Energy and Environment

1. Units and Scales of Energy Use:

a. Energy: - Energy is the capacity for doing work.
Or
Ability to do work or the ability to carry a heat transfer.
→ It can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transferred from one form to
another i.e., conservation of energy.

b. Different forms of Energy: -

• Mechanical Energy –
1
a. Kinetic energy: - K.E. = mv2
2
b. Potential energy: - P.E. = mgh
• Electrical energy
• Chemical energy
• Nuclear energy
• Thermal energy
• Hydro energy & so on ......

c. Units of energy: - In S.I (International System of Fundamental Units), units of energy

are “Joules”.
1 Joule = 1 kg m2/s2 = 1 Newton – meter
Joule (J): The Joule is the standard unit of energy in the International System of Units
(SI). It is defined as the amount of work done when a force of one Newton is applied
over a distance of one meter.
1 Joule (J) = 1 Newton-meter (N·m)
It is a relatively small unit, so larger quantities of energy are often expressed in
multiples of Joules.
d. Scales of energy: -
SI unit of energy is Joule, the name is kept in honour of James P. Joule, a British
Physicist whose work contributed to the establishment of the energy concept.
i. Basic unit of mass = Kg (kilogram)
ii. Length = meters (m)
iii. Time = Seconds (S)
iv. Charge = Coulomb (C)

v. For kinetic energy:

1
Kinetic energy = mv2
2
[energy] = [mass] [velocity]2
= kilogram (meter/second)2
= Kgm2/s2 = Joule
⸫ 1 Joule = 1 Kgm2/s2 = 1 Newton -metre
 vi. For force:
Force (F) = ma = mass ⅹ acceleration
= Kg [ meter/ second 2]
= Newton
1 Newton = 1 Kg. m/s2
CGS unit of energy is erg.
1 erg = 10-7 Joules.
vii. For Power:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= Kgm2/ s3
= watt
1 watt = 1 Kgm2/s3 = 1 Joule/ second

viii. For Pressure:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
= Kg/ms2
= Pascal
1 Pascal = 1 Kg/ms2 = 1 Newton/ m2

e. Industrial strength unit of energy:

• 1Watt = 1 Joule
• 1 Kwh = 3.6 ⅹ 106 J
• The electrical energy unit is eV
1 eV = 1.6ⅹ 10-19 J
The other units of energy are: -
• exajoules, quads, terawatt–years (Global units)
• Tonnes of coal, tons of TNT, barrels of oil, therms kilo watt hours (Industrial
Strength Units)
• British Thermal Unit (BTU), kilocalories (Human size units)
• Calories, Foot-pounds, Joules (Child size units)
• ergs, electron –volts (micro word unit)
f. Unit Conservations: -
• 1 eV 1.602 × 10-14 J
• 1 erg 10-7 J
• 1 foot-pound 1.356 J
• 1 Calorie 4.18 J
• 1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) 1.055 kJ
• 1 kilowatt – hour (kWh) 3.6 MJ
• 1 Tonne TNT (tTNT) 4.184 GJ
• 1 barrel of Oil equivalent 5.8 × 106 BTU
6.118 GJ
• ton of coal equivalent ≅ 29.3076 GJ
• 1 quad 1015 BTU 1.055 × 1015 kJ
 Solar Energy
1. Solar Energy: - Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the
sun.
→ Energy from the sun is referred to as solar energy.

2. Sun as a source of energy: -

1) The sun is a 1.39 × 105 km diameter sphere composed of many layers of gases which
are progressively hotter towards its centre.
2) In the innermost region (core), the temperature is 8×106 K to 40 × 106 K, and the centre
of the sun may be at 20× 106 K.
3) The rate of energy emission from the sun is 3.8 ×1023 kW. Therefore, solar energy is
the world’s most abundant permanent source of energy.
4) The amount of solar energy intercepted by the planet Earth is 5000 times greater than
the sun of other inputs.
5) From the total amount of received energy 30% is reflected in space, 47% is converted
to low-temperature heat and re-radiated to space and 22.5 % powers the
evaporation/precipitation cycle of the biosphere.
6) Less than 0.5 % is represented in the kinetic energy of the wind and waves and the
photo-synthetic storage in plants.

Q1. What are the mechanisms responsible for the depletion or attenuation of solar
radiation as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere? Describe the methods and
instruments used for the measurement of solar radiation.

Q2. Define beam radiation and diffuse radiation in the context of solar energy. Describe
the methods and instruments used for the measurement of solar radiation.

Q3. What are the mechanisms responsible for the depletion or attenuation of solar
radiation as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of utilizing solar energy systems?

3. Depletion / Attenuation of Solar Radiation: -

Solar radiation is depleted when it passes through the atmosphere because molecules do
different things on the radiation.
i. Absorption: - Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different
molecules as - (CO, CO2, O2, NO2H2O & Dust vapour)
a. N2, O2 & other atmospheric gases absorb X-rays and UV radiations.
b. Ozone absorbs a significant amount of UV radiation.
c. H2O & CO2 absorbs infrared radiation.
d. Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy.
ii. Scattering: - Scattering by dust particles and air molecules involves re-distribution of
incident energy. A part of scattered radiation is lost (Reflected back) to space while
 remaining directed downwards to the earth's surface from different directions as
diffuse radiation. The total radiation at any location on the surface of the earth is the
sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation.
a. Beam Radiation: - Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at
the earth's surface without change of direction.
b. Diffuse Radiation: - Solar radiation is scattered by aerosols, dust, and molecules.
c. Global Radiation: - The sum of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as total
or Global radiation.

Fig: Direction of sun ray with respect to atmosphere

4. Merits and demerits of solar energy system: -

a. Merits: -
1. This system of energy conversion is noiseless and cheap.
2. Low maintenance cost
3. Long life
4. Pollution free
5. No fuel is required
6. These systems are suitable for rural, remote & isolated areas

b. Demerits: -
1. Initial cost is high
2. Irregular supply of solar energy
3. Require storage batteries for power supply during the night
4. Low efficiency
5. Solar power plants require a large area
5. Measurement of Solar radiation: -
a. Solar radiation is measuring instruments –
i. Pyranometer
ii. Pyrheliometer
iii. Ultraviolet radiometer
iv. Precision infrared radiometer
 b. Measured Radiations: -
i. Ultraviolet measurements → By using ‘Ultraviolet radiometer’
ii. Shortwave measurements →
1. Direct radiation – By using the ‘Normal incidence
Pyrheliometer’
2. Diffuse radiation – By using ‘Pyranometer’
3. Global radiation – By using ‘Pyranometer’
iii. Longwave (infrared) measurements →by using ‘Precision infrared
radiometer.’
c. Sunshine Duration Measurements: - Sun shine duration is typically defined as the
amount of time that the direct normal Irradiance (DNI), which is greater than 120 W/m2.
This can be determined by data collection.

Q4. Explain the carrier transport process in normal conductors and p-type
semiconductors.

Q5. Explain the carrier transport process in normal conductors and n-type
semiconductors.

Q6. Describe how the application of an external voltage affects the movement of electrons
and holes within a semiconductor, leading to the concept of drift velocity.

6. Carrier Transport: -
1. The electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band move in a
random fashion within the crystal due to their thermal energy.
2. When an external voltage is applied to the semi-conductor a drift velocity is
superimposed on the random thermal motion of the electrons and holes.
3. The drift of the electrons in the conduction band and that of the holes in the valence
band produce an electric current. The electrons move towards the positive electrode and
the holes towards the negative electrode as shown in Fig.

Q7. Explain the carrier transport process in n-type semiconductors.

Q8. How does the movement of charge carriers work in an n-type semiconductor?

Q9. What happens with the movement of charge carriers within a n-type semiconductor?
Q10. Explain the carrier transport process in normal conductors. Explain the behaviour
of N-type semiconductors under the influence of an external voltage. How do majority
carriers contribute to the flow of electric current in this type of semiconductor?

Q11. Explain the mechanisms of carrier transport in N-type and P-type semiconductors.
How do the majority of carriers affect the contribution to electric current flow?

Q12. Illustrate the process of electron and hole movement in both N-type and P-type
semiconductors when an external voltage is applied, emphasizing the direction of current
flow.

a. N-Type Semiconductor: -
i. Electrons are the majority carriers. On reaching the positive electrode the electrons
combine with the holes coming from the positive electrode. The immobile positive
donor ions close to the negative electrode become unneutralized. Consequently,
these positive ions attract electrons from the negative electrode.

ii. Therefore, a continuous flow of electrons from one terminal to the other of the battery
through the semiconductor takes place.

Q13. Explain the carrier transport process in p-type semiconductors.

Q14. How do charge carriers move in a p-type semiconductor?

Q15. What happens with the movement of charge carriers within a p-type
semiconductor?

b. P-Type Semiconductor: -
i. Holes are the majority carriers. As the holes reach the negative electrode, they
recombine with the electrons emerging from the negative electrode & thus collapse.
 ii. The process leaves immobile negatively charged acceptor atoms near the positive
electrode unneutralized. The positive electrode attracts two extra electrons of the
acceptor atoms.

iii. Consequently, these electrons leave the acceptor atoms, come to the positive
electrode, and are lost there. The acceptor atoms then collect electrons from the
adjacent covalent bonds, creating holes. Thus, current in p-type semiconductors is
carried by holes.

Q16. Define recombination and explain the process by which free electrons in the
conduction band combine with holes in the valence band in a semiconductor.

Q17. Explain the concept of generation in semiconductors and how new electron-hole
pairs are created due to thermal excitation.

Q18. Describe the mechanism by which electrons resulting in the generation of electron-
hole pairs in a solar cell.

7. Generation and Recombination in Semi-conductor: -

a. Recombination: - It is the process in which the free electrons in the electrons in
conduction band jump into the valence band to combine with holes.
b. In the process of recombination, the electron-hole pair (e-h) is destroyed. In this
process, the minimum energy released in the form of electromagnetic radiation is equal
to the band gap Eg. Thus,
Eg = h𝜐
& Hence the wavelength of radiation is,
𝑐 𝑐ℎ
λ= =
𝜐 Eg
 c. Generation: - New pairs of electrons–hole (e-h) is generated due to thermal excitation,
for pure semiconductors at a constant temperature, the rate of recombination and rate
of generation of electron-hole pairs are equal.
d. Solar cell is constructed using highly pure silicon material, and hence to produce
electron-hole pairs in it light or solar energy is made incident on silicon with energy
greater than the bandgap of the silicon. Electrons present in the valence band absorb
light energy and get excited into the conduction band thereby generating electron-hole
pair.

Q19. Explain the process of formation and working of p-n junction diode with zero bias
energy band diagram.
Q20. Define a p-n junction and describe the process by which it is formed when a p-type
crystal is placed in contact with an n-type crystal. What is the significance of the resulting
depletion layer?

Q21. Explain the process of formation and working of p-n junction diode with zero bias
energy band diagram.

Q22. What are the steps involved in creating and using a p-n junction diode, and what
does its energy band diagram show when no external bias is applied?

Q23. How does a p-n junction diode form and operate, and what does its energy band
diagram look like under zero bias conditions?

Q24. Discuss the construction and working principle of a p-n junction diode under
reverse bias conditions. What changes occur in the energy bands and the depletion region
when the diode is reverse-biased?

8. Semi-Conductor Junction: -
a. p-n junction: -
i. When a p-type crystal is placed in contact with an n-type crystal, so as to form one
piece, the assembly so obtained is called a p-n junction or junction diode.
ii. In p-region holes are the majority carrier, while in n-region electrons are the majority
carrier. Due to the high concentration, holes from the p-region diffuse in the n-region
and electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-region.
 iii. When an electron meets a hole, the two cancel the effect of each other and as a result,
a thin layer at the junction becomes chargeless. This is called the depletion layer.
The thickness of the depletion layer is of the order of 10-6m.

iv. Due to diffusion, the p-section becomes slightly negative, while the n-section
becomes slightly positive. It appears as if some fictitious battery is connected across
the junction with its negative pole connected to the p-region and positive pole
connected to the n-region. The potential difference developed across the junction is
called the potential barrier.
v. It opposes the further diffusion of charge carriers. For Ge, the potential barrier is
about 0.3 volts and for the Si junction diode, it is about 0.7 volts. A very large electric
field is set up to potential differences developed across the junction.

Q25. Explain the behaviour of a p-n junction diode when it is in biased and unbiased
condition biased. How does the connection to an external voltage source affect the energy
bands and the depletion region?

Q26. Explore the significance of the Fermi energy level in determining the behavior of a
p-n junction diode under different biasing conditions.

b. Energy band diagram working of p-n junction diode: -

ii. Zero biased: -In p-type the Fermi level is close to the valence band and in n-type
close to the conduction band. In depletion region formation electron from n-region
to p-region and holes from p to n region diffusion takes place and fermi level
achieves equilibrium as shown in fig. A slight shift of conduction and valence band
upwards in the p-region and downwards in the n-region takes place.
iii. Forward biased: - When the p-n junction is forward biased then the p-region is
connected to the positive terminal and the n –region to the negative terminal of the
battery. Holes added in the p-region decrease electron energy and fermi energy rises
slightly downward therefore conduction band and valence band shifted accordingly.
Also, electrons added in the n-region increasing electron energy and Fermi energy
level slightly upwards, and the conduction band and valence band shifted
accordingly so that the depletion region decreases and conduction takes place
increasing forward current.

iv. Reverse biased: -When the p-n junction is reverse biased then the p-region is
connected to the negative terminal and the n-region is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery, then electrons added into the p-region increases electron
energy so that the Fermi energy level slightly shifted upward, then conduction band
and valence band shifted accordingly. Holes are added into the n-region decreasing
electron energy, so that the Fermi level slightly shifts downward, then C.B & V.B
slightly shift accordingly increasing the depletion region and the diode does not
conduct.
Q27. What is a photovoltaic effect? Explain the construction and working of solar cell.

Q28. What is the photovoltaic effect, and how does a solar cell work in terms of its
structure and operation?

Q29. Explain the principle, construction and work of solar cell.

Q30. What is the underlying principle behind solar cells, and how are they constructed
and designed to generate electricity?

Q31. Define the Fill factor. Explain the construction and working of solar cell.

Q32 Define the below terms:

i) Photovoltaic effect
ii) Fill factor

9. Photovoltaic effect: -The conversion of solar or light energy into electrical energy by a
semi-conductor device is called the photovoltaic effect. The device which shows the
photovoltaic effect is called a photovoltaic device.

Solar cell: -It is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect.

a. Solar cell: -
i. Construction: - It is a semiconductor device with a thin n-layer and large surface
having an antireflection coating on the upper surface. Solar cell is a lightly doped
PN junction. They are made from a single crystal, high purity silicon with minute
amount of impurity elements such as a boron & phosphorus to make it a PN junction.
A typical solar cell consists of a very thin layer of N & P with an outside wire
attached as shown in Fig. below.
 ii. Working: -When sunlight strikes a solar cell & if the incident photon energy
exceeds the energy gap of silicon, then electron hole pair gets generated. The built-
in barrier potential near the junction separates this charge carriers & diffuses electron
in the N region & holes into P region. Top layer of solar cell is thin so that junction
should be very close to top surface of solar cell. Due to this as soon as electron hole
pairs are generated by incident light, they get separated. A flow of current from N to
P electrode is thereby created through the external circuit. The shining of light acts
as a battery generator & as long as the cell is illuminated by light, electrical energy
can be taken from the cell. Thus, the solar cell works on photovoltaic effect.

Q33. Draw and explain the I-V characteristics of solar cell.

Q34. Draw and explain the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a solar cell. What do
the short circuit current (Isc) and open circuit voltage (Voc) represent on the I-V curve?

b. I-V Characteristics of solar cell: - When zero bad resistance the maximum current
flows known as short circuit ISC and for infinite load resistance no current flows and
maximum voltage appears across the solar cell known as open circuit voltage Voc. The
graph of current flowing through the solar cell against voltage across, it is called I-V
characteristics & shown in fig.
Q35. Define:
(1) open circuit voltage (2) short circuit current
(3) Fill factor (4) Efficiency of Solar cell.

c. Fill Factor: - The ratio of experimental maximum power to ideal power is called fill
factor.
Experimental power = Vm Im
Ideal Power = Voc Isc
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
F= 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐

d. Open Circuit Voltage: The Open Circuit Voltage Voc is the voltage output from the
solar cell when the load impedance is much greater than the cell impedance, means
when load resistor connected across the solar cell is maximum. At Voc, voltage across
the cell is maximum but current through the cell is zero.
e. Short Circuit Current: The Short Circuit Current Isc is the current output from the
solar cell when the load impedance is much smaller than the cell impedance, means
when load resistor connected across the solar cell is minimum. At Isc, current through
the cell is maximum but the voltage across the cell is zero.
f. Efficiency: Efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of maximum power delivered by the
solar cell to the incident light energy.
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Efficiency (ƞ) =
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎
Efficiency (ƞ) =
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

Q1. A solar cell generates 200 watts of electrical power when exposed to 1000 watts per
square meter (W/m²) of sunlight. Calculate the efficiency of solar cell.
Ans: - Given:
Electrical output power (P out) = 200 watts
Solar input power (P in) = 1000 watts per square meter (W/m²)
Calculate Efficiency:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Efficiency (%) = × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
200
Efficiency (%) = × 100%
1000
Efficiency (%) = 20%

Q2. A solar cell with an area of 1 square meter produces 150 watts of electrical power
when exposed to 800 watts per square meter of sunlight. Calculate the efficiency.
Ans: - Given:
Area of the solar cell (A) = 1 square meter
Electrical output power (P out) = 150 watts
 Solar input power (P in) = 800 watts per square meter (W/m²)
Pin = Pin per unit area × A = 800 × 1 = 800
Pin = 800W
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Efficiency (%) = ×100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
150
Efficiency (%) = ×100%
800
=18.75%

Q3. A single solar cell (10 cm x 10 cm) produces a voltage of 0.5 V and a current up to 2.5
A. If the solar insolation is 800 w/m2. What is the efficiency of the solar cell?
Ans: - Solar insolation = 800 w/m2, Voltage = 0.5 V, Current = 2.5 A
-2 2
Area = 10 cm x 10 cm = 10 m = 0.01 m
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (ƞ) =
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

Incident light power = insolation x arear = 800 x 0.01 = 8 w

Output power = Voltage x current = 0.5 x 2.5 = 1.25 w
1.25
Efficiency (ƞ) = x 100%
8
Efficiency (ƞ) = 15.62 %
The efficiency of the solar cell is 15.62%.

Q4. A single solar cell on illumination by insolation of about 800 Wm-2 produces a voltage
of 0.5 V and a current upto 2 A. The efficiency of the solar cell is 12.5%. what is the area
of the solar cell?
Ans: - Solar insolation = 800 w/m2, Voltage = 0.5 V, Current = 2.0 A
Efficiency (ƞ) = 12.5%
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (ƞ) = x 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Incident light power = insolation x area = 800 x area
Output power = Voltage x current = 0.5 x 2 = 1.0 w
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (ƞ) = x 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ×𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
1.0
12.5% = x 100%
800 ×𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
1.0
Area = x 100%
800 × 12.5
Area = 10-2 m2
The area of the solar cell is 0.01 m2.

Q5. Solar insolation on a rectangular module (1.5 m x 2.0 m) of photovoltaic cells is 550
w/m2. If the efficiency of the cells is 12%. What is the power output of the module?
Ans: - Solar insolation = 550 w/m2, Efficiency (ƞ) = 12 %
Solar cell area = 1.5 x 2.0 = 3 m2
 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (ƞ) = x 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Incident light power = insolation x area = 550 x 3 = 1650 w/m2
Output power = Voltage x current =?
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Efficiency (ƞ) = x 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ×𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
ƞ × 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Output power =
100
12 × 1650
Output power =
100
Output power = 198 W
The output power of the solar cell is 198 W.

10. Categories of Solar cells: -

i) Ist Generation Solar cells → expensive → low efficiency
ii) IInd Generation Solar cells go → cheaper → low efficiency
iii) IIIrd Third-generation solar cells → cheaper → very efficient

Q36. Explain the 1st generation of traditional solar cell construction and working.

Q37. Discuss qualitatively 1st generation solar cell.

Q38. Discuss qualitatively 1st generation solar cell with example of different absorbent
types.

Q39. What are first-generation solar cells, and what are the different types of absorbents
used in them? Provide an overview of their construction and working principles.

Q40. Compare and contrast the first, second, and third-generation solar cells. What
factors contribute to the selection of a particular type of solar cell for specific
applications?

i. Ist Generation Solar cells: -

a. Ist generation solar cells are the traditional solar cells, made from silicon.
b. Silicon-based solar cells are more efficient and longer lasting than non-silicon-
based cells. They are more at risk of losing some efficiency at high temperatures
(Hot sunny days).
c. These cells are produced on wafers of silicon, each wafer can supply 2-3 W
power.
d. The absorbents used in Ist generation solar cells are of four types: -
i. Monocrystal silicon cells: -This is the oldest and still most popular and
efficient technology. Solar cells are made from thin wafers of silicon.
The cells are a few inches across and several cells are laid out in a grid
to create a panel. They have a higher efficiency (up to 24.2 %). Their
production cost is the highest.
 ii. Polycrystalline Silicon Cells: -In this form, several interlocking silicon
crystals grow together. Panels based on these cells are cheaper. They are
slightly less efficient (up to 19.3%).
iii. Amorphous Silicon Cells: -In these cells, silicon is deposited in a very
thin layer onto a backing substrate – such as metal, glass, or even plastic.
Their production method is complex & low price. The panel can be made
flexible. They are much less efficient (up to 10%).
iv. Hybrid Silicon Cells: - It is a hybrid HIT cell in which a layer of
amorphous silicon is deposited on top of single crystal wafers. The result
is an efficient solar cell that performs well in terms of indirect light & is
much more efficient at high temperatures.

ii. IInd Generation Solar Cells: -

a. These cells are usually called thin–film solar cells because when compared to
crystalline silicon-based cells they are made from layers of semiconductor
materials only a few micrometre thick.
b. These cells are of three types –Amorphous silicon and two that are made from
non-silicon materials namely Cadmium telluride (CdTe) & Copper indium
gallium diselenide (CIGS)
c. Due to the usage of toxic materials like “Cd”, it is hazardous.
d. They have low efficiency and large flexibility.
e. The manufacturing cost of 2nd generation solar cell is very less.

iii. IIIrd Generation Solar Cells: -

a. Third Generation solar cells considered:
i. Nanocrystal-based solar cells (Colloidal Quantum dot cells)
ii. Polymer-based solar cells (Organic solar cells)
iii. Dye-sensitized solar cells
iv. Perovskite solar cells
b. Quantum dots have tuneable bandgaps and changing their size can lead to
absorb large amount of sunlight.
c. The organic materials exhibit photovoltaic properties at low cost and high
optical absorption. The organic PV cells are light, cheap & rugged.
d. The 3rd generation solar cell is reasonably efficient with efficiency of 31 – 40
%.
e. They are more efficient in utilization of sunlight that 1st and 2nd generation solar
cell.
f. They may be folded or cut into the required size & can still be used.
g. 3rd generation solar cell technology enhances the poor electrical performance of
2nd generation solar cell. (Thin film technology while maintaining a very low
production cost.)
Q41. Discuss the concept of multi-junction solar cells, including their composition,
structure, and working principle. How do multi-junction solar cells improve efficiency
compared to single-junction cells?

iv. Multi-junction Solar Cells: -

a. Multi-junction solar cells are more popular due to their very high photovoltaic
efficiency, and better power production & hence promising energy sources for
space & terrestrial applications.
b. Multijunction solar cells are composed of multiple semiconducting layers via
homojunction, intrinsic materials, or tunnel junctions of different materials having
different band gap energies & physical properties.
c. A multi-junction structure (material with different values of Eg) absorbs maximum
sunlight (broad range of wavelengths), generates more free electrons or current and,
ultimately, increases the efficiency of solar cells.
d. The top-most junction has the widest band gap and, as we go down, it decreases. It
is necessary to find the best semiconductor materials in terms of band gap to
increase efficiency. Fig. shows the different semiconductor materials used in a
multi-junction solar cell. As photons (sunlight) strike the solar cell, highest energy-
level photons are absorbed by the top-most layer, and photons with low energy are
absorbed in the lower layers.
e. These layers absorb a broader range of wavelengths from sunlight & produce
electric currents corresponding to different wavelengths.
f. Hence, solar cell efficiency increases up to 29 to 32%.

Q42. Explain the working principle of quantum dot solar cells and how the properties of
quantum dots make them suitable for photovoltaic applications. How does the band gap
of quantum dots vary with their size?
 v. Quantum dot Solar Cells: -
a. These solar cells use quantum dots nano-particles as absorber photovoltaic
material. Quantum dots have band gaps that are tuneable over a wide range of
energy levels by varying the size of dots. This property makes the quantum dots
attractive for multi-junction solar cell applications.
b. When the size of the semiconductor crystal is reduced below the Bohr exciton
radius (≅ 𝑛𝑚 its optical and electrical properties change. This is known as
Quantum dots. As the size of the nano-particles is decreased further, its band
gap increases.
c. The energy band gap in the Quantum dot is given by,
𝑘
Eg= Eg (bulk material) +
𝑑2
Where, k = Quantum confinement
d = radius of nanoparticles

Figure: Quantum dot size & band gap variation

d. Quantum dots of different band gaps can be grown over a range of sizes without
changing underlying material or technique.
e. Quantum dot nanoparticles can capture multiple bands of light. The Quantum
dot solar cells could be on a flexible polymer material.

Q43. What are the merits & demerits of a solar cell.

Q44. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using solar cells for generating
electricity?

Q45. What are the benefits and drawbacks associated with the use of solar cells as a
source of energy?
11. Merits and demerits of a solar cell:
a. Merits: -
 i. Solar energy conversion is attractive because it is inexhaustible & non-
polluting.
ii. It is used for generating power for remote & rural areas. Also, for space
vehicles & satellites.
iii. It is also used for marine navigation lights, remote weather stations,
telecommunication links, water pumps for irrigation etc.
iv. It is used to replace low power, high-cost batteries in consumer
electronic products such as watches, calculators, exposure meters in
photographic equipment etc. It is also more convenient not having to
change batteries periodically.
v. In application where higher voltages are needed solar cell can be
connected in series. Similarly, they can be connected in parallel to
supply larger current. One approach to reduce the cost of the solar cell
is to use a concentrator to focus light onto a smaller area.
b. Demerit:
i. High cost.
ii. Large area needed to collect enough solar power to make an impact on
our daily total power demand.
iii. Solar energy is intermittent nature of energy provided by the sun.
 Fluid and wind power
Q46. What is wind farm. Explain the types of the wind farms.

1. What are fluids?

Fluids, in its Engineering sense, can be defined as a material that shear(deformation)
constantly in the presence of a very small disturbance (Force and/or Gradient).
→Fluids can be found in liquid or Gaseous state.
→Wind is the movement of air from a region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure; the larger the difference between the high and low pressures, the greater the
wind speed.

Q47. Discuss the working principle of wind farms. Explain the different types of wind
farms.

Q48. How does a Wind Turbine Work? What are the types of wind farms?

Q49. What is the function of a wind turbine, and what are the different types of wind
farms used for generating electricity?

Q50. How do wind turbines operate, and what are the various configurations of wind
farms used to harness wind energy?

Q51. What constitutes a wind farm, and how can we classify the different types of wind
farms used in harnessing wind energy?

Q52. What exactly is a wind farm, and how can we categorize the various types of wind
farms employed to capture wind energy?

Q53. How does a Wind Turbine Work? Derive the equation of power density of wind
turbine.

2. Wind Farms: - A wind farm or wind park, also called a wind power station or wind power
plant is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. Wind farms
vary in size from a small number of turbines to several hundred wind turbines covering an
extensive area.
i. Working of wind turbine: -
1. Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the wind turns two or three
propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins
a generator to create electricity.
2. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters)
or more above ground, they can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind.
 3. Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or building, or they
can be connected to an electricity grid (shown here) for more widespread electricity
distribution.

ii) Types of wind farms:

1. Onshore wind farms: They are currently the most common. They are located on land
no less than 3 km from the coast and feed on terrestrial air currents. The advantage that
this location offers is its easy accessibility and proximity to the electric grid.
2. Nearshore wind farms: They are also located on land, but less than 3 Km from the
coast. The advantage of opting for this location is that it can harness both terrestrial
winds and sea winds to produce energy.
3. Offshore wind farms: These structures are built in the open sea several miles from the
coast. Among their main benefits compared to land installations is that the wind's force
is greater, at a lower altitude, and more regular than on land due to the absence of
barriers.

4. Calculation of wind power: -

1
Power in the wind = 2 𝜌𝐴𝑉 3
→ Effect of swept arear, A
→ Effect of wind speed, V
→ Effect of air density, ρ
Swept area: A = π r 2

(Arear of the circle swept by the rotor (m2)

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
Power =
𝑡
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
=
𝑡
½𝑚𝑉 2
= [m = ρ A d, ρ → Density, A → Area, d → Diameter]
𝑡
½(𝜌𝐴𝑑) 𝑉 2
=
𝑡
1 𝑑
= (𝜌𝐴) 𝑉2
2 𝑡
1 3
= 𝜌𝐴𝑉
2
Power density is wind power per unit Area
Area= 1- meter square
1
Power in the Wind = 𝜌𝐴𝑉3
2
1
Power Density in the Wind = 𝜌𝑉3
2

Numerical:
Q1. At a particular site, where air density is 1.2 kg/ m3, the wind I available at 8m/sec.
Find out the power density available in the wind.
Ans: - Given ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 v = 8m/sec P =?
1
Formula: P = 𝜌𝑉3
2
P = Available wind energy, ρ = Air density, V = available wind velocity
1
⸫P= 𝜌𝑉3
2
1
= ⅹ 1.2 ⅹ (8)3
2
P = 307.2 Watt / m2

Q2. A wind turbine of 50m diameter, where the air density is 1.165 kg/ m 3. The wind
speed at that location is 12.5 m/s. Find the available wind energy.
Ans: - P=? Diameter = 50 m, ρ = 1.165 kg/ m3, v = 12.5 m/s
Area of the windmill is = wind mill swept area is circle
50 2
A = 𝜋𝑟2 = 3.14 x ( ) = 625 m2
2
1 3
⸫P= 𝜌𝐴𝑉
2
1
= ⅹ 1.165 ⅹ 625 x (12.5)3
2
= 2232.727 kw

Q3. The wind is blowing at 10 m/sec, how much total power is the wind hitting the wind
turbine if the blades are 45 m long, assuming the turbine is at sea level? (Air density at
sea level = 1.225 kg/m3).
Ans: - P=? Radius = 45 m, ρ = 1.225 kg/ m3, v = 10 m/s
Area of the windmill is = wind mill swept area is circle
A = 𝜋𝑟2 = 3.14 x 452 = 6358.5 m2
1
⸫P= 𝜌𝐴𝑉3
2
1
= ⅹ 1.225 ⅹ 6358.5 x (10)3
2
= 3896 kw
= 3.896 Mw

Q4. The wind is blowing at 12 m/sec, how much total power is the wind hitting the wind
turbine if the blades are 45 m long, assuming the turbine is at sea level? (Air density at
sea level = 1.225 kg/m3).
Ans: - P=? radius = 45 m, ρ = 1.225 kg/ m3, v = 12 m/s
Area of the windmill is = wind mill swept area is circle
A = 𝜋𝑟2 = 3.14 x 452 = 6358.5 m2
1
⸫P= 𝜌𝐴𝑉3
2
1
= ⅹ 1.225 ⅹ 6358.5 x (12)3
2
= 6729.836 kw
= 6.73 Mw
Q5. You made a homemade wind turbine that has 3 blades that are 1 m long each. You
live at sea level so that air density is about 1.23 kg/m3. The wind is blowing at 12 m/s.
What is the theoretical power output in this wind?
Ans: - P=? Radius = 1 m, ρ = 1.23 kg/ m3, v = 12 m/s
Area of the windmill is = wind mill swept area is a circle
A = 𝜋𝑟2 = 3.14 x 12 = 3.14 m2
1
⸫P= 𝜌𝐴𝑉3
2
1
= ⅹ 1.23 ⅹ 3.14 x (12)3
2
= 3336.94 w
= 3.34 kw