MOBILE COMPUTING

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

Assistant Professor
Priyadarshini Bhagwati College of Engineering, Nagpur

March 23, 2021

2

DISCLAIMER

This document does not claim any originality and

cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a
collection by the teacher for his respective teaching
assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end
of the document as well as freely available material
from internet were consulted for preparing this
document. The ownership of the information lies with
the respective authors or institutions.
Contents

1 Introduction, Transmission Fundamentals, Communication, Protocol

and TCP/IP Suite 9

1.1 Introduction of Mobile computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.2 Attribute of Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.3 Limitation of Mobile Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.4 Introduction of Wireless Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.5 Signals - Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.6 Analog and Digital Data Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.7 Channel Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.7.1 Shannon and Nyquist Capacity Formula . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.7.2 Noiseless Channel : Nyquist Bit Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.7.3 Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.8 Transmission Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.8.1 Guided Transmission Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.8.2 Unguided (Wireless) transmission media . . . . . . . . . . 29

1.9 Communication Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1.9.1 LAN (Local Area Network) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

1.9.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3
4 CONTENTS

1.9.3 WAN (Wide Area Network) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1.10 Switching Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.11 What is Protocol? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1.12 Protocols layers and their service model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

1.12.1 OSI Layer Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

1.12.2 TCP/IP Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

1.13 Internetworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2 Antennas and Propagation 55

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.2 Radiation Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.3 Types of Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2.3.1 Dipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2.3.2 Parabolic Reflective Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.4 Propagation Modes in Wireless Communication . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.4.1 Ground Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.4.2 Sky Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2.4.3 Line-of-sight propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

2.5 Multipath Propagation & Fading in the Mobile Environment . . . 69

2.6 Encoding and Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

2.7 Digital data, Analog signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

2.7.1 Amplitude Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

2.7.2 Frequency Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

2.7.3 Phase Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

2.8 Analog Data, Analog Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

CONTENTS 5

2.8.1 Amplitude Modulation – AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.8.2 Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

2.9 Analog Data, Digital Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

2.10 Spread Spectrum Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

2.11 Error Control and Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

2.12 Error Detection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.12.1 Parity checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

2.12.2 Checksum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

2.12.3 Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

2.13 Block Error Correction Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

2.13.1 Hamming Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

2.13.2 Automatic Repeat Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

2.14 What is 3G ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

2.15 3G versus Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3 GSM and GPRS 109

3.1 Multiplexing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

3.1.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) . . . . . . . . 109

3.1.2 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) . . . . . . . . . . 110

3.1.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.1.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) . . . . . . . . . . 113

3.2 Principles of Cellular Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.2.1 Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3.2.2 Frequency Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.2.3 Cell Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

6 CONTENTS

3.3 GSM Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

3.4 GSM Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

3.5 Entities in GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

3.6 Handover procedure in GSM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.6.1 Types of GSM handover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3.6.2 GSM handover process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

3.6.3 Roaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3.6.4 Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3.6.5 GSM Addresses and Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

3.6.6 Call routing in GSM with block diagram . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.6.7 Signaling Protocol Structure in GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

3.6.8 Different GSM Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

3.7 GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

3.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

3.7.2 Basic Quality of Service in GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

3.7.3 GPRS functional architecture and its application . . . . . . 142

3.7.4 Applications of GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

3.8 Transmission Plane Protocol Architecture of GPRS . . . . . . . . . 146

3.9 PDP context activation procedure with respect to GPRS . . . . . . 149

3.10 How the packets are routed in GPRS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

3.11 Data services in GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

3.12 Billing and Charging in GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

3.13 Limitations of GPRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

3.14 Mobile IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

3.15 Wireless Application Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

CONTENTS 7

3.15.1 WAP Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

3.16 Cordless System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

3.17 Wireless Local Loop - WLL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

3.18 Wireless Broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

3.19 Sub-standards of IEEE 802.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

4 Wireless LAN 165

4.1 Introduction of Wireless LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

4.2 Wireless LAN advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

4.3 Wireless LAN disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.4 Types of wireless LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.5 Ad hoc verses infrastructure mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.6 IEEE 802 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

4.7 IEEE 802.11 architecture and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

4.8 IEEE 802.11 Medium access control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

4.9 IEEE 802.11 physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

4.10 Wi-Fi Protected Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

4.11 Wireless LAN security issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

5 Bluetooth 189

5.1 Introduction of Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

5.2 Piconet and Scatternet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

5.3 Bluetooth Protocol Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

5.4 Bluetooth Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

5.5 Application of Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

8 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Introduction, Transmission
Fundamentals, Communication,
Protocol and TCP/IP Suite

1.1 Introduction of Mobile computing

1 Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission

of data, voice, and video via a computer or any other
wireless-enabled device.

2 It can be defined as a computing environment of physical

mobility.

3 A mobile computing system allows a user to perform a task

from anywhere while on move.

9
10CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Figure 1.1: Mobile Computing

4 Mobile Computing involves the following:

(a) Mobile communication

i. Mobile communication refers to the infrastructure
put in place to ensure that seamless and reliable
communication.
ii. These would include devices such as protocols,
services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to
facilitate and support the stated services.
iii. Media is unguided/wireless; the infrastructure is
basically radio wave-oriented.
(b) Mobile Hardware
i. Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device
components that receive or access the service of
mobility.
ii. Devices are laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc’s,
Personal Digital Assistants.
iii. These devices have capable of sending and receiving
signals.
iv. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex
means sending and receiving signals at the same time
in wireless network.
(c) Mobile Software
1.2. ATTRIBUTE OF MOBILITY 11

i. Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the

mobile hardware.
ii. In other terms, it is the operating system of the
appliance.
iii. It’s the essential component that operates the mobile
device.
iv. It deals with the characteristics and requirements of
mobile applications.
v. For example, the manufacturers of Apple’s iPhone
OS, Google’s Android’ Microsoft Windows Mobile,
Research In Motion’s Blackberry OS.

1.2 Attribute of Mobility

1 User Mobility

(a) User should be able to move from one physical location

to another location and use the same service.
(b) Example: User moves from London to New York and
uses the Internet in either place to access the corporate
application.

2 Network Mobility

(a) User should be able to move from one network to another

network and use the same service.
(b) Example: User moves from Hong Kong to Singapore
and uses the same GSM phone to access the corporate
application.

3 Bearer Mobility

(a) User should be able to move from one bearer to another

while using the same service.
12CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

(b) Example: User is unable to access the WAP bearer due to

some problem in the GSM network then he should be
able to use voice or SMS bearer to access that same
corporate application.
(c) Like Hike Messenger

4 Device Mobility
(a) User should be able to move from one device to another
and use the same service.
(b) Example: User is using a PC to do his work. During the
day, while he is on the street he would like to use his
mobile to access the corporate application.
5 Session Mobility
(a) A user session should be able to move from one user -
agent environment to another.
(b) Example: An unfinished session moving from a mobile
device to a desktop computer is a good example.
6 Service Mobility
(a) User should be able to move from one service to another.
(b) Example: User is writing a mail. Suddenly, he needs to
refer to something else. In a PC, user simply opens
another service and moves between them. User should
be able to do the same in small wireless devices.
7 Host Mobility
(a) User should be able to move while the device is a host
computer.
(b) Example: The laptop computer of a user is a host for
grid computing network. It is connected to a LAN port.
Suddenly, the user realizes that he needs to leave for an
offsite meeting. He disconnects from the LAN and
should get connected to wireless LAN while his laptop
being the host for grid computing network.
1.3. LIMITATION OF MOBILE COMPUTING 13

1.3 Limitation of Mobile Computing

1 Limitations of the wireless network

(a) Heterogeneity of fragmented networks
(b) Frequent disconnections
(c) Limited communication bandwidth

2 Limitations imposed by mobility

(a) Lack of mobility awareness by system / applications
(b) Route breakages

3 Limitations of the mobile computer

(a) Short battery lifetime
(b) Limited capacities (memory, processing speed, etc.)

1.4 Introduction of Wireless Communication

1 Wireless Communication involves the transmission of

information over a distance without the help of wires, cables
or any other forms of electrical conductors.

2 It is a term that connecting and communicating between two

or more devices using a wireless signal through wireless
communication technologies and devices.

3 The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few

meters (for example: a television’s remote control) and
thousands of kilometers (for example: radio
communication).

4 Wireless communication can be used for cellular telephony,

wireless access to the internet, wireless home networking,
and so on.
14CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Figure 1.2: Wireless Communication

Applications of Wireless Communication

1 GPS Units

2 Wireless keyboard-mouse

3 Headsets

4 Radio Receivers

5 Satellite Television

6 Broadcast Television

7 Cordless Telephones etc. . .

1.5 Signals - Basics

1 A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used

for carrying data from one device or network to another.

2 It is the key component behind virtually all:

(a) Communication
(b) Computing
1.5. SIGNALS - BASICS 15

(c) Networking
(d) Electronic devices

3 A signal can be either analog or digital.

4 Here, we are concerned with electromagnetic signals used as

a means to transmit information.

5 An electromagnetic signal is a function of time, but it can also

be expressed as a function of frequency; that is, the signal
consists of components of different frequencies.

(a) Time Domain

(b) Frequency Domain

6 The frequency domain view of a signal is far more important

to an understanding of data transmission than a time domain
view.

7 As a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can be either

analog or digital.

8 An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies

in a smooth fashion over time.

9 In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in the

signal.

10 A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains

a constant level for some period of time and then changes to
another constant level.
16CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Figure 1.3: Analog and Digital Waveforms

11 Figure 1.3shows examples of both kinds of signals. The

analog signal might represent speech, and the digital signal
might represent binary 1s and 0s.

12 Periodic signal: An analog or digital signal pattern that

repeats over time.

13 Aperiodic signal: An analog or digital signal pattern that

doesn’t repeat over time.

Figure 1.4: Periodic and Aperiodic Signal

1.6. ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION 17

14 Peak amplitude (A): Maximum value or strength of the

signal over time. Typically measured in volts.

15 Frequency (f): Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), at

which the signal repeats.

16 Phase (φ): A measurement of the relative position in time

within a single period of a signal.

17 Wavelength (l): A distance occupied by a single cycle of the

signal.
• Example: Speed of light is v = 3 × 108 m/s. Wavelength
is λ f = v (or λ = vT)

Figure 1.5: Different terms of waveform

1.6 Analog and Digital Data Transmission

1 The terms analog and digital correspond, roughly, to

continuous and discrete, respectively.

2 These two terms are used frequently in data communications

in at least three contexts:
(a) Data
(b) Signals
(c) Transmission
18CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

3 We define data as entities that convey meaning, or

information.

4 Signals are electric or electromagnetic representations of data.

5 Transmission is the communication of data by the

propagation and processing of signals.

6 Analog data take on continuous values in some interval.

(a) For example, voice and video are continuously varying

patterns of intensity.
(b) Most data collected by sensors, such as temperature and
pressure, are continuous valued.

7 Digital data take on discrete values.

• Examples are text and integers.

Figure 1.6: Analog and Digital Data

8 An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic

wave that may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency.

• Examples are copper wire media, such as twisted pair

and coaxial cable; fiber optic cable; and atmosphere or
space propagation (wireless).
1.6. ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION 19

Figure 1.7: Analog and Digital Signaling of Analog and Digital Data

Figure 1.8: Analog and Digital Signaling of Analog and Digital Data

9 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be

transmitted over a copper wire medium.

10 Example, a constant positive voltage level may represent

binary 0 and a constant negative voltage level may represent
binary 1.

11 The principal advantages of digital signaling are that it is

generally cheaper than analog signaling and is less
susceptible to noise interference.
20CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

12 The principal disadvantage is that digital signals suffer more

from attenuation than do analog signals.

13 In frequency domain view, A signals lie in the frequency

range, theoretically signals are composed of many sinusoidal
signals with different frequencies (like Fourier Series).

14 It is actually composed of infinite sinusoidal signal at

different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases. An
electromagnetic signal can be made up of many frequencies.

Figure 1.9: Frequency Domain View

1.7 Channel Capacity

1 The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a

given communication path, or channel, under given
conditions is referred to as the channel capacity.

2 There are four concepts here that we are trying to relate to one
another:
1.7. CHANNEL CAPACITY 21

3 Data rate: This is the rate, in bits per second (bps), at which
data can be communicated.

4 Data rate depends upon 3 factors:

(a) The bandwidth available

(b) Number of levels in digital signal
(c) The quality of the channel – level of noise

5 Bandwidth: This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal

as constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the
transmission medium, expressed in cycles per second, or
Hertz.

6 Noise: We are concerned with the average level of noise over

the communications path.

7 Error rate: This is the rate at which errors occur, where an

error is the reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted or the
reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

1.7.1 Shannon and Nyquist Capacity Formula

1 Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the

data rate:

(a) Nyquist for a noiseless channel

(b) Shannon for a noisy channel

2 Data rate governs the speed of data transmission.

3 A very important consideration in data communication is

how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
22CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

1.7.2 Noiseless Channel : Nyquist Bit Rate

1 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines

the theoretical maximum bit rate.
C = 2B log2 M
Where:
B is the bandwidth of the channel
M is the number of signal levels used to represent data
C is the bit rate in bits per second.

2 Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed.

Hence, the data rate is directly proportional to the number of
signal levels.

3 Note that, Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the

reliability of the system.

4 Example-1: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth

of 4000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What
can be the maximum bit rate?
Answer: Bit-Rate = 2 × 4000 × log2 (2)= 8000 bps

5 Example-2: We need to send 250 kbps over a noiseless

channel with a bandwidth of 30 kHz. How many signal
levels do we need?
Answer:
250000 = 2 × 30000 × log2 ( L)
∴ log2 ( L) = 4.17
∴ L = 24 .17 = 18 levels

1.7.3 Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity

1 In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is

always noisy.
1.8. TRANSMISSION MEDIA 23

2 Shannon capacity is used to determine the theoretical highest

data rate for a noisy channel.

C = B log2 (1 + SNR)

Where:
B is the bandwidth of the channel SNR is the signal-to-noise
ratio C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second

3 Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed.

4 So, the channel capacity is directly proportional to the power

of the signal, as

Power of signal
SNR =
power of noise

5 The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in

decibels (dB).

6 Example: A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of

3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communication.
The SNR is usually 3162. What will be the capacity for this
channel?
Answer:
C = 3000 × log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 × 11.62 = 34860bps

1.8 Transmission Media

A transmission medium can be defined as anything that can carry

information from a source to a destination.

1 Guided transmission media

2 Unguided transmission media

24CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Figure 1.10: Classification Transmission Media

1.8.1 Guided Transmission Media

• Magnetic media
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber optics

1 Guided media, which are those that provide a channel from

one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.

2 A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and

contained by the physical limit of the medium.

Magnetic Media

1 One of the most common ways to transport data from one

computer to another is to write them onto magnetic tape or
removable media (e.g., recordable DVDs), physically
transport the tape or disks to the destination machine, and
read them back in again.
1.8. TRANSMISSION MEDIA 25

2 Although this method is not as sophisticated as using a

geosynchronous communication satellite, it is often more
cost effective, especially for applications in which high
bandwidth or cost per bit transported is the key factor.

Twisted Pair

1 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires,

typically about 1 mm thick.

2 The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a

DNA molecule.

3 Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine

antenna.

4 When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists
cancel out, so the wire radiates less effectively.

Figure 1.11: Twisted Pair Cable

Why cable is twisted?

• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted

signals is not the same in both wires because they are at
different locations relatives to the noise or crosstalk sources.

• This results in a difference at the receiver.

• By twisting the pair, a balance is maintained.

26CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Types of Twisted-Pair Cable

1 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

(a) Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties, two of

which are important for computer networks.
(b) Category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires
gently twisted together.
(c) Category 5 is the more advanced twisted pairs were
introduced.
(d) They are similar to category 3 pairs, but with more twists
per centimeter, which results in less crosstalk and a
better-quality signal over longer distances, making them
more suitable for high-speed computer communication.
(e) Latest categories are 6 and 7, which are capable of
handling signals with bandwidths of 250 MHz and 600
MHz, respectively (versus a mere 16 MHz and 100 MHz
for categories 3 and 5, respectively).

Figure 1.12: Unshielded twisted-pair

2 Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

(a) STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that
encases each pair of insulated conductors.
(b) Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing
the penetration of noise or crosstalk.
(c) It is bulkier and more expensive.
(d) Applications:
1.8. TRANSMISSION MEDIA 27

i. Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data

channels.
ii. The DSL lines uses by telephone companies use the
high-bandwidth capability of UTP cables.
iii. LANs, such as 10Base-T, 100Base-T, also uses twisted-
pair cables.

Figure 1.13: UTP and STP Cable

Coaxial Cable

1 It has better shielding than twisted pairs, so it can span longer

distances at higher speeds.

2 Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used. One kind, 50-
ohm cable, is commonly used when it is intended for digital
transmission from the start.

3 The other kind, 75-ohm cable, is commonly used for analog

transmission and cable television but is becoming more
important with the advent of Internet over cable.

4 A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core,

surrounded by an insulating material.

5 The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a

closely-woven braided mesh.

6 The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.

28CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

7 The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a

good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise
immunity.

8 The bandwidth possible depends on the cable quality, length,

and signal-to-noise ratio of the data signal. Modern cables
have a bandwidth of close to 1 GHz.

9 Coaxial cables used to be widely used within the telephone

system for long-distance lines but have now largely been
replaced by fiber optics on long-haul routes.

Figure 1.14: Coaxial Cable

Fiber Optics

1 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits

signals in the form of light.

2 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

3 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less

dense glass or plastic.

4 The difference in density of the two materials must be such

that a beam of light moving through a core is reflected off the
cladding instead of being refracted into it.
1.8. TRANSMISSION MEDIA 29

Figure 1.15: Fiber Optic Cable

5 Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the

braid.
6 Figure 1.15 shows a single fiber viewed from the side. At the
center is the glass core through which the light propagates.

7 The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index

of refraction than the core, to keep all the light in the core.

8 Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.

Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an
outer sheath. Figure shows a sheath with three fibers.

1.8.2 Unguided (Wireless) transmission media

• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared
• Light wave Transmission

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without

using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.
30CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Radio Transmission

1 Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances,

and can penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used
for communication, both indoors and outdoors.

2 Radio waves also are omnidirectional, meaning that they

travel in all directions from the source, so the transmitter and
receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.

3 The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent.

4 At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well,

but the power falls off sharply with distance from the source,
roughly as 1/r2 in air.

5 At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight

lines and bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by
rain.

6 At all frequencies, radio waves are subject to interference

from motors and other electrical equipment.

7 In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the

curvature of the earth.

8 In the HF they bounce off the ionosphere.

Figure 1.16:
1.8. TRANSMISSION MEDIA 31

Microwave Transmission

1 Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers

are too far apart, the earth will get in the way .Consequently,
repeaters are needed periodically.

2 Unlike radio waves at lower frequencies, microwaves do not

pass through buildings well. In addition, even though the
beam may be well focused at the transmitter, there is still
some divergence in space.

3 Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can
therefore be narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy
into a small beam using a parabolic antenna gives a much
higher signal to noise ratio.

4 Advantages:

(a) No right way is needed (compared to wired media).

(b) Relatively inexpensive.
(c) Simple to install.

5 Disadvantages:

(a) Do not pass through buildings well.

(b) Multipath fading problem (the delayed waves cancel the
signal).
(c) Absorption by rain above 8 GHz.
(d) Severe shortage of spectrum.

Infrared

1 Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used for

short-range communication.
32CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

2 The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos

all use infrared communication.
3 They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but
have a major drawback: they do not pass through solid
objects (try standing between your remote control and your
television and see if it still works).

4 In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward visible

light, the waves behave more and more like light and less
and less like radio.
5 On the other hand, the fact that infrared waves do not pass
through solid walls well is also a plus.

6 It means that an infrared system in one room of a building

will not interfere with a similar system in adjacent rooms or
buildings.

7 Furthermore, security of infrared systems against

eavesdropping is better than that of radio systems precisely
for this reason.
8 Therefore, no government license is needed to operate an
infrared system, in contrast to radio systems, which must be
licensed outside the ISM bands.

1.9 Communication Network

1 Communication networks can be categories by their size as

well as their purpose.

2 The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic

area.
3 Some of the different networks based on size are:
(a) LAN – Local Area Network
1.9. COMMUNICATION NETWORK 33

(b) MAN – Metropolitan Area Network

(c) WAN – Wide Area Network

1.9.1 LAN (Local Area Network)

1 It is privately-owned networks within a single building or

campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
2 They are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share
resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
3 LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot

4 In LAN, all the machines are connected to a single cable.

5 Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star, and Tree

are used.
6 The data rates for LAN range from 4 to 16 Mbps.

7 They transfer data at high speeds (higher bandwidth).

8 They exist in a limited geographical area.

9 Connectivity and resources, especially the transmission

media, usually are managed by the company which running
the LAN.

Figure 1.17: Local Area Network

34CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

1.9.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

1 A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The

best-known example of a MAN is the cable television
network available in many cities.

2 A MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally

uses similar technology.

3 At first, the companies began jumping into the business,

getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire
city.

4 The next step was television programming and even entire

channels designed for cable only. Often these channels were
highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking,
and so on.

Figure 1.18: Metropolitan Area Network

1.9.3 WAN (Wide Area Network)

1 WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or

continent.

2 It contains a collection of machines intended for running user

1.9. COMMUNICATION NETWORK 35

(i.e., application) programs. We will follow traditional usage

and call these machines hosts.

3 The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just

subnet for short.

4 In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two

distinct components: transmission lines and switching
elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines.

5 The communication between different users of WAN is

established using leased telephone lines or satellite links and
similar channels.

Figure 1.19: Wide Area Network

What Is the Internet?

1 The Internet is a computer network that interconnects

hundreds of millions of computing devices throughout the
world.

2 When two computers are connected over the Internet, they

can send and receive all kinds of information such as text,
graphics, voice, video, and computer programs.
36CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Figure 1.20: Some pieces of the Internet

1.10 Switching Techniques

1 For transmission of data beyond a local area, communication

is typically achieved by transmitting data from source to
destination through a network of intermediate switching
nodes; this switched network design is sometimes used to
1.10. SWITCHING TECHNIQUES 37

implement LANs and MANs as well.

2 Switching Techniques - In large networks there might be

multiple paths linking sender and receiver. Information may
be switched as it travels through various communication
channels.

Circuit Switching

1 Circuit switching is used in public telephone networks and is

the basis for private networks built on leased-lines.

2 Circuit switching was developed to handle voice traffic but

also digital data (although inefficient)

3 With circuit switching a dedicated path is established

between two stations for communication.
4 Switching and transmission resources within the network are
reserved for the exclusive use of the circuit for the duration of
the connection.

Figure 1.21: Circuit Switching Network

5 The connection is transparent: once it is established, it

appears to attach devices as if there were a direct connection.

6 Dedicated communication path between two stations. Path is

a connected sequence of links between network nodes.
38CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

7 On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the

connection. Communication via

(a) circuit switching involves three phases:

(b) Circuit Establishment
(c) Data Transfer
(d) Circuit Disconnect

8 Connection path must be established before data

transmission begins. Nodes must have switching capacity
and channel capacity to establish connection.

9 Switches must have intelligence to work out routing.

Packet Switching

1 Packet switching was designed to provide a more efficient

facility than circuit-switching for bursty data traffic.

2 With packet switching, a station transmits data in small

blocks, called packets.

3 At each node packets are received, stored briefly (buffered)

and passed on to the next node.

• Store and forward mechanism

4 Each packet contains some portion of the user data plus

control info needed for proper functioning of the network.

5 A key element of packet-switching networks is whether the

internal operation is datagram or virtual circuit (VC).

(a) With internal VCs, a route is defined between two

endpoints and all packets for that VC follow the same
route.
1.10. SWITCHING TECHNIQUES 39

(b) With internal diagrams, each packet is treated

independently, and packets intended for the same
destination may follow different routes.
6 Examples of packet switching networks are X.25, Frame
Relay, ATM and IP.

Figure 1.22: Packet Switching

7 Station breaks long message into packets. Packets sent one at

a time to the network.
8 Packets handled in two ways:
40CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

(a) Datagram
i. Each packet treated independently
ii. Packets can take any practical route
iii. Packets may arrive out of order
iv. Packets may go missing
v. Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from
missing packets
(b) Virtual Circuit
i. Preplanned route established before any packets sent.
ii. Once route is established, all the packets between the
two communicating parties follow the same route
through the network
iii. Call request and call accept packets establish
connection (handshake)
iv. Each packet contains a Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI)
instead of destination address
v. No routing decisions required for each packet
vi. Clear request to drop circuit
vii. Not a dedicated path

1.11 What is Protocol?

1 A protocol defines rules and conventions for communication

between network devices.

2 A protocol defines the format and the order of messages

exchanged between two or more communicating entities, as
well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt
of a message or other event.

4 The key features of protocol are as follows:

1.11. WHAT IS PROTOCOL? 41

(a) Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks

(b) Semantics: Includes control information for coordination
and error handling
(c) Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

5 Example: HTTP, IP, FTP etc.

Figure 1.23: A human protocol and a computer network protocol

6 It defines those computers of the network used at the edge

of the network. These computers are known as hosts or end
system.

7 Host can be classified into the following two types:

(a) Clients: Refer to the computer systems that request

servers for the completion of a task. The clients are
generally called desktop PCs or workstations.
(b) Servers: Refer to the computer systems that receive
requests from the clients and process them. After the
processing is complete, the servers send a reply to the
clients who sent the request.

8 The concept of clients and servers is essential in the network

design. The various networks design models are as follows:
42CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Peer to Peer network

1 A group of computers is connected together so that users can

share resources and information.

2 There is no central location for authenticating users, storing

files, or accessing resources.

3 This means that users must remember which computers in

the workgroup have the shared resource or information that
they want to access.

4 Advantage:

(a) It is easy to setup.

(b) There is no need of any committed server as each peer

acts as both server and client.

(c) The network implementation is quite cheap.

(d) The resources of a peer can be shared with other peers

very easily in the network.

5 Disadvantage:

(a) The speed of the network decreases due to heavy usage.

(b) It is not easy to keep track of information on each

computer.

(c) There is on central backup of files and folders.

(d) Network and data security are weak.

1.11. WHAT IS PROTOCOL? 43

Figure 1.24: Network Edge - Peer to Peer and Client/Server Network

Client/Server network

1 client/server network is a system where one or more

computers called clients connect to a central computer
named a server to share or use resources.

2 The client requests a service from server, which may include

running an application, querying database, printing a
document, or performing a backup or recovery procedure.
The request made by the client is held by server.

3 A client/server network is that the files and resources are

centralized. This means that a computer, the server, can hold
them and other computers can access them.

4 Advantage:

(a) The server system holds the shared files.

(b) The server system can be scheduled to take the file
backups automatically.
(c) Network access is provided only to authorize users
through user security at the server.
(d) The server system is a kind of central repository for
sharing printer with clients.
44CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

(e) Internet access, e-mail routing, and such other

networking tasks are quite easily managed by the server.
(f) The software applications shared by the server are
accessible to the clients.

5 Disadvantage:

(a) The implementation of the network is quite expensive.

(b) A network operating system is essential.
(c) If server fails, the entire network crashes.

1.12 Protocols layers and their service model

1.12.1 OSI Layer Architecture

1 OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the

International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step
toward international standardization of the protocols used in
the various layers.

2 It was revised in 1995.

3 The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems

Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.

4 The OSI model has seven layers.

(a) Physical Layer

(b) Data Link Layer
(c) Network Layer
(d) Transport Layer
(e) Session Layer
1.12. PROTOCOLS LAYERS AND THEIR SERVICE MODEL 45

(f) Presentation Layer

(g) Application Layer

Figure 1.25: OSI Reference Model

Physical Layer

1 The physical layer coordinates the function required to carry

a bit stream over a physical medium.

2 It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of

the interface and transmission medium.
46CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

3 It also defines the procedures and functions that physical

devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to
occur.
4 The physical layer is concerned with the following:
(a) Physical characteristics of interface and medium
(b) Representation of bits
(c) Data rate
(d) Synchronization of bits
(e) Line configuration
(f) Physical topology
(g) Transmission mode

Data Link Layer

1 The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw

transmission facility, to a reliable link.

2 It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper

layer.

3 The data link layer is concerned with the following:

(a) Framing
(b) Physical addressing
(c) Flow control
(d) Error control
(e) Access control

Network Layer

1 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination

delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks.
1.12. PROTOCOLS LAYERS AND THEIR SERVICE MODEL 47

2 The network layer is concerned with the following:

(a) Logical addressing
(b) Routing

Transport Layer

1 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message.

2 A process is an application program running on a host.

3 The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives

intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the source-to-destination level.
4 The transport layer is concerned with the following:
(a) Service-point addressing
(b) Segmentation and reassembly
(c) Connection control
(d) Flow control
(e) Error control

Session Layer

1 The session layer is the network dialog controller.

2 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction

among communicating systems.

3 The session layer is concerned with the following:

4 Dialog control

5 Synchronization
48CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

Presentation Layer

1 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax

(language rule) and semantics (meaning of each rule) of the
information exchanged between two systems.

2 The presentation layer is concerned with the following:

(a) Translation
(b) Encryption
(c) Compression

Application Layer

1 The application layer enables the user, whether human or

software, to access the network.
2 It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
3 The application layer is concerned with the following:

4 Network virtual terminal

(a) File transfer, access, and management
(b) Mail services
(c) Directory services

1.12.2 TCP/IP Reference Model

1 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

protocol suite is the engine for the Internet and networks
worldwide.
1.12. PROTOCOLS LAYERS AND THEIR SERVICE MODEL 49

2 TCP/IP either combines several OSI layers into a single layer,

or does not use certain layers at all.

3 TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating

computers to share resources across the network.

4 The TCP/IP model has five layers.

(a) Application Layer

(b) Transport Layer
(c) Internet Layer
(d) Data Link Layer
(e) Physical Network

Figure 1.26: TCP/IP Reference Model

Application Layer

1 The application layer is provided by the program that uses

TCP/IP for communication.
50CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

2 An application is a user process cooperating with another

process usually on a different host (there is also a benefit to
application communication within a single host).

3 Examples: Telnet and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) etc.

Transport Layer

1 The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by

delivering data from an application to its remote peer.

2 Multiple applications can be supported simultaneously.

3 The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP), which provides:
(a) Connection-oriented reliable data delivery
(b) Duplicate data suppression
(c) Congestion control
(d) Flow control.

4 Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram

Protocol (UDP), which provides:
(a) Connectionless
(b) Unreliable
(c) Best-effort service.

5 UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport

mechanism and can tolerate the loss of some data.

Internetwork Layer

1 The internetwork layer also called the internet layer or the

network layer.
1.12. PROTOCOLS LAYERS AND THEIR SERVICE MODEL 51

2 It is provides the “virtual network” image of an internet this

layer shields the higher levels from the physical network
architecture below it.

3 Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this

layer.

4 It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume

reliability from lower layers. IP does not provide reliability,
flow control, or error recovery.

5 IP provides a routing function that attempts to deliver

transmitted messages to their destination.

6 These message units in an IP network are called an IP

datagram.

7 Example: IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.

Network Interface Layer

1 The network interface layer, also called the link layer or the
data-link layer or Host to Network Layer.

2 It is the interface to the actual network hardware. This

interface may or may not provide reliable delivery, and may
be packet or stream oriented.

3 Example: IEEE 802.2, X.25,ATM, FDDI

Physical Network Layer

1 The physical network layer specifies the characteristics of the

hardware to be used for the network.

2 For example, it specifies:

52CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO

(a) The physical characteristics of the communications

media
(b) Standards such as IEEE 802.3
(c) The specification for Ethernet network media, and RS-232
(d) The specification for standard pin connectors.

1.13 Internetworking

An interconnected set of networks may appear simply as a larger

network. This entire configuration is often referred to as an
internet.

Internetworking Terms

1 Communication Network: A facility that provides a data

transfer service among devices attached to the network.

2 Internet: A collection of communication networks

interconnected by bridge and /or routers.

3 Intranet:
(a) An internet used by single organization that provides the
key Internet application, especially the World Wide Web.
(b) An intranet operates within the organization for internal
purpose and can exist as an isolated, self-contained
internet, or may have links to the internet.

4 End Systems: A device attached to one of the networks of an

internet that is used to support end-user application or
services.
5 Intermediate System: A device used to connect two
networks and permit communication between end systems
attached to different networks.
1.13. INTERNETWORKING 53

6 Bridge:
(a) A bridge is a type of computer network device that
provides interconnection with other bridge networks
that use the same protocol.
(b) Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open
System Interconnect (OSI) model, connecting two
different networks together and providing
communication between them.
(c) Bridges are similar to repeaters and hubs in that they
broadcast data to every node.
(d) However, bridges maintain the media access control
(MAC) address table as soon as they discover new
segments, so subsequent transmissions are sent to only
to the desired recipient.
(e) Bridges are also known as Layer 2 switches.

7 Router:
(a) A router is a device that analyzes the contents of data
packets transmitted within a network or to another
network.
(b) Routers determine whether the source and destination
are on the same network or whether data must be
transferred from one network type to another, which
requires encapsulating the data packet with routing
protocol header information.
(c) Router operates at layer 3 of the OSI model.
54CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION FUNDAMENTALS, COMMUNICATION, PRO
Chapter 2

Antennas and Propagation

2.1 Introduction

Figure 2.1:

1 Two persons, who need to convey a thought, an idea or a

doubt, can do so by voice communication.

2 Here, communication takes place through sound waves.

However, if two people want to communicate who is at
longer distances, then we have to convert these sound waves
into electromagnetic waves.

3 The device, which converts the required information signal

into electromagnetic waves, is known as an Antenna.

4 An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical power

into electromagnetic waves and vice versa.

55
56 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

5 An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a

receiving antenna.

6 A transmitting an antenna is one, which converts electrical

signals into electromagnetic waves and radiates them.

7 A receiving an antenna is one, which converts

electromagnetic waves from the received beam into electrical
signals.

8 In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used

for both transmission and reception.

2.2 Radiation Patterns

1 An antenna will radiate power in all directions but, does not

perform equally well in all directions.

2 A common way to characterize the performance of an

antenna is the radiation pattern, which is a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of an antenna as a
function of space coordinates.

3 The simplest pattern is produced by an idealized antenna

known as the isotropic antenna.

4 An isotropic antenna is a point in space that radiates power

in all directions equally.

5 The actual radiation pattern for the isotropic antenna is a

sphere with the antenna at the center.

6 However, radiation patterns are almost always depicted as a

two-dimensional cross section of the three-dimensional
pattern.
2.2. RADIATION PATTERNS 57

Figure 2.2: Idealized Radiation Patterns

The pattern for the isotropic antenna is shown in Figure

2.2(a).

7 The distance from the antenna to each point on the radiation

pattern is proportional to the power radiated from the
antenna in that direction.

8 Figure 2.2(b) shows the radiation pattern of another idealized

antenna. This is a directional antenna in which the preferred
direction of radiation is along one axis.

Figure 2.3: Radiation Patterns in Three Dimensions

9 The relative distance determines the relative power.

58 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

10 To determine the relative power in a given direction, a line is

drawn from the antenna position at the appropriate angle,
and the point of intercept with the radiation pattern is
determined.

11 Figure 2.2 shows a comparison of two transmission angles, A

and B, drawn on the two radiation patterns.

12 The isotropic antenna produces an omnidirectional radiation

pattern of equal strength in all directions, so the A and B
vectors are of equal length.

13 For the antenna pattern of Figure 1b, the B vector is longer

than the A vector, indicating that more power is radiated in
the B direction than in the A direction, and the relative lengths
of the two vectors are proportional to the amount of power
radiated in the two directions.

2.3 Types of Antennas

2.3.1 Dipoles

1 Two of the simplest and most basic antennas are the

half-wave dipole antenna (Figure 3) and the quarter-wave
vertical, or Marconi, antenna (Figure 2.4).

2 The half-wave dipole consists of two straight collinear

conductors of equal length, separated by a small gap.

3 The length of the antenna is one-half the wavelength of the

signal that can be transmitted most efficiently.

4 A vertical quarter wave antenna is the type commonly used

for automobile radios and portable radios.
2.3. TYPES OF ANTENNAS 59

5 A half-wave dipole has a uniform or omnidirectional

radiation pattern in one dimension and a figure eight pattern
in the other two dimensions (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.4: Type of Antenna

2.3.2 Parabolic Reflective Antenna

1 An important type of antenna is the parabolic reflective

antenna, which is used in terrestrial microwave and satellite
applications.

2 A parabola is the locus of all points equidistant from a fixed

line and a fixed point not on the line.

3 The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called
the directrix (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5: Parabolic Antenna

60 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

4 If a parabola is revolved about its axis, the surface generated

is called a paraboloid.

5 A cross section through the paraboloid parallel to its axis

forms a parabola and a cross section perpendicular to the
axis forms a circle.

6 Such surfaces are used in automobile headlights, optical and

radio telescopes, and microwave antennas. Figure 2.5shows
this effect in cross section.

Antenna Gain

1 Antenna gain is a measure of the directionality of an antenna.

2 Antenna gain is defined as the power output, in a particular

direction, compared to that produced in any direction by a
perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna).

3 A concept related to that of antenna gain is the effective area

of an antenna.

4 The effective area of an antenna is related to the physical size

of the antenna and to its shape.

5 The relationship between antenna gain and effective area is:

4π Ae 4π f 2 Ae
G= =
λ2 c2
Where:
G = antenna gain
Ae = effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s) λ = carrier wavelength
2.4. PROPAGATION MODES IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 61

2.4 Propagation Modes in Wireless

Communication

1 In the earth environment, electromagnetic waves propagate

in ways that depend own properties but also on those of the
environment itself.

2 The various methods of propagation depend largely on

frequency.

3 A signal radiated from an antenna travels along one of three

routes:

(a) Ground Wave

(b) Sky Wave
(c) Line of Sight (LOS)

2.4.1 Ground Wave

1 Radio waves in the VLF band propagate in a ground, or

surface wave. The wave is connected at one end to the
surface of the earth and to the ionosphere at the other.

2 The ionosphere is the region above the troposphere (where

the air is), from about 50 to 250 miles above the earth.

3 It is a collection of ions, which are atoms that have some of

their electrons stripped off leaving two or more electrically
charged objects. The sun’s rays cause the ions to form which
slowly modified.

4 The propagation of radio waves in the presence of ions is

drastically different than in air, which is why the ionosphere
plays an important role in most modes of propagation.
62 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

5 Ground waves travel between two limits, the earth and the
ionosphere, which acts like a channel. Since the channel
curves with the earth, the ground wave will follow.
Therefore very long range propagation is possible using
ground waves.

6 Example of ground wave communication is AM radio.

Figure 2.6: Ground Wave Propagation

2.4.2 Sky Waves

1 Radio waves in the LF and MF ranges may also propagate as

ground waves, but suffer significant losses, or are attenuated,
particularly at higher frequencies. But as the ground wave
mode fades out, a new mode develops: the sky wave.

2 Sky waves are reflections from the ionosphere. While the

wave is in the ionosphere, it is strongly bent, or refracted,
ultimately back to the ground.

3 From a long distance away this appears as a reflection. Long

ranges are possible in this mode also, up to hundreds of miles.

4 Sky waves in this frequency band are usually only possible

at night, when the concentration of ions is not too great since
the ionosphere also tends to attenuate the signal.
2.4. PROPAGATION MODES IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 63

5 However, at night, there are just enough ions to reflect the

wave but not reduce its power too much.

6 Example: Used in amateur radio, CB radio, international

broadcast such as BBC.

Figure 2.7: Sky Wave Propagation

2.4.3 Line-of-sight propagation

Figure 2.8: Line-of-sight propagation

1 Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of

sight.
(a) Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
(b) Ground communication – antennas within effective line
of site due to refraction
64 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

2 Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere.

(a) Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the

density of the medium
(b) When wave changes medium, speed changes
(c) Wave bends at the boundary between mediums

3 Optical and Radio line of sight

√
d = 3.57 h
√
d = 3.57 Kh

Where:
d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb
K = 4/3

4 Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS

propagation:
p p 
d = 3.57 Kh1 + Kh2

Where:
h1 = height of antenna one
h2 = height of antenna two

Line-Of-Sight Transmission

1 Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit

and receive data only where transmit and receive stations are
in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle between
them.

2 FM radio, microwave and satellite transmission are examples

of line-of-sight communication.
2.4. PROPAGATION MODES IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 65

3 We have examined various impairments on the information-

carrying capacity of a communications link.

4 The most significant impairments are:

(a) Attenuation and Attenuation distortion
i. Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium.
ii. Attenuation introduces three factors for unguided
media:
• Received signal must have sufficient strength so
that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the
signal.
• Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher
than noise to be received without error.
• Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies,
causing distortion.
(b) Free space loss
i. For any type of wireless communication the signal
disperses with distance. Therefore, an antenna with a
fixed area will receive less signal power the farther it
is from the transmitting antenna.
ii. For satellite communication this is the primary mode
of signal loss. Even if no other sources of attenuation
or impairment are assumed, a transmitted signal
attenuates over distance because the signal is being
spread over a larger and larger area.
iii. This form of attenuation is known as free space loss,
which can be express in terms of the ratio of the
radiated power ”Pt to the power P, received by the
antenna or, in decibels, by taking 10 times the log of
that ratio.
iv. For the ideal isotropic antenna, free space loss is:
Pt (4πd)2 (4π f d)2
= =
Pr λ2 c2
66 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Where:
Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna
Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
λ = carrier wavelength
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
Where d and λ are in the same units (e.g., meters)
v. Free space loss equation can be recast:
 
Pt 4πd
LdB = 10 log = 20 log
Pr λ
= −20 log(λ) + 20 log(d) + 21.98dB
 
4π f d
= 20 log
c
= 20 log( f ) + 20 log(d) − 147.56 dB
vi. Free space loss accounting for gain of other antennas
Pt (4π )2 (d)2 (πd)2 (cd)2
= = =
Pr Gr Gt λ2 Ar A t f 2 Ar A t
Where,
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna
Gr = gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
vii. Free space loss accounting for gain of other antennas
can be recast as:
LdB = 20 log(λ) + 20 log(d) − 10 log( At Ar )
= −20 log( f ) + 20 log(d) − 10 log( At Ar ) + 169.54 dB
(c) Noise
i. Thermal Noise
• Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons.
• It is present in all electronic devices and
transmission media and is a function of
temperature.
2.4. PROPAGATION MODES IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 67

• Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the

frequency spectrum and hence is often referred to
as white noise.
• It cannot be eliminated and therefore places an
upper bound on communications system
performance.
• It is particularly significant for satellite
communication.
• Amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or conductor is:
 
W
N0 = kT
Hz

Where:
N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of
bandwidth
k = Boltzmann’s constant =1.38 × 10−23 J/K
T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute
temperature)
• Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency.
• Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz
(in watts):
N = kTB
Or, in decibel-watts

N = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B

= −228.6dB W + 10 log T + 10 log B

ii. Intermodulation noise

• It occurs if signals with different frequencies share
the same medium.
• Interference caused by a signal produced at a
frequency that is the sum or difference of original
frequencies.
68 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

• Intermodulation noise is produced when there is

some nonlinearity in the transmitter receiver, or
intervening transmission system.
• Normally, these components behave as linear
systems; that is, the output is equal to the input
times a constant.
iii. Crosstalk
• Crosstalk has been experienced by anyone who,
while using the telephone, has been able to hear
another conversation; it is an unwanted coupling
between signal paths.
• It can occur by electrical coupling between nearby
twisted pairs or, rarely, coax cable lines carrying
multiple signals.
• Crosstalk can also occur when unwanted signals
are picked up by microwave antennas; although
highly directional antennas are used, microwave
energy does spread during propagation.
• Typically, crosstalk is of the same order of
magnitude as, or less than, thermal noise.
However, in the unlicensed ISM bands, crosstalk
often dominates.
iv. Impulse noise
• It is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses
or noise spikes of short duration and of relatively
high amplitude.
• It is generated from a variety of causes, including
external electromagnetic disturbances, such as
lightning, and faults and flaws in the
communications system.
• Impulse noise is generally only a minor annoyance
for analog data.
• For example, voice transmission may be
corrupted by short clicks and crackles with no
loss of intelligibility.
2.5. MULTIPATH PROPAGATION & FADING IN THE MOBILE ENVIRONMENT69

• However, impulse noise is the primary source of

error in digital data transmission.
• For example, a sharp spike of energy of 0.01 s
duration would not destroy any voice data but
would wash out about 560 bits of data being
transmitted at 56 kbps.

2.5 Multipath Propagation & Fading in the Mobile

Environment

Figure 2.9: Propagation Mechanism (Reflection, Diffraction, Scattering)

1 Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is

large relative to the wavelength of the signal.

2 Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that

is large compared to wavelength of radio wave.

3 Scattering – occurs when incoming signal hits an object

whose size in the order of the wavelength of the signal or
less.
70 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

The Effects of Multipath Propagation

1 Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases.

2 If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise

declines, making detection more difficult.

3 Inter symbol interference (ISI); one or more delayed copies of

a pulse may arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for
a subsequent bit.

Fading

1 The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid

fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays
of a radio signal over a short period or short travel distance.

2 This might be so severe that large scale radio propagation loss

effects might be ignored.

Multipath Fading Effects

1 Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance

or time interval.
2 Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts
on different multipath signals.

3 Time dispersion or echoes caused by multipath propagation

delays.

Factors Influencing Fading

Few physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio

propagation channel like;
2.5. MULTIPATH PROPAGATION & FADING IN THE MOBILE ENVIRONMENT71

1 Multipath Propagation:
Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in
radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more
paths. The effects of multipath include constructive and
destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.

2 Speed of the mobile:

The relative motion between the base station and the mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different
Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.

3 Speed of surrounding objects:

If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a
time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the
surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile,
then this effect dominates fading.

4 Transmission Bandwidth of the signal

If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the
“bandwidth” of the multipath channel (quantified by
coherence bandwidth), the received signal will be distorted.

Types of Small-Scale Fading

1 The type of fading experienced by the signal through a

mobile channel depends on the relation between the signal
parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the channel
parameters (rms delay spread and Doppler spread).

2 Hence we have four different types of fading. There are two

types of fading due to the time dispersive nature of the
channel.
72 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

1 Flat Fading:

(a) Such types of fading occur when the bandwidth of the

transmitted signal is less than the coherence bandwidth
of the channel. Equivalently if the symbol period of the
signal is more than the rms delay spread of the channel,
then the fading is at fading.
(b) So we can say that at fading occurs when;

BS  BC

Where BS is the signal bandwidth and BC is the

coherence bandwidth. Also,

TS  στ

Where TS is the symbol period and στ is the rms delay

spread. And in such a case, mobile channel has a constant
gain and linear phase response over its bandwidth.

2 Frequency Selective Fading:

(a) Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal

bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth of the
mobile radio channel or equivalently the symbols
duration of the signal is less than the rms delay spread.

BS  BC and TS  στ

(b) At the receiver, we obtain multiple copies of the

transmitted signal, all attenuated and delayed in time.
The channel introduces inter symbol interference.
(c) A rule of thumb for a channel to have at fading is if
στ/TS ≤ 0.1
2.6. ENCODING AND MODULATION 73

Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread

1 Fast Fading:
(a) In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response
changes rapidly within the symbol duration of the
signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes
frequency dispersion leading to distortion. Therefore a
signal undergoes fast fading if
TS  TC
Where TC is the coherence time and
BS  BD
Where BD is the Doppler spread. Transmission involving
very low data rates suffers from fast fading.

2 Slow Fading:
(a) In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel
impulse response is much less than the transmitted
signal.
(b) We can consider a slow faded channel a channel in
which channel is almost constant over at least one
symbol duration. Hence
TS  TC and BS  BD

(c) We observe that the velocity of the user plays an

important role in deciding whether the signal
experiences fast or slow fading.

2.6 Encoding and Modulation

1 For digital signaling, Data source g(t) which may be either

digital or analog, is encoded into digital signal x (t).
74 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

2 Actually, its depends on encoding technique.

3 For analog signaling, continuous constant-frequency signal

known as a carrier signal.

4 Data can transmit using a carrier signal by modulation.

5 Modulation is the process of encoding source data onto a

carrier signal with frequency f c .

6 The frequency of the carrier signal is chosen to be compatible

with the transmission medium being used.

7 According to the input source signal m(t) (either analog or

digital), which is called baseband signal (or modulating
signal) , the carrier signal f c (t) will be modulated into
modulated signal s(t).

8 Modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of

the three parameters:
(a) Amplitude
(b) Frequency
(c) Phase
9 Total four different mappings or encodings techniques
available:
(a) digital-to-digital
(b) digital-to-analog
(c) analog-to-analog
(d) analog-to-digital

Digital-to-analog

1 Digital data and digital signals must be converted to analog

signals for wireless transmission.
2.6. ENCODING AND MODULATION 75

2 Optical system and unguided media (wireless system) only

propagate analog signals.

Analog-to-analog

1 A baseband analog signal, such as voice or video, must be

modulated onto a higher-frequency carrier for transmission.

2 Baseband: easy and cheap, e.g., in voice telephone lines, voice

signals are transmitted over telephone lines at their original
spectrum.

Analog-to-digital

1 Conversion of analog data (e.g., voice, video) to digital form

permits the use of modern digital transmission & switching.

2 It’s a common to digitize voice signals prior to transmission

over either guided or unguided media to improve quality and
to take advantage of TDM scheme.

Signal Encoding Criteria

Signal encoding schemes can be compared on certain criteria such

as:

1 Signal Spectrum – Bandwidth requirements for a given data

rate.

2 Clocking – The receiver must determine the beginning and

end of each bit. Need to synchronizing transmitter and
receiver. Use external clock, which is expensive.
Synchronization mechanism based on the transmitted signal.
76 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

3 Signal interference and noise immunity - Some codes are

better than others in the presence of noise. Performance is
usually expressed in terms of BER.

2.7 Digital data, Analog signal

1 To transmitting digital data using analog signal.

2 Most familiar use of this transformation is Public telephone

system.
(a) Designed to transmit analog signals in 300Hz to 3400Hz.
(b) Use modem for digital data to analog, vice versa.
(modulator-demodulator)

3 Modulation involves operation on one or more of the three

characteristics of a carrier signal.

Figure 2.10: Digital Data - Analog Signal

2.7.1 Amplitude Shift Keying

1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude

Modulation which represents the binary data in the form of
variations in the amplitude of a signal.
2.7. DIGITAL DATA, ANALOG SIGNAL 77

2 Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier.

3 The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives a zero value

for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.

4 The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform

along with its input.

5 Both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude

changes and one of the amplitudes is zero.

6 Inefficient because Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines.

7 Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical

fiber.

8 The ASK modulator block diagram comprises of the carrier

signal generator, the binary sequence from the message signal
and the band-limited filter. Above is the diagram of the ASK
Modulator.

Figure 2.11: Amplitude Shift Keying

2.7.2 Frequency Shift Keying

1 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation

technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal varies
according to the digital signal changes.
78 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

2 The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK).

3 FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.

4 The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency

for a binary High input and is low in frequency for a binary
Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space
frequencies.

5 The following image is the diagrammatic representation of

FSK modulated waveform along with its input.

6 Peak amplitude & phase remain constant during each bit

interval.
7 BFSK is less susceptible to error than ASK.

8 Application: it is used over voice lines, high frequency (3 to

30MHz) radio transmission.

Figure 2.12: Frequency Shift Keying

2.7.3 Phase Shift Keying

1 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique

in which the phase of the carrier signal is changed by varying
the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time.
2.7. DIGITAL DATA, ANALOG SIGNAL 79

2 PSK technique is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-metric,

contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.

3 Peak amplitude & freq. remain constant during each bit

interval.

4 More efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are

possible, compared to FSK.

5 PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal

gets shifted. They are -

(a) Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

• This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal

Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier takes
two phase reversals such as 0o and 180o .
• BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed
Carrier (DSBSC) modulation scheme, for message
being the digital information.

(b) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

• This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the

sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals such as
0o , 90o , 180o , and 270o .
• If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK
can be done by eight or sixteen values also, depending
upon the requirement.
80 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Figure 2.13: Phase Shift Keying

6 The diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the

balance modulator which has the carrier sine wave as one
input and the binary sequence as the other input.

2.8 Analog Data, Analog Signals

1 Modulation is combine an input signal m(t) and a carrier

frequency f c to produce a signal s(t) whose bandwidth is
usually centered on f c .

2 E.g., voice signals are transmitted over telephone lines at their

original spectrum.

3 Types of modulation

(a) Amplitude modulation - AM

(b) Angle Modulation
i. Frequency modulation - FM
ii. Phase modulation - PM
2.8. ANALOG DATA, ANALOG SIGNALS 81

2.8.1 Amplitude Modulation – AM

1 A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any

intervals and it is the baseband message signal, which
contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.

2 According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the

carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.”

3 Means that the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no

information varies as per the amplitude of the signal
containing information, at each instant.

4 This can be well explained by the following figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14: Amplitude Modulation

5 The figure 2.14 shows the modulating wave, which is the

message signal.
82 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

6 The next one is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency

signal and contains no information. While, the last one is the
resultant modulated wave.

2.8.2 Angle Modulation

Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation

and phase modulation.

Frequency Modulation(FM)

1 In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal

varies. Whereas, in Frequency Modulation (FM), the
frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

2 Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the

phase of the carrier signal remains constant. This can be
better understood by observing the following figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Frequency Modulation

2.8. ANALOG DATA, ANALOG SIGNALS 83

3 The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the

amplitude of the modulating or message signal increases.

4 Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases,

when the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases.

5 Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains

constant and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal,
when the amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.

Phase Modulation(PM)

1 In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies.

Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of the carrier
signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating signal.

2 So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of

the carrier signal remains constant.

3 This can be better understood by observing the following

figure 2.16.

4 The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points,

where the phase shift in a wave can take place.

5 The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal

changes the phase of the carrier signal.

6 When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one

direction and if the amplitude is negative, the phase changes
in the opposite direction.
84 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Figure 2.16: Phase Modulation

2.9 Analog Data, Digital Signal

1 This process can be termed as digitization, which is done by

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Hence, it is nothing but
digital modulation.

2 Here, Sampling and quantization are the important factors,

so, Delta Modulation gives a better output than PCM.

Figure 2.17:

3 Analog to digital conversion done using a codec

(coder-decoder).
2.9. ANALOG DATA, DIGITAL SIGNAL 85

4 Two principle codec techniques

(a) Pulse Code Modulation
(b) Delta modulation

Pulse Code Modulation

1 A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog

information into a binary sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s.

2 The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence.

3 The following figure shows an example of PCM output with

respect to instantaneous values of a given sine wave.

Figure 2.18:

4 Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or

digits, and hence this process is called as digital.

5 Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the

approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.

6 In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented

by a sequence of coded pulses.

7 This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in

discrete form in both time and amplitude.
86 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

2.10 Spread Spectrum Techniques

1 Mobile phone technology had a reincarnation from first

generation analogue (using FDMA) to second generation
digital (using TDMA).

2 The next incarnation is from second generation digital TDMA

to third generation packet (using CDMA).

3 CDMA is a specific modulation technique of

Spread-Spectrum technology.

4 Third generation or 3G is more of a generic term to mean

mobile networks with high bandwidth.

5 In a conventional transmission system, the information is

modulated with a carrier signal and then transmitted
through a medium.

6 When that transmitted, all the power of the signal is

transmitted centered around a particular frequency. This
frequency represents a specific channel and generally has a
very narrow band.

7 In spread-spectrum we spread the transmission power over

the complete band as shown in figure 2.19.
2.10. SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES 87

Figure 2.19: Spread Spectrum Technology

8 In spread-spectrum the transmission signal bandwidth is

much higher than the information bandwidth.

9 There are numerous ways to cause a carrier to spread;

however, all spread-spectrum systems can be viewed as two
steps modulation processes.

10 First, the data to be transmitted is modulated.

11 Second, the carrier is modulated by the spreading code,

causing it to spread out over a large bandwidth.

Different Spreading Techniques

1 Direct Sequence (DS): DS spread spectrum is typically used

to transmit digital information.

2 A common practice in DS systems is to mix the digital

information stream with a pseudo random code.

3 Frequency Hopping (FH): Frequency hopping is a form of

spreading in which the center frequency of a conventional
carrier is altered many times within a fixed time period (like
88 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

one second) in accordance with a pseudo-random list of

channels.
4 Chirp: The third spreading method employs a carrier that is
swept over a range of frequencies.

5 This method is called chirp spread spectrum and finds its

primary application in ranging and radar systems.

6 Time Hopping: The last spreading method is called time

hopping. In a time-hopped signal, the carrier is on-off keyed
by the pseudo-noise (PN) sequence resulting in a very low
duty cycle.

7 The speed of keying determines the amount of signal

spreading.

8 Hybrid System: A hybrid system combines the best points of

two or more spread-spectrum systems. The performance of
a hybrid system is usually better than can be obtained with a
single spread-spectrum technique for the same cost.

9 The most common hybrids combine both frequency-hopping

and direct-sequence techniques.

10 Amateurs and business community are currently authorized

to use only two spreading techniques. These are frequency
hopping and direct sequence techniques.

11 Rest of the Spread-Spectrum technologies are classified and

used by military and space sciences.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is often compared

to a party, where many pairs are conversing, each in a
different language.
2.10. SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES 89

2 Each pair understands only one language and therefore,

concentrates on his or her own conversation, ignoring the
rest.

3 A Hindi-speaking couple just homes on to Hindi, rejecting

everything else as noise.

4 Its analogous to DSSS is when pairs spread over the room

conversing simultaneously, each pair in a different language.
The key to DSSS is to be able to extract the desired signal
while rejecting everything else as random noise.

5 The analogy may not be exact, because a roomful of people

all talking at once soon becomes very loud.

6 In general, Spread-Spectrum communications is

distinguished by three key elements:

(a) The signal occupies a bandwidth much larger than what

is necessary to send the information.
(b) The bandwidth is spread by means of a code, which is
independent of the data.
(c) The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the
data. The use of an independent code and synchronous
reception allows multiple users to access the same
frequency band at the same time.

7 In order to protect the signal, the code used is

pseudo-random, which makes it appear random while being
actually deterministic, which enables the receivers to
reconstruct the code for synchronous detection. This
pseudo-random code is also called pseudo-noise (PN).

8 DSSS allows each station to transmit over the entire frequency

all the time. DSSS also relaxes the assumption that colliding
frames are totally garbled. Instead, it assumes that multiple
signals add linearly.
90 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

9 DSSS is commonly called Code Division Multiple Access or

CDMA in short.

10 Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code. This code is

called the CDMA chip sequence. To transmit a 1 bit, the
transmitting station sends its chip sequence, whereas to send
0, it sends the complement chip sequence.

11 Example:
2.10. SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES 91
92 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Figure 2.21:

2.11 Error Control and Detection

1 For reliable communication, errors must be detected and

corrected.
2 Data can be corrupted during transmission.

3 Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure

that frames (data bit streams) are transmitted with certain
level of accuracy.

4 Need to understand how errors is controlled and to know

what types of errors may occur.

5 Error detection and correction are implemented either at the

data link layer or the transport layer of the OSI model.

Types of Errors

There may be three types of errors:

2.11. ERROR CONTROL AND DETECTION 93

Figure 2.22:

1 Single bit:
In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is
corrupt.

Figure 2.23:

2 Multiple bit:
Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

Figure 2.24:

3 Burst:
Frame contains more than 1 consecutive bits corrupted.
94 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Figure 2.25:

2.12 Error Detection Method

1 Error detection means to decide whether the received data is

correct or not without having a copy of the original message.

2 Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means

adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination.

3 Detection Methods :

(a) Parity Check

(b) Cyclic Redundancy check
(c) Checksum

Figure 2.26: Error Detection Methods

2.12. ERROR DETECTION METHOD 95

2.12.1 Parity checks

1 In this technique, a redundant bit called parity bit, is

appended to every data unit so that the number of 1s in the
unit including the parity becomes even.

2 Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or

Parity bit generator form, where a parity of 1 is added to the
block if it contains an odd number of 1’s and 0 is added if it
contains an even number of 1’s.

3 At the receiving end the parity bit is computed from the

received data bits and compared with the received parity bit.

4 This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why
it is called even parity checking.

Figure 2.27: Even parity checking scheme

96 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Performance

1 A receiver can detect all single bit errors in each code word.

2 Errors in more than one bit cannot be detected.

Two-dimension Parity Check

1 Performance can be improved by using two-dimensional

parity check, which organizes the block of bits in the form of
a table.

2 Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is

equivalent to a simple parity check bit.

3 Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns then both
are sent along with the data.

4 At the receiving end these are compared with the parity bits
calculated on the received data.
2.12. ERROR DETECTION METHOD 97

Figure 2.28: Two-Dimensional parity check

Performance

1 Two- Dimension Parity Checking increases the likelihood of

detecting burst errors.

2 2-D Parity check of n bits can detect a burst error of n bits.

3 A burst error of more than n bits is also detected by 2-D Parity

check with a high-probability.

4 If two bits in one data unit are damaged and two bits in
exactly same position in another data unit are also damaged,
the 2-D Parity check checker will not detect an error.

2.12.2 Checksum

1 Here, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.

98 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

2 In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s

complement arithmetic to get the sum.

3 The sum is complemented to get the checksum.

4 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.

5 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using

1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is
complemented.

6 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise

discarded.

Figure 2.29: Checksum

Performance

1 The checksum detects all errors involving an odd number of

bits.

2 It also detects most errors involving even number of bits.

2.12. ERROR DETECTION METHOD 99

2.12.3 Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC)

1 CRC is the most powerful and easy to implement technique.

2 CRC is based on binary division.

3 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, are appended to the

end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes
exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.

4 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the

same number.
5 If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed
to be correct and is therefore accepted.

6 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged

in transit and therefore must be rejected.

7 The binary number, which is (r + 1) bit in length, can also be

considered as the coefficients of a polynomial, called
Generator Polynomial.

Performance

1 CRC is a very effective error detection technique.

2 If the divisor is chosen according to the previously mentioned

rules, its performance can be summarized as follows

3 CRC can detect all single-bit errors

4 CRC can detect all double-bit errors (three 1’s)

5 CRC can detect any odd number of errors (X+1)

6 CRC can detect all burst errors of less than the degree of the
polynomial.
100 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Figure 2.30: Basic scheme for Cyclic Redundancy Check

Figure 2.31:
2.13. BLOCK ERROR CORRECTION CODE 101

Figure 2.32:

2.13 Block Error Correction Code

2.13.1 Hamming Code

1 Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be

used to detect and correct the errors that can occur when the
data is moved or stored from the sender to the receiver.
2 Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are generated and
added to the carrying bits of data transfer.

3 The number of redundant bits can be calculated by:

2r > m + r + 1

where, r = redundant bit, m = data bit

4 Example, the number of data bits is 7, then the number of
redundant bits can be calculated using:

24 > 7 + 4 + 1

Thus, the number of redundant bits= 4

102 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

5 Step-1 :

Figure 2.33:

6 Step-2 :

Figure 2.34:

7 Step-3 :
2.13. BLOCK ERROR CORRECTION CODE 103

Figure 2.35:

8 Example :

Figure 2.36:

9 Error in transmission
104 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Figure 2.37:

10 Error bit detection

Figure 2.38:

2.13.2 Automatic Repeat Request

1 Automatic repeat request (ARQ), also known as automatic

repeat query, is an errorcontrol method for data transmission
that uses acknowledgements and timeouts to achieve
reliable data transmission over an unreliable service.
2 If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment before the
timeout, then re-transmits the frame/packet until the sender
receives an acknowledgment.
3 The types of ARQ protocols include Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-
Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ / Selective Reject.
2.14. WHAT IS 3G ? 105

4 These protocols reside in the Data Link or Transport Layers

of the OSI model.

2.14 What is 3G ?

1 The term 3G internet refers to the third generation of mobile

phone standards, as set by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU).

2 3G technologies allow mobile operators to offer more service

options to their users, including mobile broadband.

3 3G broadband offers greater flexibility and services by

making more efficient use of mobile bandwidth than its
predecessor 2G.

4 Devices in 3G can work in multiple ways. They can run in a

tunneling mode or in an application mode.

5 In tunneling mode, the device works more as a pass through

device or a modem. In this mode, the mobile phone is
connected to another device like a laptop and functions as a
wireless media interface. The intelligence of the phone is not
used, only the communication interface of the phone is used.

6 In an application mode, applications run on the phone itself.

A 3G mobile phone will support, SMS, WAP, Java, etc.
(MExE classmark 3). A MExE classmark 3 mobile device will
have an execution environment that will allow application
development for the client device.

Applications on 3G

1 In 3G, there will be different types of client applications:

Local, Occasionally connected, Online and Real-time.
106 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

2 Games, cartoons and similar applications are examples of

local applications. These applications can be downloaded
over the air and used offline.

3 In an occasionally connected computing (OCC)

environment, the user will connect to the network
occasionally. Downloading and uploading of emails are the
best examples of OCC.

4 Online applications will be the corporate applications.

Examples of such applications will be online order booking
or updating of inventory status.

5 Real-time applications could be real-time stock updates or

applications for law-enforcement agents for real-time
tracking or navigational systems.

6 Few 3G specific applications are:

(a) Virtual Home Environment (VHE) - Virtual Home

Environment can be defined as a concept where an
environment is created in a foreign network (or home
network outside the home environment). So, that the
mobile users can experience the same computing
experience as they have in their home or corporate
computing environment while they are mobile and
roaming.
(b) Personal Communication Networks (PCN) - These are
digital telephone networking infrastructures, which
supports personal numbering, individual service
selection, and moves towards unified billing and call
anytime, anywhere through wireless digital telephony.
(c) Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) - This is
the smart card for third generation mobile phones. A SIM
card in the mobile phone offers portability, security and
individuality.
2.15. 3G VERSUS WI-FI 107

(d) Audio/Video – Third generation applications will be

used to download music, multimedia, news, etc.
(e) VoIP
(f) Electronic Agents - Electronic agents are defined as
“mobile programs that go places in the network to carry
out their owners’ instructions. They can be thought of as
extensions of the people who dispatch them.”
(g) Downloading of Software and Content
(h) ENUM - ENUM is a protocol that is emerging from work
of Internet Engineering Task Force’s (IETF’s) Telephone
Number Mapping working group.

2.15 3G versus Wi-Fi

Functions 3G Wi-Fi
Radio Uses spread spectrum Uses spread spectrum
Interface as the modulation as the modulation
technique. technique.
Genesis Evolved from voice Evolved from data
network where QoS network where QoS is
is a critical success not a critical success
factor. factor.
Bandwidth It supports broadband Wi-Fi supports
data service of up to broadband data
2Mbps. service of up to
54Mbps.
Status of For 3G, there is a It is one of the families
standards relatively small family of continuously
of internationally evolving 802.11X
sanctioned standards, wireless standards
collectively referred to that are under
as IMT-2000. development.
108 CHAPTER 2. ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION

Access Access or edge- Access or edge-

Technologies network facility. The network facility. The
wireless link is from wireless link is a few
the end user device to hundred feet from the
the cell base station, end-user device to the
which may be at a base station.
distance of up to a few
kilometers.
Business Service providers Users’ organization
models / own and manage the owns the
deployment infrastructure. End infrastructure.
are different customers typically Following the initial
have a monthly investment, the usage
service contract of the network does
with the 3G service not involve an access
provider to use the fee.
network.
Roaming It will offer Seamless ubiquitous
well-coordinated roaming over Wi-Fi
continuous and cannot be guaranteed
ubiquitous coverage. as network growth is
unorganized.
Chapter 3

GSM and GPRS

3.1 Multiplexing Techniques

3.1.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

1 It is one of the most common multiplexing procedures.

FDMA is a channel access technique found in
multiple-access protocols as a channelization protocol.

2 FDMA permits individual allocation of single or multiple

frequency bands, or channels to the users.

Figure 3.1: Frequency Division Multiple Access

3 FDMA permits multiple users to simultaneously access a

transmission system.

109
110 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

4 In FDMA, every user shares the frequency channel or satellite

transponder simultaneously; however, every user transmits
at single frequency.

5 FDMA is compatible with both digital and analog signals.

6 FDMA demands highly efficient filters in the radio hardware,

contrary to CDMA and TDMA.

7 FDMA is devoid of timing issues that exist in TDMA.

8 As a result of the frequency filtering, FDMA is not prone to

the near-far problem that exists in CDMA.

9 All users transmit and receive at different frequencies because

every user receives an individual frequency slot.

10 One disadvantage of FDMA is crosstalk, which can cause

interference between frequencies and interrupt the
transmission.

3.1.2 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

1 SDMA utilizes the spatial separation of the users in order to

optimize the use of the frequency spectrum.

2 A primitive form of SDMA is when the same frequency is

reused in different cells in a cellular wireless network.
3.1. MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES 111

Figure 3.2: Space Division Multiple Access

3 The radiated power of each user is controlled by Space

division multiple access.

4 SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antenna.

These areas may be served by the same frequency or
different frequencies.

5 However for limited co-channel interference it is required

that the cells are sufficiently separated. This limits the
number of cells a region can be divided into and hence limits
the frequency re-use factor. A more advanced approach can
further increase the capacity of the network. This technique
would enable frequency re-use within the cell. In a practical
cellular environment it is improbable to have just one
transmitter fall within the receiver beam width. Therefore it
becomes imperative to use other multiple access techniques
in conjunction with SDMA.

6 When different areas are covered by the antenna beam,

frequency can be re-used, in which case TDMA or CDMA is
employed, for different frequencies FDMA can be used.
112 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3.1.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

1 It is a multiplexing technique where multiple channels are

multiplexed over time.
2 In TDMA, several users share the same frequency channel of
higher bandwidth by dividing the signal into different time
slots.
3 Users transmit their data using their own respective time slots
in rapid succession; to synchronize, the transmitter and the
receiver need to synchronize using a global clock.

4 It is divided into two types:

(a) Fixed TDMA
i. In this, connections between time slots in each frame
and data streams assigned to a user remain static and
switched only when large variations in traffic are
required.
ii. In this variant, the slot sizes are fixed at T/N (T is time
in seconds and N is the number of users).

Figure 3.3: Time Division Multiple Access

(b) Dynamic TDMA

i. In this, a scheduling algorithm is used to dynamically
reserve a variable number of time slots in each frame
to variable bit-rate data streams.
3.1. MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES 113

ii. This reservation algorithm is based on the traffic

demand of each data stream.

3.1.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

1 Short for Code-Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular

technology that uses spread-spectrum techniques. It is a
broadband system.

2 CDMA uses spread spectrum technique where each

subscriber uses the whole system bandwidth.

Figure 3.4: Code Division Multiple Access

3 Unlike competing systems, such as GSM, that use TDMA,

CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user.

4 Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum.

Individual conversations are encoded with a
pseudo-random digital sequence.

5 CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and

data communications than other commercial mobile
technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at any
given time, and it is the common platform on which 3G
technologies are built.
114 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

6 For example, CDMA is a military technology first used

during World War II by English allies to foil German
attempts at jamming transmissions.

7 Unlike the FDMA or TDMA where a frequency or time slot is

assigned exclusively to a subscriber, in CDMA all subscribers
in a cell use the same frequency band simultaneously.

8 To separate the signals, each subscriber is assigned an

orthogonal code called “chip”.

3.2 Principles of Cellular Network

1 Cellular technology is the basis for mobile wireless

communications and supports users in locations that are not
easily served by wired networks.

2 Cellular radio is a technique that was developed to increase

the capacity available for mobile radio telephone service.

3 It is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal

communication systems, wireless networking, etc.

4 This technology is developed for a mobile radio telephone to

replace high power transmitter/receiver systems.

5 Cellular network uses lower power, shorter range and more

transmitters for data transmission.

6 A cellular network divides any given area into cells where a

mobile unit in each cell communicates with a base station.

7 The main aim of the cellular network design is to be able to

increase the capacity of the channel.

8 For Example, to handle as many calls as possible in a given

bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
3.2. PRINCIPLES OF CELLULAR NETWORK 115

Figure 3.5: Cell and Base Station

3.2.1 Cell Structure

1 The coverage area of cellular networks divided into cells,

each cell having its own antenna for transmitting the signals.

2 Each cell has its own frequencies.

3 Though in reality, these cells could be of any shape, for proper

modeling purposes these are modeled as hexagons.

Figure 3.6: Cell Structure

4 A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy

coverage and calculations. It offers the following advantages
-
(a) Provides equidistant antennas.
(b) Distance from center to vertex equals length of side.
116 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3.2.2 Frequency Reuse

1 To serve hundreds of thousands of users, the frequency must

be reused and this is done through cells.
2 The area to be covered and subdivided into radio zones or
cells.
3 Base station positioned at the center of the cell.

4 Data communication in cellular networks served by its base

station transmitter, receiver, and its control unit.
5 When moving from one cell to another during an ongoing
conversation, an automatic channel change occurs.
6 This phenomenon is called handover. Handover maintains
an active speech and data connection over cell boundaries.
7 The regular repetition of frequencies in cells results in a
clustering of cells.
8 The clusters generated in this way can consume the whole
frequency band.

Figure 3.7: Frequency Reuse

3.2.3 Cell Cluster

1 Each cell i receives a subset of frequencies f bi from the entire

set assigned to the respective mobile network.
3.3. GSM SPECIFICATION 117

2 To avoid any co-channel interference two neighboring cells

never uses the same frequencies.

3 Only at a distance of D (known as frequency reuse distance),

the same frequency from the set f bi can be reused.

Figure 3.8: Cell Cluster

4 Cells with distance D from cell i, can be assigned one or all

the frequencies from the set f bi belonging to cell i.

5 The size of a cluster defined by k, the number of cells in the

cluster.

6 It also defines the frequency reuse distance D. The figure

shows an example of cluster size of 4.

3.3 GSM Specification

1 Uses a combination of FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple

Access) and TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access).

2 Allocation of 50 MHz (890–915 MHz and 935–960 MHz)

bandwidth in the 900 MHz frequency band and using
FDMA further divided into 124 (125 channels, 1 not used)
channels each with a carrier bandwidth of 200 KHz.
118 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3 Using TDMA, each of the above mentioned channels is then

further divided into 8 time slots

4 So, with the combination of FDMA and TDMA, a maximum

of992 channels for transmit and receive can be realized.

Figure 3.9: GSM System Hierarchy

5 It consists of the minimum one administrative region

assigned to one Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).

6 An administrative region is commonly known as Public Land

Mobile Network (PLMN).

7 Each administrative region subdivided into one or many

Location Area (LA).

8 One LA consists of many cell groups and each cell group

assigned to one Base Station Controller (BSC).

9 For each LA, there will be at least one BSC while cells in one
BSC can belong to different LA.
3.4. GSM ARCHITECTURE 119

3.4 GSM Architecture

1 In System, It consists at the minimum one administrative

region assigned to one MSC (Mobile Switching Centre).
2 Administrative region is commonly known as PLMN (Public
Land Mobile Network).
3 Each administrative region is subdivided into one or many
Location Area (LA).
4 One LA consists of many cell groups and each cell group is
assigned to one BSC (Base Station Controller).
5 For each LA, there will be at least one BSC while cells in one
BSC can belong to different LAs.

Figure 3.10: GSM Architecture

AUC – Authentication Center ISDN – Integrated System Digital Network

BSC – Base Station Controller MS – Mobile Station
BTS – Base Transceiver Station MSC – Mobile Switching Center
EIR – Equipment Identity Register OMC – Operation and Maintenance Center
GMSC – Gateway MSC PDN – Packet Data Network
HLR – Home Location Register PLMN – Public Land Mobile Network
ISC – International Switching Center PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network
VLR – Visitor Location Register
120 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

6 Cells are formed by the radio areas covered by a BTS (Base

Transceiver Station). Several BTSs are controlled by one BSC.

7 Traffic from the MS (Mobile Station) is routed through MSC.

Calls originating from or terminating in a fixed network or
other mobile networks is handled by the GMSC (Gateway
MSC).

8 For all subscribers registered with a cellular network

operator, permanent data such as the service profile is stored
in the Home Location Register (HLR). The data relate to the
following information:-
(a) Authentication information like IMSI.
(b) Identification information like name, address, etc., of the
subscriber.
(c) Identification information like MSISDN, etc.
(d) Billing information like prepaid or postpaid customer.
(e) Operator select denial of service to a subscriber.
(f) Handling of supplementary services like for CFU (Call
Forwarding Unconditional), CFB (Call Forwarding
Busy), CFNR (Call Forwarding Not Reachable) or CFNA
(Call Forwarding Not Answered)
(g) Storage of SMS Service Center (SC) number in case the
mobile is not connectable so that whenever the mobile is
connectable, a paging signal is sent to the SC
(h) Provisioning information like whether long distance and
international calls allowed or not.
(i) Provisioning information like whether roaming is
enabled or not
(j) Information related to auxiliary services like Voice mail,
data, fax services, etc.
(k) Information related to auxiliary services like CLI (Caller
Line Identification), etc.
3.4. GSM ARCHITECTURE 121

(l) Information related to supplementary services for call

routing. In GSM network, one can customize the
personal profile to the extent that while the subscriber is
roaming in a foreign PLMN, incoming calls can be
barred. Also, outgoing international calls can be barred,
etc.
(m) Some variable information like pointer to the VLR,
location area of the subscriber, Power OFF status of the
handset, etc.

9 The GSM technical specifications define different entities

that form the GSM network by defining their functions and
interface requirements. The GSM network can be divided
into 5 main groups:-

(a) The Mobile Station (MS): This includes the Mobile

Equipment (ME) and the Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM).
(b) The Base Station Subsystem (BSS): This includes the
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and the Base Station
Controller (BSC).
(c) The Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS): This
includes Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Home
Location Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register
(VLR), Equipment Identity Register (EIR), and the
Authentication Center (AUC).
(d) The Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS): This
includes the Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC).
(e) The data infrastructure that includes Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN), Integrated System Digital
Network (ISDN), and the Public Data Network (PDN).
122 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3.5 Entities in GSM

Figure 3.11: Entity in GSM

Mobile Station(MS)

1 Mobile Station (MS) consists of two main elements:

(a) Mobile equipment or mobile device (that is the phone
without the SIM card)
(b) Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

2 Terminals distinguished principally by their power and

application.

3 SIM is installed in every GSM phone and identifies the

terminal.
4 SIM cards used in GSM phones are smart processor cards
possess a processor and a small memory.

5 SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber

Identity (IMSI) used to identify the subscriber to the system,
a secret key for authentication, and other security
information.
3.5. ENTITIES IN GSM 123

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

1 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) connects the Mobile Station and

the Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

2 It is in charge of the transmission and reception for the last

mile.

3 BSS divided into two parts:

(a) Base Transceiver Station (BTS) or Base Station

(b) Base Station Controller (BSC)

4 Base Transceiver Station corresponds to the transceivers and

antennas used in each cell of the network.

5 BTS usually placed in the center of a cell and its transmitting

power defines the size of a cell.

6 BTS holds the radio transmitter and the receivers that define
a cell and handles the radio-link protocols with the Mobile
Station.

7 Each BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers depending on

the density of users in the cell.

8 Base Station Controller is the connection between the BTS and

the Mobile service Switching Center (MSC) and manages the
radio resources for one or more BTSs.

9 BSC handles:

(a) Handovers process.

(b) Radio-channel setup.
(c) Control of radio frequency power levels of the BTSs.
(d) Exchange function, and frequency hopping.
124 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)

1 A central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile

Switching Center (MSC).

2 Signaling between functional entities in the Network

Subsystem uses Signaling System Number 7 (SS7).

3 MSC together with Home Location Register (HLR) and

Visitor Location Register (VLR) databases, provide the
call-routing and roaming capabilities of GSM.

4 Mobile Switching Centre - MSC does the following

functions:
5 It acts like a typical switching node for mobile subscribers
of the same network (connection between mobile phone to
mobile phone within the same network).

6 It acts like a typical switching node for the PSTN fixed

telephone (connection between mobile phone to fixed
phone).

7 It acts like a typical switching node for Integrated Service

digital Network - ISDN.

8 It provides all functionality needed to handle a mobile

subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location
updating, handovers and call routing.

9 It includes databases to store information to manage the

mobility of a roaming subscriber.

10 MSC together with Home Location Register (HLR) and

Visitor Location Register (VLR) databases, provide the
call-routing and roaming capabilities of GSM.

11 HLR contains all the administrative information of each

subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network.
3.5. ENTITIES IN GSM 125

12 Location of the mobile is typically in the form of the signaling

address of the VLR associated with the mobile station.

13 HLR is always fixed and stored in the home network, whereas

the VLR logically moves with the subscriber.

14 VLR is similar to a cache, whereas HLR is the persistent

storage.

15 VLR contains selected administrative information borrowed

from the HLR, necessary for call control and provisioning of
the subscribed services.

16 When a subscriber enters the covering area of a new MSC, the

VLR associated with this MSC can request information about
the new subscriber from its corresponding HLR in the home
network.

17 There is a component called Gateway MSC (GMSC) that

associated with the MSC.

18 GMSC is the interface between the mobile cellular network

and the PSTN and also is in charge of routing calls from the
fixed network towards a GSM user and vice versa.

19 GMSC often implemented in the same node as the MSC.

20 GIWU (GSM Inter Working Unit) corresponds to an interface

to various networks for data communications.

Operation and Support Subsystem - OSS

1 Operations and Support Subsystem (OSS) controls and

monitors the GSM system.
126 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

2 OSS is connected to the different components of the NSS, to

BSC and also in charge of controlling the traffic load of the
BSS.

3 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) rests with OSS.

4 EIR is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile

equipment within the network, where each mobile station is
identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI).

5 EIR contains a list of IMEIs of all valid terminals.

6 An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or

is not type approved.

7 The EIR allows the MSC to forbid calls from this stolen or
unauthorized terminals.

8 Authentication Center (AUC) is responsible for the

authentication of a subscriber.

9 AUC is a protected database and stores a copy of the secret

key stored in each subscriber’s SIM card.
3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 127

Figure 3.12: System Architecture of GSM

3.6 Handover procedure in GSM system

1 The process of handover or handoff within any cellular

system is of great importance.

2 It is a critical process and if performed incorrectly handover

can result in the loss of the call.
3 Dropped calls are particularly annoying to users and if the
number of dropped calls rises, customer dissatisfaction
increases and they are likely to change to another network.

3.6.1 Types of GSM handover

Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can
be performed for GSM only systems:

1 Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if

it is required to change the frequency or slot being used by a
128 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form

of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same
base station transceiver, but change the channel or slot.

2 Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This GSM handover or GSM

handoff occurs when the mobile is moved out of the coverage
area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC.
In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it
assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile, before releasing
the old BTS from communicating with the mobile.

3 Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile is moved out of the

range of cells controlled by one BSC, a more involved form
of handover has to be performed, handing over not only
from one BTS to another but one BSC to another. For this the
handover is controlled by the MSC.

4 Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when

changing between networks. The two MSCs involved
negotiate to control the handover.

3.6.2 GSM handover process

1 Although there are several forms of GSM handover as

detailed above, as far as the mobile is concerned, they are
effectively seen as very similar. There are a number of stages
involved in undertaking a GSM handover from one cell or
base station to another.

2 In GSM, which uses TDMA techniques the transmitter only

transmits for one slot in eight, and similarly the receiver only
receives for one slot in eight.

3 As a result the RF section of the mobile could be idle for 6

slots out of the total eight.
3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 129

4 This is not the case because during the slots in which it is not
communicating with the BTS, it scans the other radio
channels looking for beacon frequencies that may be
stronger or more suitable.

5 In addition to this, when the mobile communicates with a

particular BTS, one of the responses it makes is to send out a
list of the radio channels of the beacon frequencies of
neighboring BTSs via the Broadcast Channel (BCCH).

6 The mobile scans these and reports back the quality of the
link to the BTS. In this way the mobile assists in the handover
decision and as a result this form of GSM handover is known
as Mobile Assisted Hand over (MAHO).

7 The network knows the quality of the link between the mobile
and the BTS as well as the strength of local BTSs as reported
back by the mobile.

8 It also knows the availability of channels in the nearby cells.

As a result it has all the information it needs to be able to
make a decision about whether it needs to hand the mobile
over from one BTS to another.

9 If the network decides that it is necessary for the mobile to

hand over, it assigns a new channel and time slot to the
mobile. It informs the BTS and the mobile of the change.

10 The mobile then retunes during the period it is not

transmitting or receiving, i.e. in an idle period.

11 A key element of the GSM handover is timing and

synchronization. There are a number of possible scenarios
that may occur dependent upon the level of synchronization.
130 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3.6.3 Roaming

In wireless telecommunications, roaming is a general term that

refers to the extending of connectivity service in a location that is
different from the home location where the service was
registered. Roaming ensures that the wireless device keeps
connected to the network, without losing the connection. The
term ”roaming” originates from the GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications) sphere; the term ”roaming” can also be
applied to the CDMA technology.

3.6.4 Handoff

Figure 3.13: Handoff Process

1 In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or handoff

refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data
session from one channel connected to the core network to
another.

2 In satellite communications it is the process of transferring

satellite control responsibility from one earth station to
another without loss or interruption of service.
3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 131

3.6.5 GSM Addresses and Identifiers

1 International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI): It

uniquely identifies a mobile station internationally. It is a
kind of serial number.

2 The IMEI is allocated by the equipment manufacturer and

registered by the network operator, who stores it in the EIR.

3 By means of IMEI one can recognize obsolete, stolen or non-

functional equipment. The following are the parts of an IMEI:

(a) Type Approval Code (TAC):- 6 decimal places, centrally

assigned.
(b) Final Assembly Code (FAC):- 6 decimal places, assigned
by the manufacturer.
(c) Serial Number (SNR):- 6 decimal places, assigned by the
manufacturer.
(d) Spare (SP):- 1 decimal place.

Figure 3.14: International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

4 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI): Each

registered user is uniquely identified by its international
mobile subscriber identity (IMSI).
132 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

5 It is stored in the subscriber identity module (SIM). A mobile

station can only be operated if a SIM with valid IMSI is
inserted into equipment with a valid IMEI.

Figure 3.15: International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

6 The following are the parts of IMSI :

(a) Mobile Country Code (MCC): 3 decimal places,

internationally standardized.
(b) Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2 decimal places, for
unique identification of mobile network within the
country.
(c) Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN):-
Maximum 10 decimal places, identification number of
the subscriber in the home mobile network.

7 Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN): The real

telephone number of a mobile station is the mobile
subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN).

8 It is assigned to the subscriber, such that a mobile station set

can have several MSISDNs depending on the SIM.

9 The MSISDN categories follow the international ISDN

number plan and therefore have the following structure:-

(a) Country Code (CC): Up to 3 decimal places.

3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 133

(b) National Destination Code (NDC): Typically 2-3 decimal

places.
(c) Subscriber Number (SN): Maximum 10 decimal places.

Figure 3.16: Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

10 Location Area Identity: Each LA in a PLMN has own

identifier called Location Area Identifier (LAI) which is
structured hierarchically and unique. Example: 502-20-60001

Figure 3.17: Location Area Identity

11 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN): When a

subscriber is roaming in another network, a temporary ISDN
number assigned to the subscriber called MSRN. MSRN
assigned by the local VLR in charge of the mobile station and
follows the structure of MSISDN.
134 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

12 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI): TMSI is a

temporary identifier assigned by the serving VLR used in
place of the IMSI for identification and addressing of the
mobile station. Together with the current location area, a
TMSI allows a subscriber to identified uniquely.

13 Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI): LMSI assigned by

the VLR and stored in the HLR and used as a searching key
for faster database access within the VLR.
14 Cell Identifier: Within an LA, every cell has a unique Cell
Identifier (CI) together with an LAI, a cell can be identified
uniquely through Global Cell Identity (LAI & CI).

3.6.6 Call routing in GSM with block diagram

1 Human interface is analog. However, the advancement in

digital technology makes it very convenient to handle
information in digital way.

2 Digitizer and source coding: The user speech is digitized at

8 KHz sampling rate using Regular Pulse Excited–Linear
Predictive Coder (RPE–LPC) with a Long Term Predictor
loop where information from previous samples is used to
predict the current sample.

3 Each sample is then represented in signed 13-bit linear PCM

value.
4 This digitized data is passed to the coder with frames of 160
samples where encoder compresses these 160 samples into
260-bits GSM frames resulting in one second of speech
compressed into 1625 bytes and achieving a rate of 13
Kbits/sec.
5 Channel coding: This introduces redundancy into the data
for error detection and possible error correction where the
3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 135

gross bit rate after channel coding is 22.8 kbps (or 456 bits
every 20 ms).

6 These 456 bits are divided into eight 57-bit blocks and the
result is interleaved amongst eight successive time slot
bursts for protection against burst transmission errors.

7 Interleaving: This step rearranges a group of bits in a

particular way to improve the performance of the
error-correction mechanisms.
8 The interleaving decreases the possibility of losing whole
bursts during the transmission by dispersing the errors.

9 Ciphering: This encrypts blocks of user data using a

symmetric key shared by the mobile station and the BTS.

10 Burst formatting: It adds some binary information to the

ciphered block for use in synchronization and equalization
of the received data.

11 Modulation: The modulation technique chosen for the GSM

system is the Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
where binary data is converted back into analog signal to fit
the frequency and time requirements for the multiple access
rules.

12 This signal is then radiated as radio wave over the air.

13 Multipath and equalization: An equalizer is in charge of

extracting the ‘right’ signal from the received signal while
estimating the channel impulse response of the GSM system
and then it constructs an inverse filter.

14 The received signal is then passed through the inverse filter.

15 Synchronization: For successful operation of a mobile radio

system, time and frequency synchronization are needed.
136 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

16 Frequency synchronization is necessary so that the

transmitter and receiver frequency match (in FDMA) while
Time synchronization is necessary to identify the frame
boundary and the bits within the frame (in TDMA).

17 To avoid collisions of burst transmitted by MS with the

adjacent time slot such collisions, the Timing Advance
technique is used where frame is advanced in time so that
this offsets the delay due to greater distance.

18 Using this technique and the triangulation of the intersection

cell sites, the location of a mobile station can be determined
from within the network.

Figure 3.18: From speech to radio waves

Example

1 The MSISDN number of a subscriber in Bangalore associated

with Airtel network is +919845XYYYYY which is a unique
number and understood from anywhere in the world.
3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 137

2 Here, + means prefix for international dialing, 91 is the

country code for India and 45 is the network operator’s code
(Airtel in this case).

3 X is the level number managed by the network operator

ranging from 0 to 9 while YYYYY is the subscriber code
which, too, is managed by the operator.

4 The call first goes to the local PSTN exchange where PSTN
exchange looks at the routing table and determines that it is a
call to a mobile network.
5 PSTN forwards the call to the Gateway MSC (GMSC) of the
mobile network.
6 MSC enquires the HLR to determine the status of the
subscriber. It will decide whether the call is to be routed or
not. If MSC finds that the call can be processed, it will find
out the address of the VLR where the mobile is expected to
be present.

7 If VLR is that of a different PLMN, it will forward the call to

the foreign PLMN through the Gateway MSC. If the VLR is in
the home network, it will determine the Location Area (LA).

8 Within the LA, it will page and locate the phone and connect
the call.

Figure 3.19: Call Routing for a mobile terminating call

138 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3.6.7 Signaling Protocol Structure in GSM

1 Layer 1 is the physical layer which uses the channel structures

over the air interface.

2 Layer 2 is the data link layer and across the Um interface, the
data link layer is a modified version of the LAPD protocol
used in ISDN or X.25, called LAPDm.

3 Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part layer 2 of

Signaling System Number 7 is used.

Figure 3.20: Signaling protocol structure in GSM

4 Layer 3 of the GSM signaling protocol is itself divided into

three sub-layers:

(a) Radio Resources Management: It controls the set-up,

maintenance and termination of radio and fixed
channels, including handovers.
(b) Mobility Management: It manages the location
updating and registration procedures as well as security
and authentication.
(c) Connection Management: It handles general call control
and manages Supplementary Services and the Short
Message Service.
3.6. HANDOVER PROCEDURE IN GSM SYSTEM 139

3.6.8 Different GSM Services

There are three types of services offered through GSM which are:

1 Telephony (also referred as tele-services) Services

2 Data (also referred as bearer services) Services

3 Supplementary Services

Teleservices or Telephony Services

A teleservices utilizes the capabilities of a Bearer Service to

transport data, defining which capabilities are required and how
they should setup.

1 Voice Calls: The most basic teleservices supported by GSM

is telephony. This includes full rate speech at 13 Kbps and
emergency calls, where the nearest emergency service
provider is notified by dialing three digits.

2 Videotext and Facsimile: Another group of teleservices

includes Videotext access, Teletext transmission, and
Facsimile alternate speech and facsimile Group 3, automatic
facsimile Group 3 etc.

3 Short Text Messages: SMS service is a text messaging which

allow you to send and receive text messages on your GSM
mobile phones.

Bearer Services or Data Services

1 Using your GSM phone to receive and send data is the

essential building block leading to widespread mobile
Internet access and mobile and mobile data transfer.
140 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

2 GSM currently has a data transfer rate of 9.6k.

3 New development that will push up data transfer rated for

GSM users HSCSD are now available.

Supplementary Services

Supplementary services are provided on top of teleservices or

bearer services, and include features such as caller identification,
call forwarding, call waiting, multi-party conversation. A brief
description of supplementary services is given here:

1 Multiparty Service or conferencing: The multiparty service

allows a mobile subscriber to establish multiparty
conservations. That is, conservation between three or more
subscribers to setup a conference calls. This service is only
applicable to normal telephony.

2 Call Waiting: This service allows a mobile subscriber to be

notified of an incoming call during a conversation. The
subscriber can answer, reject or ignore the incoming call.
Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications
services using circuit switched connection.

3 Call Hold: This service allows a mobile subscriber to put an

incoming call on hold and then resume this call. The call hold
service is only applicable to normal telephony.

4 Call Forwarding: The call forwarding supplementary

service is used to divert calls from the original recipient to
another number, and is normally set up by the subscriber
himself. It can be used by the subscriber to divert calls from
the Mobile Station when the subscriber is not available, and
so to ensure that calls are not lost. A typical scenario would
be a salesperson turns off his mobile phone during a meeting
3.7. GPRS 141

with customer, but does not wish to lose potential sales leads
while he is unavailable.
5 Call Barring: The concept of barring certain type of calls
might seem to be a supplementary disservice rather than
service. However, there are times when the subscriber is not
the actual user of the Mobile Station, and as a consequence
may wish to limit its functionality, so as to limit charges
incurred. If the subscriber and users and one and same, the
call barring may be useful to stop calls being routed to
international destinations when they are route. The reasons
for this are because it is expected that are roaming subscriber
will pay the charges incurred for international re-routing of
calls. So, GSM devised some flexible services that enable the
subscriber to conditionally bar calls.

3.7 GPRS

3.7.1 Introduction

1 GPRS is an abbreviation for General Packet Radio Service.

2 GPRA is a means of providing packet switched data service

with full mobility and wide area coverage on GSM networks.

3 The GPRS service is designed to ultimately provide data

transfer up to 14.4 kBps to 171.2 KBps.

4 Deployment of GPRS networks allows a variety of new

applications ranging from mobile ecommerce to mobile
corporate VPN access.

5 No dial-up modem connection is necessary.

6 Offers fast connection set-up mechanism to offer a perception

of being ‘always on’ or ‘always connected’.
142 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

7 Immediacy is one of the prime advantages of GPRS.

3.7.2 Basic Quality of Service in GPRS

1 Allows definition of QoS profiles using the parameters of

service precedence, reliability, delay and throughput.

2 Service precedence is the priority of a service in relation to

another service which can be high, normal or low.

3 Reliability indicates the transmission characteristics required

by an application and guarantees certain maximum values
for the probability of loss, duplication, mis-sequencing and
corruption of packets.

4 Delay parameters define maximum values for the mean delay

and the 95-percentile delay.

5 Throughput specifies the maximum/peak bit rate and the

mean bit rate.

3.7.3 GPRS functional architecture and its application

1 GPRS uses the GSM architecture for voice.

2 GPRS support nodes are responsible for the delivery and

routing of data packets between the mobile stations and the
external packet data networks (PDN).

3 There are 2 types of support nodes which are given below:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

1 A SGSN is at the same hierarchical level as the MSC.

Whatever functions MSC does for the voice, SGSN does the
3.7. GPRS 143

same for packet data.

2 SGSN’s tasks include packet switching, routing and transfer,

mobility management, logical link management, and
authentication and charging functions.

3 SGSN processes registration of new mobile subscribers and

keeps a record of their location inside a given service area.

4 The location register of the SGSN stores location information

and uses profiles of all GPRS users registered with the SGSN.

5 • SGSN sends queries to HLR to obtain profile data of GPRS

subscribers. The SGSN is connected to the base station system
with Frame Relay.

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

1 A GGSN acts as an interface between the GPRS backbone

network and the external packet data network.

2 GGSN’s function is similar to that of a router in a LAN.

GGSN maintains routing information that is necessary to
tunnel the Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the SGSNs that
service particular mobile stations.

3 It converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into the
appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format for the data
networks like internet or X.25, PDP sends these packets out
on the corresponding packet data network.

4 The readdressed packets are sent to the responsible SGSN.

For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN address
of the user and his or her profile in its location register.

5 GGSN also performs authentication and charging functions

related to data transfer.
144 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

6 Some existing GSM network elements must be enhanced in

order to support packet data. These are as following:

Figure 3.21: GPRS Architecture

AUC Authentication Center MS Mobile Station

BSC Base Station Controller MSC Mobile Switching Center
BTS Base Transceiver Station PDN Packet Data Network
EIR Equipment Identity Register PLMN Public Land Mobile Network
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node SMSC Short Message Service Center
GPRS General Packet Radio Service SMS-GMSC SMS Gateway MSC
HLR Home Location Register SMS-IWMSC SMS Inter-Working MSC
ISDN Integrated System Digital Network SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node

Base Station System (BSS)

1 BSS system needs enhancements to recognize and send

packet data.

2 This includes BTS upgrade to allow transportation of user

data to the SGSN.
3 Also, the BTS needs to be upgraded to support packet data
3.7. GPRS 145

transportation between the BTS and the MS (Mobile Station)

over the radio.

Home Location Register (HLR)

HLR needs enhancement to register GPRS user profiles and
respond to queries originating from GSNs regarding these
profiles.

Mobile Station (MS)

The mobile station or the mobile phone for GPRS is different from
that of GSM.

SMS Nodes

1 SMS-GMSCs and SMS-IWMSCs are upgraded to support

SMS transmission via the SGSN.0
2 Optionally, the MSC/VLR can be enhanced for more efficient
coordination of GPRS and non- GPRS services and
functionality.

3 GPRS uses two frequency bands at 45 MHz apart; viz.,

890-915 MHz for uplink (MS to BTS), and 935-960 MHz for
downlink (BTS to MS).

3.7.4 Applications of GPRS

1 Communications: E-mail, fax, unified messaging and

intranet/internet access, etc.
2 Value-added services: Information services and games, etc.

3 E-commerce: Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial

trading, etc.

4 Location-based applications: Navigation, traffic conditions,

airline/rail schedules and location finder, etc.
146 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

5 Vertical applications: Freight delivery, fleet management

and sales-force automation.

6 Advertising: It may be location sensitive. For example, a

user entering a mall can receive advertisements specific to
the stores in that mall.

3.8 Transmission Plane Protocol Architecture of

GPRS

1 Figure 3.22 shows the protocol architecture of the GPRS

transmission plane, providing transmission of user data and
its associated signaling.

2 The transmission plane consists of a layered protocol

structure providing user data transfer, along with associated
procedures that control the information transfer such as flow
control, error detection, and error correction.

3 Figure 3.22 shows the layered protocol structure between the

MS and the GGSN.

Figure 3.22: Transmission Plane and GPRS Protocol Stack

3.8. TRANSMISSION PLANE PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE OF GPRS 147

Air Interface

The air interface is located between the MS and the BSS. The
protocols used on the air interface are as follows:

1 Radio link control/medium access control (RLC/MAC):

RLC provides a reliable radio link between the mobile and
the BSS. MAC controls the access signaling procedures to the
GPRS radio channel, and the multiplexing of signaling and
RLC blocks from different users onto the GSM physical
channel.
2 GSM-RF layer: It is the radio subsystem that supports a
certain number of logical channels. This layer is split into
two sub layers: the radio frequency layer (RFL), which
handles the radio and baseband part (physical channel
management, modulation, demodulation, and transmission
and reception of radio blocks), and the physical link layer
(PLL), which manages control of the RFL (power control,
synchronization, measurements, and channel
coding/decoding).

3 A relay function is implemented in the BSS to relay the LLC

PDUs between the air interface and the Gb interface.

Gb Interface

The Gb interface is located between the SGSN and the BSS. It

supports data transfer in the transmission plane. The Gb
interface supports the following protocols:

1 BSS GPRS protocol (BSSGP): This layer conveys routing

and QoS-related information between the BSS and SGSN.
2 Network service (NS): It transports BSSGP PDUs and is
based on a frame relay connection between the BSS and
148 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

SGSN.
3 A relay function is implemented in the SGSN to relay the
packet data protocol (PDP) PDUs between the Gb and Gn
interfaces.

Gn/Gp Interface

1 The Gn interface is located between two GSNs (SGSN or

GGSN) within the same PLMN, while the Gp interface is
between two GSNs in different PLMNs.
2 The Gn/Gp interface is used for the transfer of packets
between the SGSN and the GGSN in the transmission plane.
The Gn/Gp interface supports the following protocols:
(a) GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP): This protocol tunnels
user data between the SGSN and GGSN in the GPRS
backbone network. GTP operates on top of UDP over IP.
The layers L1 and L2 of the Gn interfaces are not
specified in the GSM/GPRS standard.
(b) User datagram protocol (UDP): It carries GTP packet
data units (PDUs) in the GPRS Core Network for
protocols that do not need a reliable data link (e.g., IP).
(c) Internet protocol (IP): This is the protocol used for
routing user data and control signaling within the GPRS
backbone network.

Interface between MS and SGSN

This interface supports the following protocols:

1 Sub network-dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP):

This protocol maps the IP protocol to the underlying
network. SNDCP also provides other functions such as
3.9. PDP CONTEXT ACTIVATION PROCEDURE WITH RESPECT TO GPRS149

compression, segmentation, and multiplexing of network

layer messages.

2 Logical link control (LLC): This layer provides a highly

reliable logical link that is independent of the underlying
radio interface protocols. LLC is also responsible for the
GPRS ciphering.

3.9 PDP context activation procedure with respect

to GPRS

1 In GPRS network, MS registers itself with SGSN through a

GPRS attach which establishes a logical link between the MS
and the SGSN.
2 To exchange data packets with external PDNs after a
successful GPRS attach, an MS must apply for an address
which is called PDP (Packet Data Protocol) address.

3 For each session, a PDP context is created which contains PDP

type (e.g. IPv4), PDP address assigned to the mobile station
(e.g. 129.187.222.10), requested QoS and address of the GGSN
that will function as an access point to the PDN.

4 Such a context is stored in MS, SGSN and GGSN while with

an active PDP context; the MS is ‘visible’ to the external PDN.
5 A user may have several simultaneous PDP contexts active
at a given time and user data is transferred transparently
between MS and external data networks.
6 Allocation of the PDP address can be static or dynamic.

7 In case of static address, the network operator permanently

assigns a PDP address to the user while in other case, a PDP
address is assigned to the user upon the activation of a PDP
context.
150 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

8 Using the message “activate PDP context request”, MS

informs the SGSN about the requested PDP context and if
request is for dynamic PDP address assignment, the
parameter PDP address will be left empty.

Figure 3.23: PDP Context Activation

9 After necessary security steps, if authentication is successful,

SGSN will send a ‘create PDP context request’ message to the
GGSN, the result of which is a confirmation message ‘create
PDP context response’ from the GGSN to the SGSN, which
contains the PDP address.
10 SGSN updates its PDP context table and confirms the
activation of the new PDP context to the MS.
11 Disconnection from the GPRS network is called GPRS detach
in which all the resources are released.

3.10 How the packets are routed in GPRS?

1 Routing is the process of how packets are routed in GPRS.

2 Here, the example assumes two intra-PLMN backbone

networks of different PLMNs. Intra- PLMN backbone
networks connect GSNs of the same PLMN or the same
network operator.
3.10. HOW THE PACKETS ARE ROUTED IN GPRS? 151

3 These intra-PLMN networks are connected with an

inter-PLMN backbone while an inter-PLMN backbone
network connects GSNs of different PLMNs and operators.
However, a roaming agreement is necessary between two
GPRS network providers.

4 Gateways between PLMNs and external inter-PLMN

backbone are called border gateways which perform security
functions to protect the private intra-PLMN backbones
against malicious attacks.

5 Let’s say that GPRS MS located in PLMN1 sends IP packets

to a host connected to the IP network (e.g. to a Web server
connected to the Internet).

Figure 3.24: GPRA Packet Routing

6 SGSN that the MS is registered with encapsulates the IP

packets coming from the mobile station, examines the PDP
context and routes them through the intra-PLMN GPRS
backbone to the appropriate GGSN.

7 GGSN de-encapsulates the packets and sends them out on the

IP network, where IP routing mechanisms are used to transfer
152 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

the packets to the access router of the destination network

and finally, delivers the IP packets to the host.

8 Let us also say that home-PLMN of the mobile station is

PLMN2.
9 An IP address has been assigned to MS by the GGSN of
PLMN2 and so, MS’s IP address has the same network prefix
as the IP address of the GGSN in PLMN2.
10 Correspondent host is now sending IP packets to the MS
onto the IP network and are routed to the GGSN of PLMN2
(the home-GGSN of the MS). The latter queries the HLR and
obtains the information that the MS is currently located in
PLMN1.
11 It encapsulates the incoming IP packets and tunnels them
through the inter-PLMN GPRS backbone to the appropriate
SGSN in PLMN1 while the SGSN de-encapsulates the
packets and delivers them to the MS.

12 HLR stores the user profile, the current SGSN address and the
PDP addresses for every GPRS user in the PLMN.

13 When the MS registers with a new SGSN, HLR will send the
user profile to the new SGSN.

14 Signaling path between GGSN and HLR may be used by the

GGSN to query a user’s location and profile in order to
update its location register.

3.11 Data services in GPRS

1 Any user is likely to use either of the two modes of the GPRS
network:
(a) Application mode
3.12. BILLING AND CHARGING IN GPRS 153

(b) Tunneling mode

2 In application mode, user uses the GPRS mobile phone to

access the applications running on the phone itself. The
phone here acts as the end user device.

3 In tunneling mode, user uses GPRS interface as an access to

the network as the end user device would be a large footprint
device like laptop computer or a small footprint device like
PDA.
4 The mobile phone will be connected to the device and used
as a modem to access the wireless data network.

3.12 Billing and Charging in GPRS

1 For voice networks tariffs are generally based on distance and

time means that user pay more for long distance calls.

2 On other hand, in data services, minimum charging

information that must be collected are:
(a) Destination and source addresses
(b) Usage of radio interface
(c) Usage of external Packet Data Networks
(d) Usage of the packet data protocol addresses
(e) Usage of general GPRS resources and location of the
Mobile Station
3 A GPRS network needs to be able to count packets to
charging customers for the volume of packets they send and
receive.
4 Various business models exist for charging customers as
billing of services can be based on the transmitted data
volume, the type of service, the chosen QoS profile, etc.
154 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

5 GPRS call records are generated in the GPRS Service Nodes.

6 Packet counts are passed to a Charging Gateway that

generates Call Detail Records that are sent to the billing
system.

3.13 Limitations of GPRS

A GPRS is a new enabling mobile data service which offers a major

improvement in spectrum efficiency, capability and functionality
compared with today’s non-voice mobile services. However, it
is important to note that there are some limitations with GPRS,
which can be summarized as:

1 Limited Cell Capacity for All Users

(a) GPRS does impact a network’s existing cell capacity.
(b) There are only limited radio resources that can be
deployed for different uses - use for one purpose
precludes simultaneous use for another.
(c) For example, voice and GPRS calls both use the same
network resources. If tariffing and billing are not done
properly, this may have impact on revenue.

2 Speeds Much Lower in Reality

(a) Achieving the theoretical maximum GPRS data
transmission speed of 172.2 kbps would require a single
user taking over all eight timeslots without any error
protection.
(b) Clearly, it is unlikely that a network operator will allow
all timeslots to be used by a single GPRS user.
(c) Additionally, the initial GPRS terminals are expected be
severely limited - supporting only one, two or three
timeslots.
3.14. MOBILE IP 155

(d) The bandwidth available to a GPRS user will therefore be

severely limited.
(e) The reality is that mobile networks are always likely to
have lower data transmission speeds than fixed
networks.

3 Transit Delays

(a) GPRS packets are sent in all different directions to reach

the same destination.
(b) This opens up the potential for one or some of those
packets to be lost or corrupted during the data
transmission over the radio link.
(c) The GPRS standards recognize this inherent feature of
wireless packet technologies and incorporate data
integrity and retransmission strategies.
(d) However, the result is that potential transit delays can
occur.

3.14 Mobile IP

1 The term “Mobile” in Mobile IP signifies that, while a user is

connected to applications across the Internet and the user’s
point of attachment changes dynamically, all connections are
maintained despite the change in underlying network
properties.

2 Similar to the handoff/roaming situation in a cellular

network.

3 Mobile IP allows the mobile node to use two IP addresses

called home address and care of address.

4 The home address is static and known to everybody as the

identity of the host.
156 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

5 The care of address changes at each new point of attachment

and can be thought of as the mobile node’s location specific
address.

Figure 3.25: Mobile IP

Let’s take the case of mobile node (A) and another host
(server X). The following steps take place:

• Server X wants to transmit an IP datagram to node A.

• The home address of A is advertised and known to X.

• X does not know whether A is in the home network or

somewhere else.

• Therefore, X sends the packet to A with A’s home address as

the destination IP address in the IP header.

• The IP datagram is routed to A’s home network.

• At the A’s home network, the incoming IP datagram is

intercepted by the home agent.

• The home agent discovers that A is in a foreign network.

3.14. MOBILE IP 157

• A care of address has been allocated to A by this foreign

network and available with the home agent.

• The home agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a

new IP datagram, with A’s care of address in the IP header.

• This new datagram with the care of address as the destination

address is retransmitted by the home agent.

• At the foreign network, the incoming IP datagram is

intercepted by the foreign agent. The foreign agent is the
counterpart of the home agent in the foreign network. The
foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, and delivers the
original datagram to A.

• A intends to respond to this message and sends traffic to X.

In this example, X is not mobile; therefore X has a fixed IP
address.

• For routing A’s IP datagram to X, each datagram is sent to

some router in the foreign network. Typically, this router is
the foreign agent.

• A uses X’s IP static address as the destination address in the

IP header.

• The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the

network, using X’s IP address as the destination address.

• Discovery - A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to

identify prospective home agents and foreign agents.

• Registration - A mobile node uses a registration procedure to

inform its home agent of its careof address.

• Tunneling - Tunneling procedure is used to forward IP

datagrams from a home address to a care of address.
158 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

3.15 Wireless Application Protocol

1 WAP is an application communication protocol.

2 It is designed for access to Internet and advanced telephony

services from mobile phones.

3 WAP uses mark-up language - WML.

4 WAP can be used from variety of 2G and 3G networks.

5 GPRS and 3G are more suited for these applications.

3.15.1 WAP Protocol Stack

1 Wireless Application Environment - WAE

(a) User agent which is the browser or a client program.

(b) Wireless Markup Language (WML) which is a
lightweight markup language optimized for use in
wireless devices.
(c) WML Script which is a lightweight client side scripting
language.

2 Wireless Telephony Application(WTP):

(a) WAP Push Architecture which allow for mechanisms to

allow origin servers to deliver content to the terminal
without the terminal requesting for it.
(b) Primary objective of WAE is to provide an interoperable
environment to build services in wireless space.
(c) Content is transported using standard protocols in the
WWW domain and an optimized HTTP like protocol in
the wireless domain.
3.15. WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL 159

(d) WAE architecture allows all content and services to be

hosted on standard Web Servers when all content is
located using WWW standard URLs.
(e) WAE enhances some of the WWW standards to reflect
some of the telephony network characteristics.

3 Wireless Session Protocol(WSP):

(a) Unlike HTTP, WSP has been designed by the WAP Forum
to provide fast connection suspension and reconnection.
(b) WSP provides a consistent interface between two session
services like client and server.
(c) WSP offers both connection-oriented and connectionless
service.

4 Wireless Transaction Protocol(WTP):

(a) It runs on top of a datagram service such as User

Datagram Protocol (UDP) and is part of the standard
suite of TCP/IP protocols used to provide a simplified
protocol suitable for low bandwidth wireless stations.
(b) WTP supports class of transaction service, optional user-
to-user reliability, PDU concatenation and asynchronous
transaction.

5 Wireless Transport Layer Security(WTLS):

(a) WTLS incorporates security features that are based upon

the established Transport Layer Security(TLS) protocol
standard.
(b) It provides data integrity, privacy, authentication, denial
of service protection.

6 Wireless Datagram Protocol(WDP):

(a) WDP is transport layer protocol in WAP architecture.

160 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

(b) WDP operates above data capable bearer services

supported by various network type general transport
service.
(c) It allows WAP to be bearer-independent by adapting the
transport layer of the underlying bearer.
(d) The WDP presents a consistent data format to the higher
layers of the WAP protocol stack.

3.16 Cordless System

1 Cordless system is a general term of cordless telephones and

cordless telecommunication systems.

2 Cord means a wire, so, a cordless system means wireless

system.

3 A cordless telephone is known as a portable telephone and it

acts as a standard phone.

4 A base station communicates with the cordless handset

through radio waves, and this usually only works within a
limited range like residence or office.

5 Example: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications

(DECT) Phone.

Figure 3.26: Cordless Phone

3.17. WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP - WLL 161

3.17 Wireless Local Loop - WLL

1 WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the local

telephone station wirelessly.
2 In telephone, a loop is circuit line from subscriber’s phone to
line-terminating equipment at the central office.
3 Implementation of a local loop especially in rural areas used
to remain a risk for many operators due to fewer users and
increased cost of materials.
4 So, Wireless local loop (WLL) has introduced which solves
most of these problems.
5 It is also known as fixed wireless systems.

Figure 3.27: Configuration of WLL

3.18 Wireless Broadband

1 It is known as Wireless Metropolitan Area Network

(Wireless MAN) / Wireless Interoperability Microwave
Access (WiMAX).
162 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS

2 IEEE 802.16 standard released in April 2002.

3 It offers an alternative to high bandwidth wired access

networks like fiber optic, cable modems and DSL.

4 It provides network access to buildings through exterior

antennas communicating with radio base stations.

5 Networks can be created in just weeks by deploying a small

number of base stations on buildings or poles to create high
capacity wireless access systems.

Figure 3.28: Deployment of WiMax – IEEE 802.16

3.19 Sub-standards of IEEE 802.16

1 IEEE 802.16.1 - Air interface for 10 to 66 GHz

3.19. SUB-STANDARDS OF IEEE 802.16 163

2 IEEE 802.16.2 - Coexistence of broadband wireless access

systems

3 IEEE 802.16.3 - Air interface for licensed frequencies, 2 to 11

GHz
164 CHAPTER 3. GSM AND GPRS
Chapter 4

Wireless LAN

4.1 Introduction of Wireless LAN

1 It is a network that allows devices to connect and

communicate wirelessly.
2 Unlike a traditional wired LAN, in which devices
communicate over Ethernet cables, devices on a WLAN
communicate via Wi-Fi.
3 Mobile users can access information and network resources
through wireless LAN as they attend meetings, collaborate
with other users, or move to other locations in the premises.

4 WLAN is not a replacement for the wired infrastructure. It

implemented as an extension to a wired LAN within a
building or campus. Wireless LAN is commercially known
as WIFI or Wi-Fi.
5 Wi-Fi is an acronym for Wireless Fidelity.

6 In the corporate enterprise, wireless LANs are usually

implemented as the final link between the existing wired
network and a group of client computers, giving these users
wireless access to the full resources and services of the
corporate network across a building or campus setting.

165
166 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

4.2 Wireless LAN advantages

1 Availability of low-cost portable equipment: Due to the

technology enhancements, the equipment cost that are
required for WLAN set-up have reduced a lot.

2 Mobility: An increasing number of LAN users are

becoming mobile. These mobile users require that they are
connected to the network regardless of where they are
because they want simultaneous access to the network. This
makes the use of cables, or wired LANs, impractical if not
impossible. Wireless LAN can provide users mobility, which
is likely to increase productivity, user convenience and
various service opportunities.

3 Installation speed and simplicity: Wireless LANs are very

easy to install. There is no requirement for wiring every
workstation and every room. This ease of installation makes
wireless LANs inherently flexible. If a workstation must be
moved, it can be done easily and without additional wiring,
cable drops or reconfiguration of the network.

4 Installation flexibility: If a company moves to a new

location, the wireless system is much easier to move than
ripping up all of the cables that a wired system would have
snaked throughout the building. This also provides
portability. Wireless technology allows network to go
anywhere wire cannot reach.

5 Reduced cost of ownership: While the initial cost of wireless

LAN can be higher than the cost of wired LAN hardware, it
is envisaged that the overall installation expenses and life
cycle costs can be significantly lower. Long-term
cost-benefits are greater in dynamic environment requiring
frequent moves and changes.

6 Scalability: Wireless LAN can be configured in a variety of

4.3. WIRELESS LAN DISADVANTAGES 167

topologies to meet the users need and can be easily scaled to

cover a large area with thousands of users roaming within it.

4.3 Wireless LAN disadvantages

1 Lower reliability due to susceptibility of radio transmission

to noise and interference.
2 Fluctuation of the strength of the received signal through
multiple paths causing fading.

3 Vulnerable to eavesdropping leading to security problem.

4 Limited data rate because of the use of spread spectrum

transmission techniques enforced to ISM band users.

4.4 Types of wireless LAN

Types of Wireless LAN are:

1 802.11

2 HyperLAN

3 HomeRF

4 Bluetooth

5 MANET

4.5 Ad hoc verses infrastructure mode

1 In Ad hoc mode, there is no access point or infrastructure.

168 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

2 A number of mobile stations from a cluster communicate

with each other.

3 Only require 802.11 client radios in the client devices that

connect to the network.

4 Because there is no access point or WLAN controller and the

stations are within range of each other, data transmitted by
a particular source station travels directly to the applicable
destination station.

Figure 4.1: Ad hoc Vs Infrastructure Mode

5 In infrastructure mode, the mobile station-MS are connected

to a abase station or access point.

6 This is similar to a star network where all the mobile stations

are attached to the base station.

7 Through a protocol the base station manages the dialogue

between the AP and MS.

8 Most companies, public hotspots, and homeowners

implement infrastructure WLANs. In this configuration, one
or more access points interface wireless mobile devices to the
distribution system.

9 Each access point forms a radio cell, also called a basic service
set (BSS), which enables wireless users located within the cell
to connect to the access point.
4.6. IEEE 802 ARCHITECTURE 169

10 This allows users to communicate with other wireless users,

as well as with servers and network applications connecting
to the distribution system.

11 A company, for example, can use this configuration to enable

employees to access corporate applications and the Internet
from anywhere within the facility.

4.6 IEEE 802 Architecture

1 This architecture was developed by the IEEE 802 committee

and has been adopted by all organizations working on the
specification of LAN standards. It is generally referred to as
the IEEE 802 reference model.

2 Working from the bottom up, the lowest layer of the IEEE 802
reference model corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI
model and includes such functions as:

(a) Encoding/decoding of signals (e.g., PSK, QAM, etc.)

(b) Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)

(c) Bit transmission/reception

3 For some of the IEEE 802 standards, the physical layer is

further subdivided into sub layers.
170 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

Figure 4.2: IEEE 802 Protocol Layers Compared to OSI Model

4 In the case of IEEE 802.11, two sub layers are defined:

(a) Physical layer convergence procedure (PLCP): Defines
a method of mapping 802.11 MAC layer protocol data
units (MPDUs) into a framing format suitable for
sending and receiving user data and management
information between two or more stations using the
associated PMD sub layer.
(b) Physical medium dependent sub layer (PMD): Defines
the characteristics of, and method of transmitting and
receiving, user data through a wireless medium between
two or more stations
5 Above the physical layer are the functions associated with
providing service to LAN users. These include
(a) On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address
and error detection fields.
(b) On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address
recognition and error detection.
(c) Govern access to the LAN transmission medium.
(d) Provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow
and error control.
4.7. IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE AND SERVICES 171

6 These are functions typically associated with OSI layer 2. The

set of functions the last bullet item is grouped into a logical
link control (LLC) layer. The functions in the first three bullet
items are treated as a separate layer, called medium access
control (MAC).

7 The separation is done for the following reasons:

(a) The logic required to manage access to a shared-access

medium is not found in traditional layer 2 data link
control.
(b) For the same LLC, several MAC options may be
provided.

4.7 IEEE 802.11 architecture and services

Figure 4.3: IEEE 802.11 Architecture

1 The smallest building block of a wireless LAN is a basic

service set (BSS), which consists of some number of stations
executing the same MAC protocol and competing for access
to the same shared wireless medium.
172 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

2 A BSS may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone

distribution system (DS) through an access point (AP).

3 The AP functions as a bridge and a relay point. In a BSS, client

stations do not communicate directly with one another.

4 Rather, if one station in the BSS wants to communicate with

another station in the same BSS, the MAC frame is first sent
from the originating station to the AP, and then from the AP
to the destination station.

5 Similarly, a MAC frame from a station in the BSS to a remote

station is sent from the local station to the AP and then
relayed by the AP over the DS on its way to the destination
station.

6 The BSS generally corresponds to what is referred to as a cell

in the literature. The DS can be a switch, a wired network, or
a wireless network.

7 When all the stations in the BSS are mobile stations, with no
connection to other BSSs, the BSS is called an independent
BSS (IBSS).

8 An IBSS is typically an ad hoc network. In an IBSS, the

stations all communicate directly, and no AP is involved.

9 A simple configuration is shown in Figure, in which each

station belongs to a single BSS; that is, each station is within
wireless range only of other stations within the same BSS.

10 It is also possible for two BSSs to overlap geographically, so

that a single station could participate in more than one BSS.

11 Further, the association between a station and a BSS is

dynamic. Stations may turn off, come within range, and go
out of range.
4.7. IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE AND SERVICES 173

12 An extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic

service sets interconnected by a distribution system.

13 Typically, the distribution system is a wired backbone LAN

but can be any communications network.

14 The extended service set appears as a single logical LAN to

the logical link control (LLC) level.

15 Figure indicates that an access point (AP) is implemented as

part of a station; the AP is the logic within a station that
provides access to the DS by providing DS services in
addition to acting as a station.

16 To integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a traditional

wired LAN, a portal is used. The portal logic is implemented
in a device, such as a bridge or router, that is part of the wired
LAN and that is attached to the DS.

IEEE 802.11 Services

1 IEEE 802.11 defines nine services that need to be provided by

the wireless LAN to provide functionality equivalent to that
which is inherent to wired LANs.

2 It is categories with two ways of categorizing them.

(a) . The service provider can be either the station or the

distribution system (DS).
i. Station services are implemented in every 802.11
station, including access point (AP) stations.
ii. Distribution services are provided between basic
services sets (BSSs); these services may be
implemented in an AP or in another special purpose
device attached to the distribution system.
174 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

(b) Three of the services are used to control IEEE 802.11 LAN
access and confidentiality.
i. Six of the services are used to support delivery of
MAC service data units (MSDUs) between stations.
ii. The MSDU is the block of data passed down from the
MAC user to the MAC layer; typically this is a LLC
PDU If the MSDU is too large to be transmitted in a
single MAC frame, it may be fragmented and
transmitted in a series of MAC frames.

3 Distribution of Messages within a DS: The two services

involved with the distribution of messages within a DS are
distribution and integration.

4 Distribution is the primary service used by stations to

exchange MAC frames when the frame must traverse the DS
to get from a station in one BSS to a station in another BSS.

5 For example, suppose a frame is to be sent from station 2 (STA

2) to STA 7 in Figure.

6 The frame is sent from STA 2 to STA 1, which is the AP for

this BSS. The AP gives the frame to the DS, which has the job
of directing the frame to the AP associated with STA 5 in the
target BSS.

7 STA 5 receives the frame and forwards it to STA 7. How the

message is transported through the DS is beyond the scope of
the IEEE 802.11 standard.

8 If the two stations that are communicating are within the

same BSS, then the distribution service logically goes
through the single AP of that BSS.

9 The integration service enables transfer of data between a

station on an IEEE 802.11 LAN and a station on an
integrated IEEE 802× LAN.
4.7. IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE AND SERVICES 175

10 The term integrated refers to a wired LAN that is physically

connected to the DS and whose stations may be logically
connected to an IEEE 802.11 LAN via the integration service.

11 The integration service takes care of any address translation

and media conversion logic required for the exchange of data.

Service Provider Used to Support

Association Distribution System MSDU Delivery
Authentication Station/AP LAN Access and Security
Deauthentication Station/AP LAN Access and Security
Deassociation Distribution System MSDU Delivery
Distribution Distribution System MSDU Delivery
Integration Distribution System MSDU Delivery
MSDU Delivery Station/AP MSDU Delivery
Privacy Station/AP LAN Access and Security
Reassociation Distribution System MSDU Delivery

Association Related Services

1 The primary purpose of the MAC layer is to transfer MSDUs

between MAC entities; this purpose is fulfilled by the
distribution service.

2 For that service to function, it requires information about

stations within the ESS, which is provided by the
association-related services.

3 Before the distribution service can deliver data to or accept

data from a station, that station must be associated. Before
looking at the concept of association, we need to describe the
concept of mobility.

4 The standard defines three transition types based on mobility:

(a) No transition: A station of this type is either stationary

176 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

or moves only within the direct communication range of

the communicating stations of a single BSS.
(b) BSS transition: This is defined as a station movement
from one BSS to another BSS within the same ESS. In this
case, delivery of data to the station requires that the
addressing capability be able to recognize the new
location of the station.
(c) ESS transition: This is defined as a station movement
from a BSS in one ESS to a BSS within another ESS.
(d) This case is supported only in the sense that the station
can move. Maintenance of upper-layer connections
supported by 802.11 cannot be guaranteed. In fact,
disruption of service is likely to occur.

5 To deliver a message within a DS, the distribution service

needs to know where the destination station is located.

6 Specifically, the DS needs to know the identity of the AP to

which the message should be delivered in order for that
message to reach the destination station.

7 To meet this requirement, a station must maintain an

association with the AP within its current BSS. Three
services relate to this requirement:

(a) Association: Establishes an initial association between a

station and an AP Before a station can transmit or
receive frames on a wireless LAN, its identity and
address must be known. For this purpose, a station must
establish an association with an AP within a particular
BSS. The AP can then communicate this information to
other APs within the ESS to facilitate routing and
delivery of addressed frames.
(b) Reassociation: Enables an established association to be
transferred from one AP to another, allowing a mobile
station to move from one BSS to another.
4.7. IEEE 802.11 ARCHITECTURE AND SERVICES 177

(c) Disassociation: A notification from either a station or an

AP that an existing association is terminated.
(d) A station should give this notification before leaving an
ESS or shutting down. However, the MAC management
facility protects itself against stations that disappear
without notification.

Access and Privacy Services

1 There are two characteristics of a wired LAN that are not

inherent in a wireless LAN.

(a) In order to transmit over a wired LAN, a station must

be physically connected to the LAN. On the other hand,
with a wireless LAN, any station within radio range of
the other devices on the LAN can transmit. In a sense,
there is a form of authentication with a wired LAN, in
that it requires some positive and presumably observable
action to connect a station to a wired LAN.
(b) Similarly, in order to receive a· transmission from a
station that is part of a wired LAN, the receiving station
must also be attached to the wired LAN. On the other
hand, with a wireless LAN, any station within radio
range can receive. Thus, a wired LAN provides a degree
of privacy, limiting reception of data to stations
connected to the LAN.

2 IEEE 802.11 defines three services that provide a wireless

LAN with these two features:

(a) Authentication:
i. Used to establish the identity of stations to each other.
In a wired LAN, it is generally assumed that access to
a physical connection conveys authority to connect to
the LAN.
178 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

ii. This is not a valid assumption for a wireless LAN, in

which connectivity is achieved simply by having an
attached antenna that is properly tuned.
iii. The authentication service is used by stations to
establish their identity with stations they wish to
communicate with IEEE 802.11 supports several
authentication schemes and allows for expansion of
the functionality of these schemes.
iv. The standard does not mandate any particular
authentication scheme, which could range from
relatively unsecure handshaking to public key
encryption schemes.
v. However, IEEE 802.11 requires mutually acceptable,
successful authentication before a station can
establish an association with an AP.
(b) De-authentication:
This service is invoked whenever an existing
authentication is to be terminated.
(c) Privacy:
Used to prevent the contents of messages from being
read by other than the intended recipient. The standard
provides for the optional use of encryption to assure
privacy.

4.8 IEEE 802.11 Medium access control

The IEEE 802.11 MAC layer covers three functional areas: reliable
data delivery, medium access control, and security.

Reliable Data Delivery

1 As with any wireless network, a wireless LAN using the

IEEE 802.11 physical and MAC layers is subject to
4.8. IEEE 802.11 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL 179

considerable unreliability.

2 Noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in the

loss of a significant number of frames.

3 Even with error-correction codes, a number of MAC frames

may not successfully be received.

4 This situation can be dealt with by reliability mechanisms at

a higher layer, such as TCP.

5 However, timers used for retransmission at higher layers are

typically on the order of seconds.

6 It is therefore more efficient to deal with errors at the MAC

level. For this purpose, IEEE 802.11 includes a frame
exchange protocol.

7 When a station receives a data frame from another station, it

returns an acknowledgment (ACK) frame to the source
station.
8 This exchange is treated as an atomic unit, not to be
interrupted by a transmission from any other station.

9 If the source does not receive an ACK within a short period of

time, either because its data frame was damaged or because
the returning ACK was damaged, the source retransmits the
frame.
10 Thus, the basic data transfer mechanism in IEEE 802.11
involves an exchange of two frames.

11 To further enhance reliability, a four-frame exchange may be

used. In this scheme, a source first issues a request to send
(RTS) frame to the destination.

12 The destination then responds with a clear to send (CTS).

After receiving the CTS, the source transmits the data frame,
and the destination responds with an ACK.
180 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

13 The RTS alerts all stations that are within reception range of
the source that an exchange is under way; these stations
refrain from transmission in order to avoid a collision
between two frames transmitted at the same time.

14 Similarly, the CTS alert all stations that are within reception
range of the destination that an exchange is under way.

15 The RTS/CTS portion of the exchange is a required function

of the MAC but may be disabled.

Medium Access Control

1 The 802.11 working group considered two types of

proposals for a MAC algorithm: distributed access protocols,
which, like Ethernet, distribute the decision to transmit over
all the nodes using a carrier-sense mechanism.

2 Centralized access protocols, which involve regulation of

transmission by a centralized decision maker.

3 A distributed access protocol makes sense for an ad hoc

network of peer workstations (typically an IBSS) and may
also be attractive in other wireless LAN configurations that
consist primarily of busty traffic.

4 A centralized access protocol is natural for configurations in

which a number of wireless stations are interconnected with
each other and some sort of base station that attaches to a
backbone wired LAN; it is especially useful if some of the
data is time sensitive or high priority.
4.9. IEEE 802.11 PHYSICAL LAYER 181

4.9 IEEE 802.11 physical layer

1 The physical layer for IEEE 802.11 has been issued in four
stages.

2 The first part, simply called IEEE 802.11, includes the MAC
layer and three physical layer specifications, two in the 2.4-
GHz band (ISM) and one in the infrared, all operating at 1
and 2 Mbps. IEEE 802.11a operates in the 5-GHz band at data
rates up to 54 Mbps.

3 IEEE 802.11b operates in the 2.4-GHz band at 5.5 and 11

Mbps.

4 IEEE 802.11g also operates in the 2.4-GHz band, at data rates

up to 54 Mbps.

5 Figure 4.4 shows the relationship among the various

standards developed for the physical layer, and table
provides details.

6 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) operating in the 2.4-

GHz ISM band, at data rates of 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps.

7 In the United States, the FCC (Federal Communications

Commission) requires no licensing for the use of this band.
182 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

Figure 4.4: IEEE 802.11 physical layer

8 The number of channels available depends on the bandwidth

allocated by the various national regulatory agencies.

9 This ranges from 13 in most European countries to just one

available channel in Japan.

10 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) operating in the

2.4-GHz ISM band, at data rates of 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps.

11 The number of channels available ranges from 23 in Japan to

70 in the United States.

12 Infrared at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps operating at a wavelength

between 850 and 950nm.
4.10. WI-FI PROTECTED ACCESS 183

4.10 Wi-Fi Protected Access

1 The original 802.11 specification included a set of security

features for privacy and authentication which, unfortunately,
were quite weak.

2 For privacy 802.11 defined the Wired Equivalent Privacy

(WEP) algorithm. WEP makes use of the RC4 encryption
algorithm using a 40-bit key.

3 A later revision enables the use of a 104-bit key. For

authentication, 802.11 requires that the two parties share a
secret key not shared by any other party and defines a
protocol by which this key can be used for mutual
authentication.

4 The privacy portion of the 802.11 standard contained major

weaknesses. The 40-bit key is woefully inadequate.

Figure 4.5:

5 Even the 104-bit key proved to be vulnerable, due to a

variety of weaknesses both internal and external to the
protocol supporting WEP.

6 These vulnerabilities include the heavy reuse of keys, the ease

of data access in a wireless network, and the lack of any key
management within the protocol.
184 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

Figure 4.6:

7 The 802.11i task group has developed a set of capabilities to

address the WLAN security issues.

8 In order to accelerate the introduction of strong security into

WLANs, the Wi-Fi Alliance promulgated Wi-Fi Protected
Access (WPA) as a Wi-Fi standard.

9 WPA is a set of security mechanisms that eliminates mos1

802.11 security issues and was based on the current state of
the 802.11i standard.

10 As 802.11i evolves, WPA will evolve to maintain

compatibility. IEEE 802.11i addresses three main security
areas: authentication, key management, and data transfer
privacy. To improve authentication, 802.11i requires the use
of an authentication server (AS) and defines a more robust
authentication protocol.

11 The AS also plays a role in key distribution. For privacy,

802.1li provides three different encryption schemes.

12 The scheme that provides a long-term solution makes use of

the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with 128-bit keys.

13 However, because the use of AES would require expensive

upgrades to existing equipment, alternative schemes based
on 104-bit RC4 are also defined.
4.10. WI-FI PROTECTED ACCESS 185

14 Figure ?? gives a general overview of 802.11i operation. First,

an exchange between a station and an AP enables the two to
agree on a set of security capabilities to be used. Then an
exchange involving the AS and the station pro vides for
secure authentication. The AS is responsible for key
distribution to the A P, which in turn manages and
distributes keys to stations. Finally, strong encryption is
used to protect data transfer between the station and the AP.

Figure 4.7: 802.11i Operational Phases

15 The 802.11i architecture consists of three main ingredients:

(a) Authentication: A protocol is used to define an

exchange between a user and an AS that provides
mutual authentication and generates temporary keys to
be used between the client and the AP over the wireless
link.
(b) Access control: This function enforces the use of the
authentication function, routes the messages properly,
and facilitates key exchange. It can work with a variety
of authentication protocols.
186 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

(c) Privacy with message integrity: MAC-level data (E .g.,

an LLC PDU) are encrypted, along with a message
integrity code that ensures that the data have not been
altered.

4.11 Wireless LAN security issues

1 IEEE 802.11 includes several security features:

(a) Open system and shared key authentication modes

(b) Service set identifiers-SSID
(c) Wired Equivalent Privacy-WEP

2 Security: A message transferred through wireless

communication can be intercepted without physical access
by any one.

3 Any person, sitting in the vicinity of a WLAN with a

transceiver with a capability to listen/talk, can pose a threat.

4 Unfortunately, the same hardware or algorithms that are

used for WLAN communication can be employed for such
attacks. To make the WLANs reliable the following security
goals were considered:

(a) Confidentiality
(b) Data Integrity
(c) Access Control

5 And following security measures are a part of the 802.11 IEEE

protocol:

(a) Authentication
(b) Association
(c) Encryption
4.11. WIRELESS LAN SECURITY ISSUES 187

6 For communication purpose in wireless environment, the

client should be authenticated person, and then only he or
she may be able to associate with other client and the data
that is to be transferred between two clients should be sent
in encrypted form.

7 In this problem, the transmission range of A reaches B but

not C. Similarly, the range of C reaches B but not A. Also the
range of B reaches both A and C.

8 Now, the node A starts to send something to B and C, but C

doesn’t receive this transmission.
9 Now C also wants to send data to B and senses the carrier. As
it senses it to be free, it also starts sending to B.

Figure 4.8: Hidden Terminal Problem Example

10 A hidden terminal problem occurs when two nodes that are

outside each other’s range performs simultaneous
transmission to a node that is within the range of each of
them resulting in a collision.

11 That means the data from both parties A and C will be lose
during the collision.

12 Hidden nodes mean increased probability of collision at the

receiver end.
13 One solution to avoid this is to have the channel sensing
range much greater than the receiving range. Another
188 CHAPTER 4. WIRELESS LAN

solution is to use the Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance (MACA).
Chapter 5

Bluetooth

5.1 Introduction of Bluetooth

1 It was initiated in the year 1989 by Nils Rydbeck and

”Bluetooth” name is taken from a 10th century Danish king
Harald Blåtand named Harald Bluetooth, who was said to
unite disparate, warring regional factions. Like its namesake.

2 Bluetooth technology brings together a broad range of

devices across many different industries through a unifying
communication standard.

3 Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication

technology that allows devices such as mobile phones,
computers, and peripherals to transmit data or voice
wirelessly over a short distance.

4 The purpose of Bluetooth is to replace the cables that

normally connect devices, while still keeping the
communications between them secure.

5 For Example, mobile, headset, laptop, camera, etc.

189
190 CHAPTER 5. BLUETOOTH

Figure 5.1:

6 Bluetooth allows users to make ad hoc wireless connections

between devices like mobile phones, desktop or notebook
computers wirelessly.

7 Bluetooth operates in a globally available frequency bad

ensuring interoperability. Bluetooth uses the unlicensed
2.4GHz ISM (Industrial Scientific and Medical) frequency
band.
8 There are 79 available Bluetooth channels spaced 1MHz apart
from 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz.
9 The Bluetooth standard is managed and maintained by
Bluetooth Special Interest Group.

10 Data transfer at a speed of about 720 Kbps within 50 meters

(150 feet) of range or beyond through walls, clothing and
even luggage bags.

5.2 Piconet and Scatternet

1 Bluetooth protocol uses the concept of master and slave

relation.
2 In a master-slave protocol a device cannot talk as and when
they desire. They need to wait till the time the master allows
them to talk.
5.2. PICONET AND SCATTERNET 191

3 The master and slaves together form a piconet. Up to seven

“slave” devices can be set to communicate with a “master”.
(M: Master, S: Slave)

Figure 5.2: Master-Slave connection in Piconet

4 Several of these piconets can be linked together to form a

larger network in an ad-hoc manner.

5 The topology can be thought as a flexible, multiple piconet

structure. This network of piconets is called Scatternet.

Figure 5.3: Piconet and Scatternet

6 A Scatternet is formed when a device from one piconet also

acts as a member of another piconet. In this scheme, a device
being a master in one piconet can simultaneously be a slave
in the other one.
192 CHAPTER 5. BLUETOOTH

5.3 Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Figure 5.4: Bluetooth Protocol Stack

1 Bluetooth protocol stack can be thought of as a combination

of multiple application specific stacks.

2 Bluetooth uses spread spectrum technologies at the Physical

Layer while using both direct sequence and frequency
hopping spread spectrum technologies.

3 It uses connectionless (ACL–Asynchronous Connectionless

Link) and connection-oriented (SCO - Synchronous
Connection-oriented Link) links.

4 Bluetooth protocol stack can be divided into four basic layers

according to their functions.

(a) Bluetooth Core Protocols

i. This comprises of baseband, Link Manager Protocol
(LMP), Logical Link Control and Adaption Protocol
(L2CAP), and Service Discovery Protocol (SDP).
5.3. BLUETOOTH PROTOCOL STACK 193

ii. This layer uses inquiry and paging procedures to

synchronize the transmission with different
Bluetooth devices. Using SCO and ACL link different
packets can be multiplexed over the same.
iii. Link Manager Protocol: When two Bluetooth
devices come within each other’s range, link
managers of either device discover each other.
iv. LMP then engages itself in peer-to-peer message
exchange. These messages perform various security
functions starting from authentication to encryption.
v. It also controls the power modes, connection state,
and duty cycles of Bluetooth devices in a piconet.
vi. Logical Link Control and Adaption Protocol
(L2CAP): This layer is responsible for segmentation
of large packets and the reassembly of fragmented
packets.
vii. L2CAP is also responsible for multiplexing of
Bluetooth packets from different applications.
viii. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): It enables a
Bluetooth device to join a piconet. Using SDP a
device inquires what services are available in a
piconet and how to access them.
ix. SDP uses a client-server model where the server has a
list of services defined through service records.
x. In Bluetooth device there is only one SDP server. If
a device provides multiple services, one SDP server
acts on behalf of all of them.
(b) Cable Replacement Protocol
i. This protocol has only one member which is Radio
Frequency Communication (RFCOMM).
ii. RFCOMM: It is a serial line communication protocol
and is based on ETSI 07.10 specification.
iii. The “cable replacement” protocol emulates RS-232
control and data signals over Bluetooth Baseband
194 CHAPTER 5. BLUETOOTH

Protocol.
(c) Telephony Control Protocol
i. It comprises of two protocol stacks, viz., Telephony
Control Specification Binary (TCS BIN), and the AT-
commands.
ii. Telephony Control Specification Binary (TCS BIN): It
is a bit-oriented protocol. It defines all the call control
signaling protocol for set up of speech and data calls
between Bluetooth devices.
iii. It also defines mobility management procedures for
handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices. It is based
on the ITU-T Recommendation Q.931.
iv. AT-Commands: It defines a set of AT-commands by
which a mobile phone can be used and controlled as
a modem for fax and data transfers.
v. AT commands are used from a computer or DTE to
control a modem or DC. They are based on ITU-T
Recommendation V.250 and GSM 07.07.
(d) Adopted Protocols
i. This has many protocols stacks like Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP), TCP/IP Protocol, OBEX (Object
Exchange Protocol), Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP), vCard, vCalender, Infrared Mobile
Communication (IrMC), etc.
ii. PPP Bluetooth: This offers PPP over RFCOMM to
accomplish point-to-point connections.
Point-to-Point Protocol is the means of taking IP
packets to/from the PPP layer and placing them onto
the LAN.
iii. TCP/IP: This protocol is used for communication
across the Internet. TCP/IP stacks are used in
numerous devices including printers, handheld
computers, and mobile handsets.
5.4. BLUETOOTH SECURITY 195

iv. TCP/IP/PPP is used for the all Internet bridge usage

scenarios.
v. OBEX Protocol: OBEX is a session protocol
developed by the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) to
exchange objects.
vi. OBEX provides the functionality of HTTP in a much
lighter fashion. It defines a folder listing object,
which can be used to browse the contents of folders
on remote devices.
vii. Content Formats: vCard and vCalender
specifications define the format of an electronic
business card and personal calendar entries
developed by the Versit consortium.
viii. These content formats are used to exchange messages
and notes. They are defined in the IrMC specification.

5.4 Bluetooth Security

1 Bluetooth offers security infrastructure starting from

authentication, key exchange to encryption.

2 At lower levels of the protocol stack, Bluetooth uses the

publicly available cipher algorithm known as SAFER+ to
authenticate a device’s identity.
196 CHAPTER 5. BLUETOOTH

5.5 Application of Bluetooth

Model Description
File Transfer Refers to object transfer or transfer of files
between devices.
Internet In this model, a cordless modem acts as
Bridge a modem to a PC and provides dial-up
networking and faxing facilities.
LAN Access Multiple data terminals use a LAN access
point (LAP) as a wireless connection to an
Ethernet LAN.
SynchronizationThe synchronization model enables a device-
to-device synchronization of data.
Headset It is wirelessly connected and can act as
an audio input-output interface of remote
devices.