normally printed in roman (upright) type, and they are treated
like ordinary nouns."
o "In English, the names of units start with a lower-case letter (even when the
symbol for the unit begins with a capital letter), except at the beginning of a
sentence or in capitalized material such as a title. For example joule J, hertz Hz,
metre m, second s and ampere A."
o "When the name of a unit is combined with the name of a multiple or sub-
multiple prefix, no space or hyphen is used between the prefix name and the unit
name. The combination of prefix name plus unit name is a single word. For
example milligram, but not milli-gram and kilopascal, but not kilo-pascal."
3. Expressing Quantities:
o "Although the values of quantities are normally expressed using symbols for
numbers and symbols for units, if for some reason the unit name is more
appropriate than the unit symbol, the unit name should be spelled out in full. For
example 2.1 m/s, or 2.1 metres per second."
4. Errors in Measurement:
o "Error is the doubt that exists about the result of any measurement. For every
measurement (even the most careful) there is always a margin of doubt which is
called error."
o "Thus every measurement is approximate due to errors in measurement."
5. Types of Errors:
o "The errors in measurement can be broadly classified as (a) systematic errors and
(b) random errors."
o "Systematic errors: The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one
direction, either positive or negative. Some of the sources of systematic errors
are:"
  "(a) Instrumental errors arise from the errors due to imperfect design or
calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument,
etc."
1. Personal Errors (Systematic Errors):
o "(b) Personal errors arise due to an individual's bias, lack of proper setting of the
apparatus or individual's carelessness in taking observations without observing
proper precautions, etc."
2. Minimizing Systematic Errors:
o "Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques,
selecting better instruments and removing personal bias as far as possible. For a
given set-up, these errors may be estimated to a certain extent and the
necessary corrections may be applied to the readings."
3. Random Errors:
o "B. Random errors: The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly
and hence are random with respect to sign and size."
o "These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions (e.g. changes in temperature, humidity, wind velocity, etc), personal
(unbiased) errors by the observer taking readings, etc."
o "For example, when the same person repeats the same observation, it is very
likely that he may get different readings every time."
Key Takeaways:
 Systematic errors include personal errors from observer bias or carelessness
 Systematic errors can be reduced through better techniques and instruments
 Random errors are unpredictable variations due to environmental factors or inherent
measurement variability
 Random errors are evident when repeated measurements give different results
 Proper formatting rules for unit names (lowercase, roman type, no hyphens with
prefixes)
 The concept that powers apply to the entire unit multiple
 Fundamental definition and classification of measurement errors
 Specific examples of systematic errors (instrumental errors)

 "The quantification or magnitude of error or doubt in

measurement is called uncertainty."
  "Uncertainty estimate how small or large the error is."
 "Uncertainty as a non-negative parameter characterizing the
dispersion of the values attributed to a measured quantity."
 "Every measurement need to be written in the form:
measurement = best estimate ± uncertainty."
Example of Measurement with Uncertainty
1. "A measurement of (5.07 + 0.02) g means that the experimenter is confident that the
actual value lies between 5.05 g (5.07 - 0.02)g and 5.09 g (5.07 + 0.02)g."
2. "The uncertainty is the experimenter’s best estimate of how far an experimental
quantity might be from the 'true value.'"
Types of Uncertainties
3. "There are two main types of uncertainties:"
o A. Absolute Uncertainty is denoted by the symbol ‘Δ’ and has the same units as
the quantity."
o B. Relative or Percent Uncertainty is denoted by the symbol ‘ε’ and has no
units."
Conversion Between Absolute and Relative Uncertainty
4. Example:
o "m = (3.3 ± 0.2) kg = (3.3 kg ± 6.1%)"
o "The Absolute Uncertainty is: Δm = 0.2 kg = (6.1 / 100) × 3.3 kg"
o "The Relative Uncertainty is: εm = 6.1% = (0.2 / 3.3) × 100%"
Indicating Uncertainty in Calculation
1. "A numeric measure of confidence in a measurement or result is known as
uncertainty."
2. "A lower uncertainty indicates greater confidence."
3. "Uncertainties are usually expressed by using statistical methods."
Activity on Measurement Uncertainty
1. "Measure the distance between two points approximately 5 m to 10 m apart by
placing one foot in front of the other and counting the steps. Then, measure the same
distance with a tape measure."
2. "How close to the standard foot is the length of your own foot? How much error did
you generate?"
 3. "For longer distances, measure by walking the distance using one stride as
approximately 1 yd or 3 ft. Calculate how much error did you generate? What was the
uncertainty?"
Uncertainty in Sum or Difference
4. "Sum or difference: Absolute uncertainties are added."
5. For Sum (Z=A+BZ=A+B):
o "Z±ΔZ=(A+B)±(ΔA+ΔB)Z±ΔZ=(A+B)±(ΔA+ΔB)"
o "The maximum possible uncertainty in Z±ΔZ=ΔA+ΔBZ±ΔZ=ΔA+ΔB"
6. For Difference (Z=A−BZ=A−B):
o "Z±ΔZ=(A−B)±ΔA+ΔBZ±ΔZ=(A−B)±ΔA+ΔB"
o "The maximum value of the uncertainty ΔZΔZ is again ΔA+ΔBΔA+ΔB."
Uncertainty in Product or Quotient
1. General Rule:
o "Product or quotient: Fractional uncertainties are converted into percentage
uncertainties which are added."
2. Product (Z = AB):
o "Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA)(B ± ΔB)"
o Conversion: "Convert fractional uncertainty to percentage uncertainty" → "Z ± ΔZ
= (A ± ΔA%)(B ± ΔB%)"
o Result: "Z ± ΔZ = AB ± (ΔA% + ΔB%)" or "Z ± ΔZ = AB ± (ΔA + ΔB)%"
o Final step: "Convert back to fractional uncertainty" → "Z ± ΔZ = AB ± (ΔZ)"
3. Quotient (Z = A/B):
o "Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA)/(B ± ΔB)"
o Conversion: "Convert fractional uncertainty to percentage uncertainty" → "Z ± ΔZ
= (A ± ΔA%)/(B ± ΔB%)"
o Result: "Z ± ΔZ = A/B ± (ΔA% + ΔB%)" or "Z ± ΔZ = A/B ± (ΔA + ΔB)%"
o Final step: "Convert back to fractional uncertainty" → "Z ± ΔZ = A/B ± (ΔZ)"

Uncertainty in Power (Z = Aⁿ)

4. Power Rule:
 o "Power: Percent uncertainty is multiplied by power."
o "The result is converted back into fractional uncertainty which will give absolute
uncertainty by rounding off."
5. Steps for Z = Aⁿ:
o "Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA)ⁿ"
o Conversion: "Convert fractional uncertainty to percentage uncertainty" → "Z ± ΔZ
= (A ± ΔA%)ⁿ"
o Calculation: "square the term and percentage uncertainty with the power" → "Z
± ΔZ = Aⁿ ± n × ΔA%"
o Simplified: "Z ± ΔZ = Aⁿ ± (nΔA)%"
o Final step: "Convert back to fractional uncertainty" → "Z ± ΔZ = Aⁿ ± (ΔZ)"

Key Takeaways for NMDCAT

 For products/quotients, add percentage uncertainties and convert back.
 For powers, multiply the percentage uncertainty by the exponent before conversion.
 All steps emphasize:
o Conversion between fractional and percentage uncertainties.
o Propagation of uncertainties in calculations.
1.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Definition:
 "A significant figure is one that is reliably known. In any measurement, the accurately
known digits and the first doubtful digit are collectively called significant figures."
 "In many cases, the uncertainty of a number is not stated explicitly. Instead, the
uncertainty is indicated by the number of meaningful digits, or significant figures, in the
measured value."

General Rules for Significant Figures

1. Non-zero digits:
o *"NON-ZERO digits are always significant. That is, all digits from 1 to 9 are
significant, e.g., the number of significant figures in 47.872 is 5."*
2. Zeros between significant digits:
 o "ZERO in between two significant digits is always significant, e.g., the number of
significant figures in 301.5006 is 7."
3. Leading zeros (to the left):
o "ZEROs to the left of significant figures are not significant, e.g., the number of
significant figures in 0.000538 is 3."
4. Trailing zeros (to the right):
o "ZEROs to the right of the significant figure may or may not be significant."
 Decimal fractions: "In decimal fractions, zero to the right of a decimal
fraction are significant, e.g., in 5.200 there are 4 significant figures."
 Integers: "If the number is an integer, the number of significant figures
depends upon the least count of the measuring instrument, e.g., in
500,000 we may have 1, 2, or even 6 significant figures."
5. Scientific notation:
o "In scientific notation or standard form, the figures other than the power of ten
are significant, e.g., in 2.1000×1042.1000×104, there are 5 significant figures."

Significant Figures in Calculations

(a) Addition and Subtraction:
 "When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the result is as precise as the
least precise of the quantities."
 "After adding or subtracting, round the result by keeping only as many decimal places as
are in the figure containing the least decimal places of the quantities that were added or
subtracted."
Significant Figures in Calculations (Continued)
(a) Addition and Subtraction (Example)
 Example Calculation:
o *"44.56005 + 0.0698 + 1103.2 = 1147.82985."*
 Rounding Rule:
o "We do not want to write all of those digits in the answer."
o *"Rounding to the nearest tenth of the figure, the sum is written = 1147.8."*
(b) Multiplication and Division
 General Rule:
 o "When quantities are multiplied or divided, the result has the same number of
significant figures as the quantity with the smallest number of significant
figures."
 Example:
o "A calculator gives 45.26×2.41=109.076645.26×2.41=109.0766. Since the answer
should have only three significant figures, we round the answer
to 45.26×2.41=10945.26×2.41=109."
o Scientific Notation: "In scientific notation, we write 1.09×1021.09×102."

Key Takeaways for NMDCAT

1. Addition/Subtraction:
o Round the result to match the least precise decimal place in the original
numbers (e.g., 1103.2 in the example has 1 decimal place).
2. Multiplication/Division:
o Round the result to match the smallest number of significant figures in the
original numbers (e.g., 2.41 has 3 significant figures).
3. Scientific Notation:
o Used to clearly express the correct number of significant figures
(e.g., 1.09×1021.09×102).