Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

AC Operation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 AC vs DC
 For large current applications, DC generators are
required
– generator converts mechanical rotation to electrical
output
– AC generators are less complex and cheaper to
operate.
 AC easier to transport over long distances
– minimum power loss
– can use transformers to change voltage
 AC easily converted to DC (but not vice-versa)
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 Voltage Generation
 When there is relative
motion between a
conductor and a
magnetic field, a
voltage is induced into
the conductor.
 Magnitude of the
voltage is dependent on
d the speed of movement.
vi 
dt

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Voltage Generation
 Polarity of induced
voltage depends upon
the direction of relative
motion between the
conductor and the
magnetic field

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Voltage Generation
 When relative motion is
parallel to the magnetic
field, no voltage is
induced.
– Appears to be no relative
motion
– no flux lines are being
cut

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 AC Voltage Generation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 AC Voltage Generation
 As loop rotates through
points A & C, it is
parallel to the flux lines.
– No voltage induced
 As loop rotates through
point B & D, it is
perpendicular to the flux
lines
– Maximum voltage
induced

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 AC Voltage Generation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 AC Voltage Generation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Sine Wave
 Natural output voltage
waveform from an AC
generator is called the
Sine Wave.
– The instantaneous
voltage at any point
is a function of the
sine of the angle
vi  sin   v p formed by the
rotation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Sine Wave

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Sine Wave Measurements
 Peak Voltage (Vp)
– The maximum
voltage (+ or -) that
the sine wave
reaches during either
alternation.
– Referenced to 0 volts

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Sine Wave Measurements
 Peak-to-peak
Voltage (Vpp)
V pp  2V p
– Total voltage from
the peak of the
negative alternation
to the peak of the
positive alternation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Sine Wave Measurements
 Root-Mean-Square voltage (Vrms)
 aka Effective Voltage
 The DC equivalent voltage value of the
AC voltage which will produce the same
amount of heat dissipation.
 Vrms found by using only one alternation,
usually the positive.
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 Vrms

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Vrms

Vrms  0.707  V p

 Vrms determined by squaring the instantaneous

voltage found at 1° increments in one alternation,
finding the Mean (or average) of the squares,
then taking the square root of that mean.

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Sine Wave Measurements
 Average Voltage (Vave)
 Like Vrms, Vave also considers only one
alternation.
– The DC average would be 0 volts since the
sine wave has identical + and - voltages
and angles.
– However, current flows through each
alternation, regardless of its polarity.
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 Vave
 Vave determined similarly
to Vrms except the
instantaneous voltages
are not squared.
 Found by averaging the
instantaneous voltage
at 1° increments
throughout one
alternation

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Vave
 The average for one
Vave  0.637  V p alternation is always
equal to 63.7% of
the peak voltage.

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Phase
 Phase refers to the angular difference
between two AC waveforms.
 The “time difference” between the two
waves is expressed in degrees, either
leading or lagging.

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Phase Relationships
 Waveforms A and B are
in-phase with each
other
 Both cross the 0 volt
reference at the same
time going in the same
direction
 Amplitude has no effect
on phase angle

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Phase Relationships
 Waveform A leads
waveform B by 90°
 Waveform A reaches its
maximum positive peak
at the same time that
waveform B crosses the
0 volt reference line
going in the positive
direction

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Phase Relationships
 Waveform B leads
waveform A by 90°
 Can also be said
that waveform A
lags waveform B by
90°

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Phase Relationships
 Determine the
phase relationship
between waveforms
A and B.

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Frequency
 Frequency is defined at the number times an event
occurs in a specific period of time.
 In electronics, the specific time is 1 second.
 The basic unit of measurement of frequency is the
HERTZ (Hz)
– 1 occurrence per second = 1 Hz
– 60 occurrences per second = 60 Hz
– 10000 occurrences per second = 10 KHz
 The time between occurrences is called the period.

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Frequency
 The frequency in Hz is
found by taking the
reciprocal of the period
required for one cycle
 Conversely, the time for
one cycle can be found
by taking the reciprocal
of the frequency
1 1
freq  time 
time freq
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 Harmonics
 A harmonic is a multiple of a
fundamental sine wave frequency
 given a fundamental frequency of 2
KHz:
– 2nd harmonic = 2 * 2 KHz = 4 KHz
– 8th harmonic = 8 * 2 KHz = 16 KHz
– 19th harmonic = 19 * 2 KHz = 39 KHz

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Wavelength ()
 Wavelength is defined as
the distance covered by
one cycle of an AC
waveform.
 Electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of
light in free space (air or
vacuum)
 speed of light is
300,000,000 (3 x 108)
meters per second
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 Wavelength ()

distance  velocity  time

 If the speed of an object and the

amount of time traveled are known, the
distance can be found.

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ

 Wavelength ()
 If the frequency of an AC waveform is
known, then the time for one cycle is
known (by taking the reciprocal).

3 x 10 8
 meters 
freq
3 x 1010
 cm 
freq
Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ
 Sine Wave Summary

Dick Spurlock ITT Technical Institute, Phoenix, AZ