Unit-I Chapter-II

Techniques for Bandwidth Utilization

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Line Configuration
●Line configuration refers to the way two or more
communication devices attached to a link.
●Line configuration is also referred to as connection.
●A Link is the physical communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another.
●For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in same way to the same link at the same time.
●There are two possible line configurations.
● 1. Point-to-Point.
● 2. Multipoint.

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Line Configuration
Point to Point Line Configuration:
● Provides dedicated link between two devices.
● The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
● Generally uses actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options such as microwave or
satellite links are also possible.
● Easiest and most conventional.
● It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
● Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote
control and Television for changing the channels.

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Line Configuration
Multipoint Line Configuration:
● It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two
or more devices share a single link.
● More than two devices share the link that is the capacity of the
channel is shared now.
● With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a
Multipoint Line configuration:
● Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link
simultaneously, its called Spatially shared line configuration.
● Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the
link , then its called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line
configuration.

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Techniques for Bandwidth Utilization
● Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth
to achieve specific goals.
● Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing.
● Multiplexing
 Frequency Division
 Time Division
 Wave Division

5
Multiplexing:
● Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater
than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
● Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.
● Multiplexing is done using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that
combine n input lines to generate one output line i.e. (many to one).
● At the receiving end a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) is
used that separate signal into its component signals i.e. one input and
several outputs (one to many).

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Multiplexing Vs No Multiplexing

7
Types of multiplexing

8
Frequency Division Multiplexing
● FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
● Signals of different frequencies are combined into a composite signal and is
transmitted on the single link.
● Bandwidth of a link should be greater than the combined bandwidths of the
various channels.
● Each signal will have different frequency.
● Channels are separated by the strips of unused bandwidth called Guard
Bands (to prevent overlapping).

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FDM: Multiplexing Process
● Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer,
these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies (f1,f2, and f3).
● The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
Multiplexing

Demultiplexing

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0
Example
● Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine
three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz.
Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard
bands.
● Solution:
● We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth. We
use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth
for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we
combine them as shown in Figure.

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1
Example
● Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What
is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
● Solution:
● For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required
bandwidth is at least
● 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,

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2
FDM: Analog Carrier System
● To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have
traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-
bandwidth lines. In this way, many switched or leased lines can be combined into
fewer but bigger channels. For analog lines, FDM is used.
● One of these hierarchical systems used by AT&T is made up of groups,
supergroups, master groups, and jumbo groups.

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3
FDM: Applications
● FDM is used for FM & AM radio broadcasting.
● AM frequency = 530 to 1700 kHz.
● FM frequency = 88 to 108 MHz.
● FDM is used in television broadcasting.
● First generation cellular telephone also uses FDM.

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4
FDM: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
● FDM is used for analog signals.
● FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
● A large number of signals can be sent through an FDM
simultaneously.
● It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages:
● FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
● It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
● A large number of modulators are required.
● It requires a high bandwidth channel.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
● WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
● WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic
channels.
● The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different
frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.
● Various light waves from different sources are combined to form a
composite light signal that is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
● At the receiver side, this composite light signal is broken into different light
waves by Demultiplexer.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
● The Combining and the Splitting of light waves is done by using a PRISM.
● Prism bends beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency of
light wave.
● Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of
light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a
wider band of frequencies.
● A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process.

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7
WDM: Applications
● One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple
optical fiber lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed.
● A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very
large number of channels by spacing channels very close to one
another. It achieves even greater efficiency.

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8
WDM: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
● Easier to reconfigure
● Full duplex transmission is possible
● It provides higher bandwidth
● High security
● This could be the best approach as it is simple to implement
Disadvantages:
● Signals cannot be very close
● Cost of the system increases with the addition of optical components
● Scalability is a concern
● Difficulty in wavelength tuning
● Inefficiency in BW utilization

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9
Time Division Multiplexing
● Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital multiplexing technique for
combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.
● Channel/Link is not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of
time.
● Total time available in the channel is divided between several users.
● Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or slice.
● In TDM the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be
greater than the data rate required by sending and receiving devices.

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0
TDM: Types
1) Synchronous TDM and 2) Asynchronous TDM
1) Synchronous TDM: Each device is given some Time Slot to transmit the data
over the link, irrespective of whether the device has any data to transmit or not.
● Each device places its data onto the link when its Time Slot arrives, each device is
given the possession of line turn by turn.
● If any device does not have data to send then its time slot remains empty.
● Time slots are organized into Frames and each frame consists of one or more time
slots.
● If there are n sending devices there will be n slots in frame.
● The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing,
and SONET multiplexing.

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22
TDM: Types-Synchronous
● In synchronous TDM(STDM), the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the
unit duration is n times shorter.
● In STDM every device is given opportunity to transmit a specific amount of data
onto the link.
● Each device gets its turn in fixed order and for fixed amount of time. This process
is known as interleaving.
● The operation of STDM is similar to that of a fast interleaved switch. The switch
opens in front of a device; the device gets a chance to place the data onto the link.
● Interleaving may be done on the basis of a bit, a byte or by any other data unit.

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TDM: Types-Synchronous
● Ex: Interleaving is done by a character (one byte).
● Each frame consist of four slots as there are four input devices.
● Slots of some devices go empty if they do not have any data to send.

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TDM: Types-Synchronous
●Disadvantages of STDM:
●The channel capacity cannot be fully utilized. Some of the
slots go empty in certain frames.
●The speed of the transmission medium should be greater
than the total speed of the input lines.

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TDM: Types-Asynchronous
2) Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing (ASTDM)
● Also known as Statistical Time Division multiplexing.
● ASTDM is called so because in this type of multiplexing, time slots are not
fixed i.e. the slots are flexible.
● Total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the path.
● In ASTDM we have n input lines and m slots i.e. m less than n (m<n).
● Slots are not predefined rather slots are allocated to any of the device that has data
to send.
● The number of time slots in a frame is based on a statistical analysis of number of
input lines.

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TDM: Types-Asynchronous
● In SDM, some slots are empty because the corresponding line does not have data to send. In
ASTDM, however, no slot is left empty as long as there is data to be sent by any input line.
● Addressing
● An output slot in STDM is totally occupied by data; in ASTDM, a slot needs to carry data as
well as the address of the destination.
● In STDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and preassigned relationships
between the inputs and outputs serve as an address. If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer
are synchronized, this is guaranteed. In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship
between the inputs and outputs because there are no preassigned or reserved slots. We need
to include the address of the receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.
The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define N different output lines with n
=log2N.

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28
TDM: Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
● Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
● lntermodulation distortion is absent.
● The problem of crosstalk is not severe.
Disadvantages:
● Synchronization is essential for proper operation.
● Due to slow narrow band fading, all the TDM channels may get
wiped out.
● Complex to implement.

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9
TDM:
In Figure, the data rate for each input connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a
time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each
input slot, (b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?
● Solution
● a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that
the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time
slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration).
● b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input
time slot. This means that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3
ms.
● c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a
frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The duration of a frame is the same as
the duration of an input unit.

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31
TDM:
● Figure shows synchronous TDM with a data stream for each input and one data
stream for the output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b)
the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame rate.
● Solution
● a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.
● b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or ¼ μs.
● c.The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or 1/(4μs) or 4
Mbps. This can also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.
● d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So the frame rate is
1,000,000 frames per second.

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2
Transmission Types
●Asynchronous Transmission
●Synchronous Transmission

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Asynchronous Transmission
● Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a
signal is unimportant.
● In asynchronous serial transmission the sender and receiver are not
synchronized.
● Each character (generally bytes) is transmitted separately with
separate synchronization information.
● Small blocks of bits (generally bytes) are sent at a time without any
time relation between consecutive bytes
● Due to arbitrary delay between consecutive bytes, the time
occurrences of the clock pulses at the receiving end need to be
synchronized for each byte. This is achieved by providing 2 extra
bits start and stop. i.e. To avoid confusing the receiver while
receiving the data, ―start and ―stop bits are inserted before and
after every group of 8 bits.
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Asynchronous Transmission
● We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s)
at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between
each byte.
● Asynchronous here means “asynchronous at the byte level,” but the
bits are still synchronized; their durations are the same.
● Error Detection: Add an extra bit, called a parity bit, to the end of
each character in a frame.

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Asynchronous Transmission
Advantages
● 1. Simple and Inexpensive.
● 2. Effective implementation
● 3. Can be used for low speed communication
Disadvantages
● Insertion of start bits, stop bits and gaps make asynchronous
transmission slow.
Application
● Keyboard

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Synchronous Transmission
● In Synchronous Serial Transmission, the sender and receiver are
highly synchronized
● In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer
"frames," which may contain multiple bytes.
● The sender simply send stream of data bits in group of 8 bits to the
receiver without any start or stop bit.
● Instead a common master clock is used for reference.
● It is the responsibility of the receiver to regroup the bits into units of
8 bits once they are received.
● When no data is being transmitted a sequence of 0‘s and 1‘s
indicating IDLE is put on the transmission medium by the sender.
● Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of
the received information is completely dependent on the ability of
the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they
come in. 3
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Synchronous Transmission
● Error Detection :Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is often used in
synchronous transmission. The CRC process subjects the block of
data to an algorithm that computes a result based on its contents.
This result is appended to the block prior to transmission. On the
receiving side, the same algorithm is used and the result is compared
with the CRC field. Any difference is assumed to mean frame
damage during transmission and retransmission is repeated.

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Synchronous Transmission
Advantages
● 1. There are no start bits, stop bits or gaps between data units
● 2. Since the above are absent data transmission is faster.
● 3. Due to synchronization there are no timing errors.
Disadvantages
● 1. Expensive and complex transmitter/receiver circuitry
● 2. Needs precisely synchronized clocks.
Application
● Data Transfer b/w computers

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Asynchronous Vs Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Synchronous
In asynchronous transmission, Data is sent in In Synchronous transmission, Data is sent in
form of byte or character. form of blocks or frames.
Asynchronous transmission is slow. Synchronous transmission is fast.
Asynchronous transmission is economical. Synchronous transmission is costly.
In asynchronous transmission, time interval In Synchronous transmission, time interval
of transmission is not constant, it is random. of transmission is constant.
In asynchronous transmission, There is In Synchronous transmission, There is no
present gap between data. gap present between data.
While in asynchronous transmission, Efficient use of transmission line is done in
transmission line remains empty during gap synchronous transmission.
in character transmission.
Asynchronous transmission have no need of Synchronous transmission needs precisely
synchronized clocks as parity bit is used in synchronized clocks for the information of
this transmission for information of new new bytes.
bytes.

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0
xDSL
● Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology provides high-speed,
broadband network connections to homes and small businesses.
● DSL utilizes the same cabling used for normal telephones, but it can
offer higher data rates through use of the digital modem technology.
● DSL technology is a set of technologies, each differing in the first
letter (ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL). The set is often referred to
as xDSL, where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or S.
● DSL modems comprise the heart of this technology and the lines
themselves are actually just plain telephone lines.
● It's possible for DSL subscribers to share the same line for their
digital and analog traffic  play web + receive a call.
● DSL offers more than 100 times the network performance of a
traditional analog modem.
● DSL service remains "on" all of the time.
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xDSL
● Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
● ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed for
residential users; it is not suitable for businesses.
● ADSL provides higher speed (bit rate) in the downstream direction
than in the upstream direction. That is the reason it is called
asymmetric.
● Designers of ADSL divided available bandwidth of the local loop
unevenly for the residential customer.
● It is not suitable for businesses who need a large bandwidth in both
direction.
● But how does ADSL reach a data rate that was never achieved with
traditional modems?
● The existing local loops (twisted-pair) can handle bandwidths up to
1.1 MHz. Filter installed at the end office of the telephone company
where each local loop terminates limits the bandwidth to 4 KHz
(voice communication).If filter is removed, the entire 1.1 MHz is
available for voice and data communication. 4
2
xDSL
● Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
● 1.1 MHz is theoretical bandwidth of the local loop.
● Numbers of factors affect the bandwidth:
● Distance between the residence and the switching office
● The size of the cable,
● The signaling used.
● ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a data rate based
on the condition of the local loop line.
● The modulation technique that has become standard for ADSL is
called the discrete multitone technique (DMT) which combines
QAM and FDM.

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44
xDSL
● Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
● Voice: Channel 0 is reserved for voice communication.
● Idle: Channels 1 to 5 are not used and provide a gap between voice and data
communication.
● Upstream data and control: Channels 6 to 30 (25 channels) are used for
upstream data transfer and control. A max of 1.44-Mbps bandwidth is available in
the upstream direction. However, the data rate is normally below 500 kbps.
● Downstream data and control: Channels 31 to 255 (225 channels) are used for
downstream data transfer and control. A max of 13.4-Mbps bandwidth is available
in the downstream direction. However, the data rate is normally below 8 Mbps.

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xDSL
● Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
● ADSL modem installed at a customer’s site.
● The local loop connects to a splitter which separates voice and data
communications.
● ADSL modem modulates and demodulates the data, using DMT, and
creates downstream and upstream channels.

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8
xDSL
● Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
● At the telephone company site, instead of an ADSL modem,
● A device called a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) is
installed that functions similarly.
● It packetizes the data to be sent to the Internet (ISP server)

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xDSL
● ADSL Lite:
● ADSL can be expensive and impractical enough to discourage most
subscribers:
● The installation of splitters at the border premises
● New wiring for the data line.
●ADSL Lite is new technology (universal ADSL or splitterless
ADSL):
● Plug ADSL lite modem directly into a telephone jack and connected to the
computer.
● Splitting is done at the telephone company.
● ADSL lite uses 256 DMT carriers
● with 8-bit modulation (instead of 15-bit)
● However, some of the carriers may not be available.
● Maximum downstream data rate 1.5 Mbps.
● Upstream data rate of 512 kbps.

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xDSL
HDSL (high-bit-rate digital subscriber line):
● Alternative for T-1 line (1.544 Mbps)
● The T-1 uses alternate mark inversion (AMI) encoding which is very susceptible
to attenuation at high frequencies.
● This limits the length of T-1 to 1 km (3200 ft) (repeater is needed for longer
distance)
● Increase the cost.

● HDSL uses 2B1Q encoding which is less susceptible to attenuation.

● A data rate of 1.544 Mbps (up to 2 Mbps) can be achieved without repeaters up
to a distance of 3.86 km (12000 ft).
● HDSL uses two twisted pairs (One pair for each direction) to achieve full-duplex
transmission.

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xDSL
SDSL (symmetric digital subscriber line):
● The symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) is a one twisted-pair version of
HDSL.
● It provides full-duplex symmetric communication up to 768 kbps in each
direction.
● Could be considered an alternative to ADSL.
● Although this feature meets the need of most residential subscribers, is not
suitable for business
● because send and receive data in large volumes in both direction.

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xDSL
VDSL (Very high-bit-rate digital subscriber line):
● Similar to ADSL, uses coaxial, fiber-optic, or twisted-pair cable for
short distances.
● The modulating technique is DMT:
● 25 to 55 Mbps for downstream at distance of 3000 to 10,000 ft.
● 3.2 Mbps for upstream

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Summary of DSL Technologies

54
Introduction to Wired and Wireless LAN
●Wired LAN
●Wireless LAN

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Wired LAN
● A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed
for a limited geographic area such as a building or a campus.
Although a LAN can be used as an isolated network to connect
computers in an organization for the sole purpose of sharing
resources, most LANs today are also linked to a wide area network
(WAN) or the Internet.
● The LAN market has seen several technologies such as Ethernet,
token ring, token bus, FDDI, and ATM LAN, but Ethernet is by far
the dominant technology.

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Wired
●
LAN
In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called
Project 802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among
equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
● Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer
and the data link layer of major LAN protocols.
● The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers:
● Logical link control (LLC)
● Media access control (MAC).
● IEEE has also created several physical layer standards for different LAN
protocols.

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58
Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC).
● Since then, it has gone through four generations:
● Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)
● Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
● Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
● Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)

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Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● In Standard Ethernet (802.3), the MAC sublayer governs
● The operation of the access method.
● It also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the
physical layer.
● Frame Format
The Ethernet frame contains seven fields:
● Preamble,
● SFD,
● DA,
● SA,
● Length or type of protocol data unit (PDU),
● Data,
● CRC.

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Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● Preamble.
● The first field of the 802.3 frame
● contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0 s and 1 s
● The pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse.
● alerts the receiving system to the coming frame
● and enables it to synchronize its input timing.
● The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not (formally) part
of the frame.
● Start frame delimiter (SFD).
● The second field (1 byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the frame.
● The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for
synchronization.
● The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the

destination address.

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Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● Destination address (DA).
● The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the destination station.
● Source address (SA).
● The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the sender of the
packet.
● Length or type.
● This field is defined as a type field or length field.
● The original Ethernet used this field as the type field to define the upper-layer protocol
using the MAC frame.
● The IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data
field.
● Both uses are common today.
● Data.
● This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols.
● It is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
● CRC.
● The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32
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Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● Frame Length
● Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and maximum lengths
of a frame.
● The minimum length restriction is required for the correct operation of CSMA/CD
● An Ethernet frame needs to have a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes.
● Then the minimum length of data from the upper layer is 64 - 18 = 46 bytes.
● If the upper-layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to make up the
difference.
● The standard defines the maximum length of a frame (without preamble and SFD
field) as 1518 bytes. If we subtract the 18 bytes of header and trailer, the maximum
length of the payload is 1500 bytes.

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Wired LAN:
● Addressing
Standard Ethernet
● Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer) has its
own network interface card (NIC).
● The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical
address.
● The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits), normally written in hexadecimal
notation, with a colon between the bytes.

● Ex:

● Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses:

● A source address is always a unicast address
● The frame comes from only one station.
● The destination address, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
● If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is
● 0, the address is unicast;
● otherwise, it is multicast.

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 Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
Ex: Define the type of the following destination addresses:
a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
Solution
• To find the type of the address, we need to look at the second
hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is even, the address is unicast. If it is
odd, the address is multicast. If all digits are F’s, the address is broadcast.
Therefore, we have the following:
• a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010 (even).
• b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111 (odd).
• c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are F’s.

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Wired
●
LAN: Standard Ethernet
Physical Layer
● The Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementations; four of the
most common, are

● Encoding and Decoding

● All standard implementations use digital signaling (baseband) at 10 Mbps.
● At the sender and receiver, data are converted and interpreted to a digital signal
using the Manchester scheme

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 Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● 10Base5: Thick Ethernet
● The first implementation is called 10Base5, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet.
● The nick-name derives from the size of the cable, which is roughly the size of a garden
hose and too stiff to bend with your hands.
● 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification.
● To use a bus topology with an external transceiver (transmitter/receiver)
● connected via a tap to a thick coaxial cable.
● The transceiver is responsible for
● Transmitting,
● Receiving,
● and Detecting Collisions.
● The transceiver is connected to the station via a transceiver cable that provides
separate paths for sending and receiving;
● collision can only happen in the coaxial cable.
● The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500 m, otherwise,
there is excessive degradation of the signal.
● If a length of more than 500 m is needed, up to five segments, each a
maximum of 500-meter, can be connected using repeaters.

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Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● 10Base2: Thin Ethernet
● The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or cheapernet.
● 10Base2
● It also uses a bus topology,
● The cable is much thinner and more flexible.
● The transceiver is normally part of the network interface card (NIC), which is installed inside the
station.
● Note that the collision here occurs in the thin coaxial cable.
● This implementation is more cost effective than 10Base5 because
● Thin coaxial cable is less expensive than thick coaxial
● The tee connections are much cheaper than taps.
● Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very flexible.
● However, the length of each segment cannot exceed 185 m (close to 200 m) due to the
high level of attenuation in thin coaxial cable.

73
 Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● 10Base- T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet
● The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet.
● Uses a physical star topology.
● The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.
● Note that two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and one
for receiving) between the station and the hub.
● Any collision here happens in the hub.
● Compared to 10Base5 or 10Base2, we can see that the hub actually replaces the
coaxial cable as far as a collision is concerned.
● The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize
the effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.

74
Wired LAN: Standard Ethernet
● 10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet
● Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet,
the most common is called 10Base-F.
● 10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub.
● The stations are connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cables.
● The maximum length of the fiber-optic cable is defined as 2000 m.

75
Summary of Standard Ethernet implementations

76
Wired LAN: Fast Ethernet
• IEEE created Fast Ethernet ( 802.3u)
• Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard Ethernet,
it can transmit data at a rate of 100 Mbps.
• The goals of Fast Ethernet can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
3. Keep the same 48-bit address.
4. Keep the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.

77
Wired LAN: Fast Ethernet
● It uses the MAC sublayer untouched.
● It uses the star topology with half duplex and full duplex.
● In the half-duplex approach,
● The stations are connected via a hub;
● In the full-duplex approach,
● The connection is made via a switch with buffers at each port.
● It uses the CSMA/CD for the half-duplex approach;
● For full-duplex Fast Ethernet, there is no need for CSMA/CD.
● Autonegotiation allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data
rate of operation.
● It was designed particularly for the following purposes:
● To allow incompatible devices to connect to one another.
● 10 Mbps with 100 Mbps
● To allow one device to have multiple capabilities.
● To allow a station to check a hub's capabilities.
78
Wired
●
LAN: Fast Ethernet
Physical Layer:
● Physical Layer in Fast Ethernet is more complicated than the one in Standard
Ethernet.
Topology
● Fast Ethernet is designed to connect two or more stations.
● If there are only two stations,
● they can be connected point-to-point.
● Three or more stations need to be connected in a star topology with a hub or a switch at
the center.
Implementation
● Fast Ethernet implementation at the physical layer can be categorized as either
two-wire or four-wire.
● The two-wire implementation can be either category 5 UTP (100Base-TX) or fiber-
optic cable (100Base-FX).
● The four-wire implementation is designed only for category 3 UTP (100Base-T4).

79
Wired LAN: Fast Ethernet
Physical Layer:
Encoding
● Manchester encoding needs a 200-Mbaud bandwidth for a data rate of 100 Mbps, which
makes it unsuitable for a medium such as twisted-pair cable.
● For this reason, the Fast Ethernet designers sought some alternative encoding/decoding
scheme.
● However, it was found that one scheme would not perform equally well for all three
implementations.
● Therefore, three different encoding schemes were chosen.

80
Wired LAN:
Physical Layer:
Fast Ethernet
100Base-TX
● Uses two pairs of twisted-pair cable
● For this implementation, the MLT-3 scheme was selected since it has good bandwidth
performance.
● However, since MLT-3 is not a self-synchronous line coding scheme, 4B/5B block
coding is used to provide bit synchronization by preventing the occurrence of a long
sequence of 0’s and l’s.
● This creates a data rate of 125 Mbps, which is fed into MLT-3 for encoding.
100Base-FX
● Uses two pairs of fiber-optic cables. Optical fiber can easily handle high bandwidth
requirements by using simple encoding schemes.
● The designers of 100Base-FX selected the NRZ-I encoding scheme for this
implementation.
● However, NRZ-I has a bit synchronization problem for long sequences of 0’s (or 1’s,
based on the encoding). To overcome this problem, the designers used 4B/5B block
encoding as in 100Base-TX. The block encoding increases the bit rate from 100
to 125 Mbps, which can easily be handled by fiber-optic cable.
● A 100Base-TX network can provide a data rate of 100 Mbps, but it requires
the use of category 5 UTP or STP cable.

81
Wired LAN:
Physical Layer:
Fast Ethernet
100Base-T4
● Was designed to use category 3 or higher UTP.
● The implementation uses four pairs of UTP for transmitting 100
Mbps.
● Encoding/decoding in 100Base-T4 is more complicated.
● As this implementation uses category 3 UTP,
● each twisted-pair cannot easily handle more than 25 Mbaud.
● In this design, one pair switches between sending and receiving.
● Three pairs of UTP category 3, however, can handle only 75 Mbaud (25 Mbaud)
each.
● We need to use an encoding scheme that converts 100 Mbps to a 75 Mbaud
signal.
● 8B/6T satisfies this requirement.
● In 8B/6T, eight data elements are encoded as six signal elements. This means
that 100 Mbps uses only (6/8) x 100 Mbps, or 75 Mbaud.

82
Summary of Fast Ethernet implementations

83
 Wired LAN: Gigabit Ethernet
● The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit
Ethernet protocol (1000 Mbps).
● The IEEE committee calls the Standard 802.3z.
● The goals of the Gigabit Ethernet design can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet.
MAC Sublayer
● A main consideration in the evolution of Ethernet was to keep the MAC sublayer
untouched.
● However, to achieve a data rate of 1 Gbps, this was no longer possible.
● Gigabit Ethernet has two distinctive approaches for medium access: half-duplex
and full-duplex.
● Almost all implementations of Gigabit Ethernet follow the full-duplex approach.
84
Wired LAN: Gigabit Ethernet
Full-Duplex Mode
● In full-duplex mode, there is a central switch connected to all computers or other switches.
● In this mode, each switch has buffers for each input port in which data are stored until they
are transmitted.
● There is no collision in this mode.
● This means that CSMA/CD is not used.
● Lack of collision implies that the maximum length of the cable is determined by the signal
attenuation in the cable, not by the collision detection process.
Half-Duplex Mode
● Gigabit Ethernet can also be used in half-duplex mode, although it is rare.
● In this case, a switch can be replaced by a hub, which acts as the common cable in which a
collision might occur.
● The half-duplex approach uses CSMA/CD.
● The maximum length of the network in this approach is totally dependent on the minimum frame
size.
● Three methods have been defined: traditional, carder extension, and frame bursting.
Traditional
● We keep the minimum length of the frame as in traditional Ethernet (512 bits).
● However, because the length of a bit is 1/100 shorter in Gigabit Ethernet than in 10-Mbps
Ethernet, the slot time for Gigabit Ethernet is 512 bits x 1/1000 µs, which is equal to 0.512 µs.
● The reduced slot time means that collision is detected 100 times earlier.
● This means that the maximum length of the network is 25 m.
● This length may be suitable if all the stations are in one room, but it may not even be long enough
to connect the computers in one single office.
85
Wired LAN:
Carrier Extension
Gigabit Ethernet
● To allow for a longer network, we increase the minimum frame length.
● The carrier extension approach defines the minimum length of a frame as 512 bytes
(4096 bits).
● This means that the minimum length is 8 times longer. This method forces a station to
add extension bits (padding) to any frame that is less than 4096 bits.
● In this way, the maximum length of the network can be increased 8 times to a length of
200 m.
● This allows a length of 100 m from the hub to the station.

Frame Bursting
● Carrier extension is very inefficient if we have a series of short frames to send;
● Each frame carries redundant data.
● To improve efficiency, frame bursting was proposed.
● Instead of adding an extension to each frame, multiple frames are sent.
● However, to make these multiple frames look like one frame, padding is added
between the frames (the same as that used for the carrier extension method) so that the
channel is not idle.
● In other words, the method deceives other stations into thinking that a very large frame
has been transmitted.
86
Wired LAN: Gigabit Ethernet
Physical Layer
● The physical layer in Gigabit Ethernet is more complicated than that in Standard
or Fast Ethernet.
Topology
● Gigabit Ethernet is designed to connect two or more stations. If there are only two
stations, they can be connected point-to-point.
● Three or more stations need to be connected in a star topology with a hub or a
switch at the center.
● Another possible configuration is to connect several star topologies or let a star
topology be part of another.

87
 Wired
Implementation
LAN: Gigabit Ethernet
● Gigabit Ethernet can be categorized as either a two-wire or a four-wire
implementation.
● The two-wire implementations use fiber-optic cable
● 1000Base-SX, short-wave,
● 1000Base-LX, long-wave,
● STP (1000Base-CX).

● The four-wire version uses category 5 twisted-pair cable (1000Base-T).

● There are four implementations. 1000Base-T was designed in response to those
users had already installed this wiring for other purposes such as Fast Ethernet or
telephone services.

88
Wired LAN: Gigabit Ethernet
Encoding
● Gigabit Ethernet cannot use the Manchester encoding scheme because it involves a very
high bandwidth (2 GBaud).
● The two-wire implementations use an NRZ scheme, but NRZ does not self-synchronize
properly.
● To synchronize bits, particularly at this high data rate, 8B/10B block encoding, is used.
● This block encoding prevents long sequences of 0’s or l’s in the stream, but the resulting
stream is 1.25 Gbps.
● In this implementation, one wire (fiber or STP) is used for sending and one for receiving.
● In the four-wire implementation it is not possible to have 2 wires for input and 2 for output,
because each wire would need to carry 500 Mbps, which exceeds the capacity for category
5 UTP.
● As a solution, 4D-PAM5 encoding, is used to reduce the bandwidth. Thus, all four wires are
involved in both input and output; each wire carries 250 Mbps, which is in the range for
category 5 UTP cable.

89
Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations

90
Wired LAN: Ten-Gigabit Ethernet
● The IEEE committee created Ten-Gigabit Ethernet and called it Standard
802.3ae.
● The goals of the Ten-Gigabit Ethernet design can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 10 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard, Fast, and Gigabit Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. Allow the interconnection of existing LANs into a metropolitan area network (MAN) or
a wide area network (WAN).
7. Make Ethernet compatible with technologies such as Frame Relay and ATM
MAC Sublayer
● Ten-Gigabit Ethernet operates only in full duplex mode which means there is no
need for contention;
● CSMA/CD is not used in Ten-Gigabit Ethernet.
Physical Layer
● The physical layer in Ten-Gigabit Ethernet is designed for using fiber-optic cable
over long distances.
● Three implementations are the most common:
● 10GBase-S,
● 10GBase-L,
● and 10GBase-E. 91
Summary of Ten-Gigabit Ethernet implementations

92
Wireless LAN
● Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing technologies. The demand
for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
● Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in
many public areas.
● IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11,
sometimes called wireless Ethernet, which covers the physical and data link
layers.
● Wireless networks employ electromagnetic waves, primarily radio waves and
microwaves, to carry transmissions over the air or through the vacuum of space
using antennas to transmit and receive signals.”
● For transmission
● The electromagnetic carrier is modulated to represent the data signal
● Multiplexing allows many transmissions to take place simultaneously without
interfering with one another
● Upon receipt
● At the receiver, the signal is demodulated to extract the data
93
Wireless
●
LAN: Architecture
The standard defines two kinds of services:
● The basic service set (BSS) and
● The extended service set (ESS).
● The basic service set (BSS) : It is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and a
possible central base station, known as the access point (AP).
● BSS without AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is
called as adhoc architecture.
● Stations can form a network without the need of an AP; they can locate one another
and agree to be part of a BSS.
● A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure network.

94
Wireless
●
LAN: Architecture
Extended Service Set (ESS): It is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.
● BSSs are connected through a Distributed System, which is usually a wired LAN.
● The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
● It uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary.
● The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
● The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
● Communication among stations within a single BSS might be direct.
● Communication among stations in different BSS is usually occurs via two APs.
● A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time.

95
Wireless LAN: Architecture
Station Types:
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their
mobility in a wireless LAN:
● no-transition
A station is either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS
● BSS-transition
A station can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one
ESS.
● ESS-transition mobility.
A station can move from one ESS to another

96
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
● MAC layer covers three functional areas:
● Reliable data delivery
● Access control
● Security

● IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers:

● The Distributed coordination function (DCF).
● Point coordination function (PCF).

97
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
● Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
● Distributed access protocol
● Contention-Based
● Makes use of CSMA/CA rather than CSMA/CD for the
following reasons:
● Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMA/CD for three reasons:
1. For collision detection a station must be able to send data and receive collision
signals at the same time ( costly stations and increased bandwidth requirements).
2. Collision may not be detected because of the hidden station problem.
3. The distance between stations may result in Signal fading which prevent a station
at one end from hearing a collision at the other end.
● Suited for ad hoc network and ordinary asynchronous traffic

98
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
● CSMA/CA in wireless LAN
1. Before sending a frame, source station
senses the medium (checking the energy
level at carrier frequency):
a. uses a persistence strategy with back-off
until the channel is idle.
b. if idle channel, waits for of time called
distributed interframe space (DIFS); then
sends a request to send (RTS) Control frame
2. The destination station receive RTS and
waits for short interframe space (SIFS),
then sends a clear to send (CTS) control
frame, (ready to receive data)
3. The source station sends data after waiting
an amount of time equal to SIFS.
4. The destination station, after waiting for
time equal to SIFS, sends an
acknowledgment to show that the frame
has been received.
99
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● CSMA/CA and NAV
● Network allocation vector (NAV) is used to avoid collision.
● RTS frame includes the duration of time that the source needs to occupy the
channel.
● Stations affected by this transmission create a timer called NAV, that shows the
time which must pass before these stations are allowed to check the channel for
idleness.
● Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other stations
start their NAV. In other words, each station, before sensing the physical medium
to see if it is idle, first checks its NAV to see if it has expired.

101
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
●Collision during handshaking
● What happens if there is collision during the time when RTS or
CTS control frames are in transition, often called the
handshaking period?
● Because there is no mechanism for collision detection, the
sender assumes there has been a collision if it has not received a
CTS frame from the receiver. The backoff strategy is employed,
and the sender tries again.

102
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
● Point Coordination Function (PCF)
● An optional access method on top of DCF
● Implemented in an infrastructure network (not in an adhoc network).
● Contention-Free
● Mostly for time-sensitive transmission services like voice or multimedia.
● The AP performs polling for stations one after another, sending any data they
have to the AP.
● To give priority to PCF over DCF, another set of interframe spaces has been
defined:
● SIFS - Short Inter Frame Spacing
● Used for immediate response actions e.g ACK, CTS
● PIFS - Point Inter Frame Spacing
● PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than the DIFS.
● If, at the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and an AP wants to use PCF,
the AP has priority.
● Repetition interval has been designed to cover both contention-free (PCF) and
contention-based (DCF) traffic to allow DCF accessing the media.
● The repetition interval starts with control frame, called a beacon frame.
● When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their NAV for the duration of
103
the contention-free period of the repetition interval.
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
● Fragmentation
● The wireless environment is very noisy.
● Corrupt frame has to be retransmitted.
● So, Fragmentation is recommended.
● The division of a large frame into smaller ones.
● It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large one.
● The MAC layer frame consists of nine fields

105
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● Frame Format:
● Frame control : 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and
some control information.
● D: In all frame types except one, this field defines the duration of
the transmission that is used to set the value of NAV. In one control
frame, this field defines the frame ID.
● Addresses: There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long. The
meaning of each address field depends on the value of the To DS
and From DS subfields .
● Sequence control: This field defines the sequence number of the
frame to be used in flow control.
● Frame body: This field can be between 0 and 2312 bytes, it contains
information based on the type and the subtype defined in the FC
field.
● FCS: The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error
detection sequence. 106
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● Frame Types:
● IEEE 802.11 has three categories of frames:
● Management frames:
● used for the initial communication between stations and access points.
● Control frames:
● used for accessing the channel and acknowledging frames
● Data frames:
● Data frames are used for carrying data and control information.

107
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● Addressing mechanism:
● Addressing mechanism is based on the presence of intermediate stations (APs).
● IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases defined by the value of
the two flags in the FC field, To DS and From DS.
● Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations.
● Address 1 is always the address of the next device. Address 2 is always the
address of the previous device. Address 3 is the address of the final destination
station if it is not defined by address 1. Address 4 is the address of the original
source station if it is not the same as address 2.

108
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● Addressing mechanism:
● Case 1: 00, To DS = 0 and From DS = 0
● Direct transfer: This means that the frame is not going to a distribution
system and is not coming from a distribution system.
● Both stations are within a BSS.

● Case 2: 01, In this case, To DS = 0 and From DS = 1.

● Data is coming from an AP (Distribution System):
● The ACK should be sent to the AP. The addresses are as address 3 contains
the original sender of the frame (in another BSS).

109
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● Addressing mechanism:
● Case 3: 10, To DS =1 and From DS =0.
● Data is going to an AP (Distribution System):
● The ACK is sent to the original station. Address 3 contains the final destination of the
frame (in another BSS).

● Case 4:11, To DS =1 and From DS =1.

● Distribution System is wireless:This is the case in which the distribution the
frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless distribution system.
● Here, we need four addresses to define the original sender, the final
destination, and two intermediate APs. No address needed if the distribution
system is wired LAN.

110
Wireless LAN: MAC Sublayer
● Hidden Station Problem:

● The solution to the hidden station problem is the use of the handshake frames
(RTS and CTS).

● Figure shows that the RTS message from B reaches A, but not C. However,
because both Band C are within the range of A, the CTS message, which contains
the duration of data transmission from B to A reaches C.
● Station C knows that some hidden station is using the channel and refrains from
transmitting until that duration is over
111
Wireless LAN: MAC Sub Layer
● Exposed Station Problem:

● The handshaking messages RTS and CTS cannot help in this case.
● Station C hears the RTS from A, but does not hear the CTS from B.
● Station C, after hearing the RTS from A, can wait for a time so that the CTS from B reaches A; it then
sends an RTS to D to show that it needs to communicate with D. Both stations B and A may hear this
RTS, but station A is in the sending state, not the receiving state.
● Station B, however, responds with a CTS. The problem is here. If station A has started sending its
data, station C cannot hear the CTS from station D because of the collision; it cannot send its data to
D. It remains exposed until A finishes sending its data.

112
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● Specifications and Addresses:
● Six important physical layer specifications are:

● All implementations, except the infrared, operate in the industrial, scientific,and medical (ISM) band,
which defines three unlicensed bands in the three ranges 902-928 MHz, 2.400--4.835 GHz, and 5.725-
5.850 GHz

113
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11 FHSS:
● In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) the sender sends
on one carrier frequency for a short amount of time, then hops to
another carrier frequency for the same amount of time, and so on.
After N hop-pings, the cycle is repeated.
● It uses the 2.4GHz ISM band is divided into 79 bands of 1MHz
● Spreading makes it difficult for unauthorized persons to make sense
of the transmitted data

114
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11 DSSS :
● In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) each bit sent by the
sender is replaced by a sequence of bits called a chip code.
● To avoid buffering, the time needed to send one chip code must be
the same as the time needed to send one original bit.
● DSSS is implemented at the physical layer and uses a 2.4GHz ISM
band

115
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11 Infrared :
● IEEE 802.11 infrared uses infrared light in the range of 800 to 950
nm.
● The modulation technique is called pulse position modulation
(PPM).
● For a 1-Mbps data rate, a 4-bitsequence is first mapped into a 16-bit
sequence in which only one bit is set to 1 and the rest are set to 0.
● For a 2-Mbps data rate, a 2-bit sequence is first mapped into a 4-bit
sequence in which only one bit is set to 1 and the rest are set to 0.
● The mapped sequences are then converted to optical signals; the
presence of light specifies 1, the absence of light specifies 0.

116
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11a OFDM :
● IEEE 802.11a describes the orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM) method for signal generation in the 5GHz
ISM band
● OFDM is the same as FDM with one major difference:
● All the subbands are used by one source at a given time
● Sources contend with one another at the data link layer
for access
● The band is divided into 52 subbands, with 48 subbands for sending
48 groups of bits at a time and 4 subbands for control information.
● OFDM uses PSK (18Mbps) and QAM (54Mbps) for modulation

117
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11b DSSS :
● IEEE 802.11b describes the high-rate Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum method for signal generation at 2.4GHz ISM band.
● This is similar to DSSS except for the encoding method, which is
called complementary code keying (CCK)
● CCK encodes 4 or 8 bits to one CCK symbol

118
Wireless LAN: Physical Layer
● IEEE 802.11g OFDM :
● This new specification defines forward error correction and OFDM
using the 2.4-GHz ISM band.
● The modulation technique achieves a 22- or 54-Mbps data rate.
● It is backward compatible with 802.11b, but the modulation
technique is OFDM.

119
Physical Media Defined by Original 802.11 Standard
IEEE 802.11 FHSS(Frequency-hopping spread spectrum)
● Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
● Lower cost, power consumption
● Most tolerant to signal interference

IEEE 802.11 DSSS (Direct-sequence spread spectrum)

● Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band
● Supports higher data rates
● More range than FH or IR physical layers

IEEE 802.11 Infrared

● Lowest cost
● Lowest range compared to spread spectrum
● Doesn’t penetrate walls, so no eavesdropping

12
0
IEEE 802.11a , IEEE 802.11b and IEEE 802.11g
IEEE 802.11a
● Makes use of 5-GHz band
● Provides rates of 6, 9 , 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps
● Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

IEEE 802.11b
● 802.11b operates in 2.4 GHz band
● Provides data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps
● Complementary code keying (CCK) modulation scheme

IEEE 802.11g
● 802.11g operates in 2.4 GHz band
● Provides data rates of 22 and 54 Mbps
● Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

121