Chapter 3

Resistance

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OBJECTIVES
• Become familiar with the parameters that
determine the resistance of an element and
be able to calculate the resistance from the
given dimensions and material
characteristics.
• Understand the effects of temperature on
the resistance of a material and how to
calculate the change in resistance with
temperature.

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OBJECTIVES

• Become familiar with the broad range of

commercially available resistors available
today and how to read the value of each
from the color code or labeling.

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INTRODUCTION

• This opposition to the flow of charge

through an electrical circuit, called
resistance, has the units of ohms
and uses the Greek letter omega (Ω)
as its symbol.
• The graphic symbol for resistance,
which resembles the cutting edge of a
saw.

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INTRODUCTION

FIG. 3.1 Resistance symbol and notation.

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INTRODUCTION

• This opposition, due primarily to collisions

and friction between the free electrons and
other electrons, ions, and atoms in the path
of motion, converts the supplied electrical
energy into heat that raises the
temperature of the electrical component
and surrounding medium.
• The heat you feel from an electrical heater
is simply due to current passing through a
high-resistance material.
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RESISTANCE

• The resistance of any material is due

primarily to four factors:
– Material
– Length
– Cross-sectional area
– Temperature of the material

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RESISTANCE

• The atomic structure determines how easily a free

electron will pass through a material.
• The longer the path through which the free
electron must pass, the greater is the resistance
factor.
• Free electrons pass more easily through
conductors with larger crosssectional areas.
– In addition, the higher the temperature of the conductive
materials, the greater is the internal vibration and motion
of the components that make up the atomic structure of
the wire, and the more difficult it is for the free electrons
to find a path through the material.

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RESISTANCE

• The first three elements are related by the

following basic equation for resistance:

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RESISTANCE

FIG. 3.2 Factors affecting the resistance of a

conductor.

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TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

FIG. 3.10 Demonstrating the effect of a positive and a negative temperature

coefficient on the resistance of a conductor.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

• Resistors are made in many forms,

but all belong in either of two groups:
fixed or variable.
• The most common of the low-
wattage, fixedtype resistors is the film
resistor.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.12 Film resistors: (a) construction; (b) types.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.13 Fixed-composition

resistors: (a) construction; (b)
appearance.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.14 Fixed metal-oxide

resistors of different wattage
ratings.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.15 Various types of fixed

resistors.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

• Variable resistors, as the name implies,

have a terminal resistance that can be
varied by turning a dial, knob, screw, or
whatever seems appropriate for the
application.
• They can have two or three terminals, but
most have three terminals. If the two- or
three-terminal device is used as a variable
resistor, it is usually referred to as a
rheostat.
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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

• If the three-terminal device is used for

controlling potential levels, it is then
commonly called a potentiometer.
• Even though a three-terminal device can
be used as a rheostat or a potentiometer
(depending on how it is connected), it is
typically called a potentiometer when listed
in trade magazines or requested for a
particular application.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.16 Potentiometer: (a) symbol; (b) and (c) rheostat connections; (d) rheostat
symbol.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.17 Molded composition-type

potentiometer. (Courtesy of Allen-
Bradley Co.)

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.18 Resistance components of a potentiometer: (a) between

outside terminals; (b) between wiper arm and each outside terminal.

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 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.19 Variable resistors: (a) 4 mm ( 5/32 in.) trimmer (courtesy of Bourns, Inc.); (b)
conductive plastic and cermet elements (courtesy of Honeywell Clarostat); (c) three-point
wire-wound resistor.

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TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.20 Potentiometer control

of voltage levels.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
• A wide variety of resistors, fixed or
variable, are large enough to have their
resistance in ohms printed on the casing.
• Some, however, are too small to have
numbers printed on them, so a system of
color coding is used.
• For the thin-film resistor, four, five, or six
bands may be used.
• The four-band scheme is described.
• Later in this section the purpose of the fifth
and sixth bands will be described.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. 3.21 Color coding for

fixed resistors.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. 3.22 Color coding.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. 3.23 Example 3.11.

FIG. 3.24 Example 3.12.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. 3.25 Five-band color coding

for fixed resistors.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

TABLE 3.5 Standard values of

commercially available resistors.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. 3.26 Guaranteeing the full range of resistor values for the given tolerance: (a) 20%;
(b) 10%.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD RESISTOR VALUES
Surface Mount Resistors

• In general, surface mount resistors are

marked in three ways: color coding, three
symbols, and two symbols.
– The color coding is the same as just
described earlier in this section for through-hole
resistors.
– The three-symbol approach uses three digits.
The first two define the first two digits of the
value; the last digit defines the power of the
power-of-ten multiplier.

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COLOR CODING AND STANDARD RESISTOR VALUES
Surface Mount Resistors

• The two-symbol marking uses a letter followed by

a number.
• The letter defines the value as in the following list.
• Note that all the numbers of the commercially
available list of Table 3.5 are included.

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CONDUCTANCE

• By finding the reciprocal of the resistance

of a material, we have a measure of how
well the material conducts electricity.
• The quantity is called conductance, has
the symbol G, and is measured in
siemens.

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OHMMETERS

FIG. 3.29 Checking the

FIG. 3.28 Measuring the continuity of a
resistance of a single connection.
element.

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RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS

FIGURE 3.31 Defining r in ohm-centimeters.

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RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS

TABLE 3.6 Resistivity (r) of various materials.

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RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS

FIG. 3.32 Thin-film resistor. Example 3.16.

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RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS

TABLE 3.7 Comparing levels of r in -cm.

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APPLICATIONS
Electric Baseboard Heating Element

• One of the most common applications

of resistance is in household fixtures
such as toasters and baseboard
heating where the heat generated by
current passing through a resistive
element is employed to perform a
useful function.

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APPLICATIONS
Electric Baseboard Heating Element

FIG. 3.41 Electric baseboard:

(a) 2-ft section; (b) interior; (c)
heating element; (d) nichrome
coil.

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APPLICATIONS
Dimmer Control in an Automobile

• A two-point rheostat is the primary

element in the control of the light
intensity on the dashboard and
accessories of a car.

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APPLICATIONS
Dimmer Control in an Automobile

FIG. 3.42 Dashboard dimmer control in an automobile.

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APPLICATIONS
Strain Gauges

• Any change in the shape of a structure can

be detected using strain gauges whose
resistance changes with applied stress or
flex.

FIG. 3.43 Resistive strain

gauge.

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