INTERNET OF THINGS

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

Assistant Professor
Priyadarshini Bhagwati College of Engineering, Nagpur

January 5, 2022
2

DISCLAIMER

This document does not claim any originality

and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a
collection by the teacher for his respective teaching
assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end
of the document as well as freely available material
from internet were consulted for preparing this
document. The ownership of the information lies
with the respective authors or institutions.
Contents

1 Amplitude Modulation 7

1.1 What is Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.2 Need for Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.3.1 Time Domain Description of Amplitude Modulation . . . 10

1.3.2 Frequency Domain Description of AM Wave . . . . . . . . 12

1.3.3 Bandwidth of AM Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3.4 Average Power for Sinusoidal AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3.5 Total Current in AM Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.3.6 Modulation by Several Sine Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3.7 Efficiency of AM Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.3.8 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of AM . . . 17

1.4 Generation of AM Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.4.1 Square-Law Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.4.2 Switching Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3
4 CONTENTS
List of Figures

1.1 Amplitude modulated wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5
6 LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1

Amplitude Modulation

1.1 What is Modulation

Modulation is the process of varying one waveform in relation to another

waveform. in communication, modulation is used to convey a message. Often
a high frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal to convey a
lower frequency signal. The three key parameters of sine wave are its
amplitude (”Volume”), its phase (”timing”) and its frequency (”pitch”), all of
which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency information signal
to obtain the modulated signal. The process is called modulation and may be
defined as under :

”The process of changing some characteristics e.g. amplitude, frequency or

phase of a carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
(message)signal is known as modulation”.

The resultant wave is called modulated wave or radio wave and

contains the audio signal. Modulation permits the transmission to occur at
high frequencies while it simultaneously allows the carrying of the audio
signal.

A device that performs modulation is known as modulator and a device

that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator
(sometimes called detector or demod). A device that can do both operations is
a MODEM (short for Modulator - Demodulator).

Types of Modulation :

7
8 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Phase modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation :
Amplitude modulation is a process in which amplitude of the high
frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal keeping the frequency and the
phase of carrier wave constant.
2. Frequency Modulation :
Frequency modulation is a process in which frequency of the high
frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal keeping the amplitude and phase of
carrier wave constant.
3. Phase Modulation :
Phase modulation is a process in which phase of high frequency carrier
wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping amplitude and frequency of carrier wave
constant.

1.2 Need for Modulation

Modulation is extremely necessary in communication systems due to the

following reasons :

1 Practical Antenna Length :

When free space is used as communication channel, antennas radiate
and receivers receives the signal. Attenuation is undesirable because it
reduces signal strength at the receiver. More serious is distortion,
interference and noise, which appear as alternations of the signal shape.
although such contamination may occur at any point, the standard
convention is to blame them entirely on the channel. The transmitter
and receiver are always treated as ideal. Theory shows that the antennas
operate effectively only when their dimensions are of the order of the
magnitude of wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
v 3 × 108
λ= = m
f f
1.2. NEED FOR MODULATION 9

The audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Suppose a frequency

of 20 kHz is to radiate directly into space. For this,

3 × 108
Length of antenna = m = 15000 m = 15 km
20 × 103
This is too long antenna to be constructed practically. so, it is
impracticable to radiate audio signal directly into space. Let us now
calculate the length of the antenna if a carrier wave of say, 1000 kHz is
used to carry the signal.

3 × 108
Length of antenna = m = 300 m
106
An antenna of 300 m length can be easily constructed.

2 Interference :
Interference is contamination by extraneous signals from human
sources, other transmitters, power lines and machinery, switching
circuits, etc. Interference occurs most often in radio systems whose
receiving antennas usually intercept several signals at the same time.
Radio frequency interference (RFI) also appears in cable systems if the
transmission wires or receiver circuitry picks up signals radiated from
nearby sources. Appropriate filtering removes interference to the extent
that the interfacing signals occupy different frequency bands than the
desired signal. For this reason, modulation is always done in
communication systems.

3 Wireless Communication :
One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried
without wires that is radiated into space. At audio frequencies, radiation
is not practicable because the efficiency of radiation is poor. However,
efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies (>
20 kHz). For this reason, modulation is always done in communication
systems.

4 Operating Range :
The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the
frequency of the wave, the greater is the energy possessed by it. As the
audio signal frequencies are small, these cannot be transmitted over
large distances if radiated directly into space. the only practical solution
is to modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal and
permit the transmission to occur at this high frequency (carrier
frequency).
10 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1.3 Amplitude Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the

modulating signal. Here, information signal is the modulating signal and high
frequency signal which is being modulated is the carrier signal. Formally, AM
is defined as system of modulation in which the instantaneous value of the
carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal. Figure ?? shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher
frequency carrier signal.

Looking at figure ?? we can see that the frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant during modulation process but its amplitude varies in
accordance with the modulating signal.

1.3.1 Time Domain Description of Amplitude Modulation

Let the carrier signal be represented by the equation as –

vc = Vc cos(ωc t + θ )

where,
vc = instantaneous value of carrier voltage.
Vc = maximum value of carrier voltage (amplitude)
ωc = angular carrier frequency = 2π f c
θ = phase angle
t = time

1. when amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the

instantaneous value of modulating signal, then the process is called
amplitude modulation.

2. When frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the

instantaneous value of modulating signal, then the process is called
frequency modulation.

3. When phase of the carrier signal is changed in accordance with the

instantaneous value of modulating signal, it is called phase modulation.

Let th emodulating signal voltage is given by –

vm = Vm cos(ωm t) (1.1)
1.3. AMPLITUDE MODULATION 11

where, ωm is angular frequency of modulating signal and Vm is the amplitude

of modulating signal.

Let the carrier voltage is –

vc = Vc cos ωc t (1.2)

In amplitude modulation, amplitude of the carrier does not remain constant

but varies with the instantaneous value of modulating signal and varies with
respect to time as –
V (t) = Vc + Vm cos ωm t (1.3)
where, Vm cos ωm t represents the variation in amplitude of carrier signal.
Therefore, the instantaneous value of the modulated carrier voltage is given
by –
v = V (t) cos ωc t (1.4)
Putting equation(1.3) in (1.4), we get,

v = [Vc + Vm cos ωm t] cos ωc t (1.5)

 
Vm
∴ v = Vc 1 + cos ωm t cos ωc t (1.6)
Vc
∴ v = Vc [1 + m cos ωm t] cos ωc t (1.7)
Vm
where, m = Vc is modulation index or modulation factor or depth of
modulation.
∴ v = Vc cos ωc t + Vc m cos ωm t cos ωc t (1.8)
Expanding the above equation (), we get,

mVc
v = Vc cos ωc t + [cos(ωc + ωm )t + cos(ωc − ωm )t] (1.9)
2
mVc mVc
∴ v = Vc cos ωc t + cos(ωc + ωm )t + cos(ωc − ωm )t (1.10)
2 2
Equation(1.10) represents the equation of AM wave.
From equation (1.10), it can be concluded that the AM wave contains the
following frequency components :

1. Original carrier signal Vc cos ωc t having angular frequency ωc .

mVc
2. Upper sideband term 2 cos(ωc + ωm )t having angular frequency (ωc +
ω m ).
mVc
3. Lower sideband term 2 cos(ωc − ωm )t having angular frequency (ωc −
ω m ).
12 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

The AM wave can be drawn as –

Figure 1.1: Amplitude modulated wave

1.3.2 Frequency Domain Description of AM Wave

The amplitude modulated wave consists of following frequency components:

1. Original carrier signal Vc cos ωc t having angular frequency ωc .

mVc
2. Upper sideband term 2 cos(ωc + ωm )t having angular frequency (ωc +
ω m ).
mVc
3. Lower sideband term 2 cos(ωc − ωm )t having angular frequency (ωc −
ω m ).

The lower sideband and upper sideband terms are located in frequency
spectrum on either side of the carrier at a frequency interval ωm as shown
below :
1.3. AMPLITUDE MODULATION 13

Thus amplitude modulation generates apart from the carrier with

amplitude Vc , additional two sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency
ωc . They have amplitude mV c
2 .

In amplitude modulation, the actual message is present in two

sidebands. The carrier signal does not carry any information.

1.3.3 Bandwidth of AM Wave

We know that the bandwidth can be calculated by subtracting lowest

frequency of the signal from the highest frequency of the signal. For
amplitude modulated wave it is given by,

Bandwidth, BW = f USB − f LSB (1.11)

= ( fc + fm ) − ( fc − fm ) (1.12)
= 2 fm (1.13)

Therefore the bandwidth required for the amplitude modulation is

twice the frequency of the modulating signal.

In other words, we can say that, the bandwidth for AM wave is exactly
twice the bandwidth of message (modulating) signal, since the bandwidth of
message signal is f m .

1.3.4 Average Power for Sinusoidal AM

The AM wave consists of three components :

1. Original carrier signal Vc cos ωc t having angular frequency ωc .

mVc
2. Upper sideband term 2 cos(ωc + ωm )t having angular frequency (ωc +
ω m ).
mVc
3. Lower sideband term 2 cos(ωc − ωm )t having angular frequency (ωc −
ω m ).

The total power in the modulated wave can be given as –

Pt = PC + PLSB + PUSB (1.14)

14 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Where,
PC = Carrier power
PLSB = Power in lower sideband
PUSB = Power in upper sideband.
2
Vcarrier V2 V2
∴ Pt = + LSB + USB (1.15)
R R R
In the above equation, all three voltages are rms values and R is the resistance
in which power is dissipated.
Therefore carrier poser is given as –
 2
2 Vc
√
Vcarrier 2 Vc2
Pc = = = (1.16)
R R 2R
Similarly, power in sidebands can be given as –
 2
2 mV
√c /2
VLSB 2
PLSB = PUSB = = (1.17)
R R
m2 Vc2
PLSB = PUSB = (1.18)
8R
From equation (1.14), (1.16) and (1.18), we get,

Vc2 m2 Vc2 m2 Vc2

Pt = + + (1.19)
2R 8R 8R
V 2 2
m Vc 2 m2 Vc2
∴ Pt = c + + (1.20)
2R 4 2R 4 2R
m2 m2
∴ Pt = PC + PC + PC (1.21)
 4 2 4 
m m2
∴ Pt = PC 1 + + (1.22)
4 4
m2
 
∴ Pt = PC 1 + (1.23)
2

The above expression (1.23) gives total power of an amplitude modulated

wave.

1.3.5 Total Current in AM Wave

Let,
IC be the unmodulated carrier current.
1.3. AMPLITUDE MODULATION 15

It be the total modulated current of an AM wave.

R be the resistance.
We know that, the total power of an AM wave is given by –

m2
 
Pt = PC 1 +
2
Pt m 2
∴ = 1+
PC 2
Pt 2
I R I2 m2
∴ = t2 = t2 = 1 +
PC IC R IC 2
m2
 
∴ It2 = IC2 1 +
2
r
m2
∴ It = IC 1 +
2

1.3.6 Modulation by Several Sine Waves

High frequency carrier signal can be modulated simultaneously by several low

frequency modulating signal. This is a rule rather than an exception.
If simultaneous modulating voltages V1 , V2 , V3 ........ are used to modulate the
carrier, then total modulating voltage can be given as –
q
Vt = V12 + V22 + V32 + ............

Dividing both sides by Vc , we get

q
Vt V12 + V22 + V32 + ............
=
Vc Vc
s
Vt V12 + V22 + V32 + ............
∴ =
Vc Vc2
s
Vt V12 V22 V32
∴ = + + + .........
Vc Vc2 Vc2 Vc2

Vt V1 V2 V3
But, Vc
= mt , Vc = m1 , Vc = m2 and Vc = m3 and so on...
Hence, q
mt = m21 + m22 + m23 + ........
16 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1.3.7 Efficiency of AM Wave

The efficiency η of an AM system is given by the ratio of sideband power to

the total power of the modulated wave.
Sideband power
∴η= (1.24)
Total power of AM wave
We know that the power in upper sideband and lower sidebands are –
m2 Vc2
PLSB = PUSB =
8R

Total power in sidebands = PLSB + PUSB

m2 Vc2 m2 Vc2
∴ Sideband power = +
8R 8R
2
m Vc 2 m2 Vc2
∴ Sideband power = =
4R 2 2R
But, carrier power is –
Vc2
PC =
2R
m2 PC
∴ Sideband power = (1.25)
2
Total power in an AM wave is given by –
m2
 
Pt = PC 1 + (1.26)
2
Therefore putting equation (1.25) and (1.26) in equation (1.24), we get,
m2 PC
η=  2 
m2
PC 1 + 2

m2
∴η=  
m2
2 1+ 2

m2
∴η=
2 + m2
m2
∴ %η = × 100
2 + m2
i.e. the efficiency of an AM wave is a function of modulation index.
When m = 1 i.e. for 100 % modulation,
1 × 100
%η = = 33%
2+1
1.4. GENERATION OF AM WAVE 17

i.e. for 100 % modulation, only 33 % power lies in sidebands which carry the
information and remaining 67 % power is wasted in transferring the carrier
signal, which does not contain any information.

1.3.8 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of AM

Advantages :

1 AM transmitters are less complex.

2 AM receivers are simple, detection is easy.

3 AM receivers are cost efficient.

4 AM waves can travel a longer distance.

5 Low bandwidth.

Disadvantages :

1 Power is wasted in the transmitted signal.

2 AM needs larger bandwidth.

3 AM waves gets affected due to noise.

Applications

1 Radio broadcasting.

2 Picture transmission in a TV system.

1.4 Generation of AM Wave

There are two techniques to generate amplitude modulated wave as :

18 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

1. Low Level Modulation

2. High Level Modulation

In low level modulation techniques, the generation of AM wave takes

place in the initial stage of amplification, i.e. at a low power level. The
generated AM signal is then amplified using number of amplifier stages.

In high level modulation, modulation takes place in the final stage of

amplification and therefore modulation circuitary has to handle high power.
For example, if transmitter power is 1500 W and modulation index is 1 then
modulation power is 500 W. (33% of transmitter power). The modulator
circuitary must be able to deliver such a high power.

Comparison between Low Level and High Level Modulation

S.N. Parameter Low Level Modulation High Level Modulation

1 Point at which Modulation takes place Modulation takes place
modulation at initial stages of in the final stage of
takes place amplification amplification.
2 Power Level Modulation circuitry has Modulation circuitry has
to handle low power. to handle high power.
3 Complexity Modulation circuitry is Modulation circuitry is
simple as it has to handle quite complex as it has to
low power. handle high power.
4 Prime Factors Simplicity is the prime Prime requirement is
in design requirement. high efficiency and low
distortion.
5 Audio Power Low audio power is High power is required to
required to produce produce modulation.
modulation.
6 Design Each amplifier stage This is not the case with
Requirements following modulation high level modulation
of amplifier must handle sideband because in this modulation
stages. power as well as the takes place in the output
carrier. All these stage.
subsequent amplifiers
must have sufficient
bandwidth for the
sideband frequencies.
1.4. GENERATION OF AM WAVE 19

S.N. Parameter Low Level Modulation High Level Modulation

7 Amplifier used Linear amplifier such as High efficient class C
class A amplifier is used amplifiers are used.
because all stages must
be capable of handling
amplitude variations
caused by the modulation.
8 Amplifiers used Transistors and OP-AMPs. Vacuum tubes and power
transistors.
9 Efficiency Lower than high level Very high.
modulators.
10 Applications Some times used in TV High power broadcast AM
transmitters. transmitters.

1.4.1 Square-Law Modulator

The square-law modulator consists of three elements :

• Summer : It adds the carrier and the modulating waves.

• Non-linear element : It is used to implement square-law modulator.
• Band Pass Filter : It extracts desired term from modulator products.

In a non-linear element such as diode is suitably biased and operated

in a rest is restricted portion of its characteristics, that is, the signal applied to
the diode is relatively weak, then the characteristics of diode-resistor can be
represented closely by a square law:
v2 (t) = a1 v1 (t) + a2 v21 (t) (1.27)
where,
v1 (t) is the input voltage
v2 (t) is the output voltage
a1 and a2 are constants.

As shown in the figure??, input voltage consists of the carrier wave plus
the modulating wave, i.e.,
v1 (t) = Ac cos(2π f c t) + m(t) (1.28)

Substituting value of v1 (t) in equation 1.27 we get,

v2 (t) = a1 ( Ac cos(2π f c t) + m(t)) + a2 ( Ac cos(2π f c t) + m(t))2 (1.29)
20 CHAPTER 1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

v2 (t) = a1 Ac cos(2π f c t) + a1 m(t) + a2 A2c cos2 (2π f c t)

+ 2a2 Ac cos(2π f c t)m(t) + a2 m2 (t)

 
2a2
v2 ( t ) = a1 A c 1+ m(t) cos(2π f c t)
a1
+ a1 m(t) + a2 A2c cos2 (2π f c t) + a2 m2 (t) (1.30)

The equation 1.30 gives resulting voltage developed across the primary
winding of the output transformer. The first term of equation 1.30 is the
desired AM wave. In this equation Ka = 2a2 /a1 , which is the amplitude
sensitivity of the AM wave. The remaining terms in the equation are
unwanted terms. These unwanted terms are removed by appropriate
filtering. To remove unwanted terms in equation, filter should have following
specifications :
Midband frequency = f c
Bandwidth = 2 f m
fc > 3 fm

1.4.2 Switching Modulator

In this modulator,multiplication operation is replaced by a simpler switching

operation.Figure ?? shows a switching modulator.Hence, diode is assumed to
act as a ideal switch, that is, it presents zero impedance when it is
forward-biased and infinite impedance when it is reverse biased.The diode
switch is controlled by the carrier wave c(t). When c(t) is greater than 0,
diode is forward biased and when c(t) is less than 0, diode is reverse biased,
because in this circuit, amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) applied to the diode
is large. This is illustrated in figure ??.

We know that,
v1 (t) = Ac cos(2π f c t) + m(t) (1.31)
where, m(t)  Ac

The output voltage v2 (t) can be represented as-

(
v1 ( t ), c ( t ) > 0
v2 ( t ) = (1.32)
0, c(t) < 0
1.4. GENERATION OF AM WAVE 21

The load voltage v2 (t) varies periodically between the values v1 (t) and
zero at a rate equal to the carrier frequency f c .

We can express equation mathematically as -

v2 (t) = [ Ac cos(2π f c t) + m(t)] g p (t) (1.33)

where, g p (t) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one half and period
T0 = 1/ f c , as shown in figure ??. Representing this g p (t) by its Fourier series,
we have,
∞
1 2 (−1)n−1
g p (t) = +
2 π ∑ 2n − 1 cos [2π f c t(2n − 1)] (1.34)
n =1
1 2
= + cos(2π f c t) + Odd harmonic Components (1.35)
2 π

Therefore substituting equation?? in equation ??, we get the load voltage

v2 (t) is as follows:
 
Ac 4
v2 ( t ) = 1+ m(t) cos(2π f c t) + Unwanted terms (1.36)
2 πAc

The first term in equation ?? is the desired AM wave with amplitude

sensitivity Ka = 4/πAc . The unwanted terms are removed from the load
voltage v2 (t) by using band-pass filter.