ACCESS NETWORKING

Dr. Prakash D. Vyavahare

Dept. of Electronics & Telecomm.Engg.
S. G. S. Inst. Of Tech. And Science,
23 Park Road, INDORE 452 003
pvyavahare@hotmail.com
prakash@sgsits.ac.in
• Introduction
• PSTN access
• ISDN access
• VOIP
• Emergence of packet switching networks
• BB Access Technologies
• ADSL
• Conclusions
• Bibliography
 Introduction
Telecomm. Tech. Devp. (chronology)
• Telecomm. With Morse code 1847-1845
• First Telegraph in India (Cal.) 1852
• ITU established with 20 European countries 1865
• Trans-Atlantic cable (US - France) 1866
• (London - Bombay) 1870
• Invention of Telephone by Bell 1876
• First manual exchange in India (50 lines, Cal.) 1882
• Indian Telegraph Act 1885
• Sir J. C. Bose transmits on wireless 1895
• Marconi demonstrates wireless (UK - France) 1899
• Beginning of Bell company 1903
• Lee Deforest develops vaccume tube ampl. 1906
• PABX 1910
• Under ground cable in US 1915
• Baird develops picture tube and picture tx. 1926
• Hartley introduces concept of information
• as a measure of quantity of data in a message 1927
• Marconi discovers Microwaves 1932
• First co-axial cable manufactured 1936
• First SPC computer (ENIAC) 1946
• Transistor invented 1947
• Shannon’s theorem on channel capacity 1949
• Electronic switching 1955
• First artificial satellite (USSR Sputnik) 1957
• Kilby at TI invents IC 1958
• Paul Baran of Rand Corp. proposes packet switching 1960
• STD in India (Kanpur - Lucknow) 1960
• Paging system, Telstar satellite 1962
• ARPANET using packet switching (TCP/IP) 1964 - 69
• First email on ARPANET 1971
• Cellular telephone in Tokyo 1979
• IBM - PC + Microsoft - DOS 1981
• Portable cellular (Motorola) 1984
• GSM in 13 European countries 1988
• Tim Burner Lee at CERN proposes Hyper-text info. System (Birth of
WWW) 1990
• Digital mobile network in USA 1993
• Indian Telecom. Policy opens for private sec. 1994
• Internet service launched in India 1995
• Telecomm. Reg. Authority of India set-up 1997
• GMPCS (Iridium) starts 1998
• Long distance telephony opened for competition in India 1999
Lucent, Motorola, Microsoft opens office in India
• IT bill passed 2000
• Wireless in Local Loop makes its presence in India 2001
• Net Telephones legally introduced in INDIA 1 April 2002
 Brief History of Internet

• 1965 Packet switching proposed (D. Davis UK, P. Baran US)

• 1969 ARPANET Launched
• 1972 Beginning of E-mail (Tomlinson USA)
• 1974 First article on TCP/IP (Cerf/Kahn)
• 1979 First research lab. Comp. Network (NSF, Univ. of wis)
• 1982 Internet defined as TCP/IP connected n/w
• 1989 No. of internet users reach 100,000 and IETF formed
• 1992 WWW released, No. of nodes hits 1 Million
• 1995 VOIP comes to market
• 2000 No. of hosts break 300 M, voice traffic crosses over data
• 2002 VOIP takes 13 % of long haul telephone traffic
 Digital Divide

• In Africa 1 phone per 100 persons

• In India 4 phones per 100 persons
• USA 2 phones per persons

• Email Growth : 1999 3.3 Billion,

2003 11 Billion
• 5 Billion people in the world but
Only 5 to 6 % of world population has access to internet and 90
percent of them are in industrial world
• Africa and middle east has only 1 % of internet users
Technology Development (Services)
• Principles of wire/wireless comm., for point to point (or
multi-point) developed (modulation, line, source and
channel coding)
• First stage of switching technology (FDMA, TDMA,
Time and space switch)
• Second stage of switching technology (packet switching,
Network management, optical fibers multiple services (Multi-
media - voice, data, fax, video)
• Selection of the appropriate technology for accessing the core
network by end user for multiple services with economy and
QOS becomes main issue)
 Definitions
• Core Network : Combination of switching centers and
transmission systems connecting switching centers. (In
India core network, till now, extended up to national
boundaries, now the core networks of various TELCOs will be
connected by the inter-exchange networks)

• Access Networks : The portion of public switched network that

connects access node (edge of access n/w) to the individual
subscriber Access network
in India is predominantly twisted copper wire (approx. 750
million of copper lines in the world)
• Access Nodes (Access Network Interface or ANI)

• Concentrators of individual lines to T1/E1

• Cellular antenna sites
• PBX
• Optical Network Units
• Cable TV
 Various Access Options
• Narrow band
– PSTN based access
– ISDN based access
– Cellular based (Cellular digital packet data)
– PLCC based
• Broad band
– xDSL
– Cable modems
– Fixed wireless
– FTTx (PON)
 Traditional Local Loops
• In 1970’s
– Residence to CO by copper line carrying analog voice/data
(CO interconnected by T1/E1 or microwaves)
– Business Premises PABX connected to CO by number of lines for
carrying analog voice/data

• In 1980’s
– Residence to RLU by copper wire carrying analog voice/data or
Digital voice (ISDN), RLU to CO by OFC
– Business premises PABX to MUX on digital trunk lines like T1/E1
(Mux to CO by T3/E3)
– Some business houses also use satellite links
 Local Loops (cont.)
• Residence to power line company center on electric wire

• Fiber to the home or cabinet (FTTH/FTTC)

– Residence to ONU on twisted pair/ co-axial/fiber
– ONU then connects to optical MUX/DEMUX

• Business PABX connects to a MUX switch by trunk lines

which connects to the SDH/SONET optical ring
 Digital transmission Hierarchy
US A Eur ope/Indi a
Na me Calls Rat e Na me Calls Rat e
( Mbps)
DS0 1 . 064
DS1 24 1. 544 CEPT1 30 2. 048
DS2* 96 6. 312 CEPT2 120 8. 448
DS3 672 44. 736 CEPT3 480 34. 368
DS4* 4032 274. 176 CEPT4 1920 139. 264
 SDH/SONET Multiplexing Hierarchy
• Multiplexing Data Rate USA European
Level (MBPS) Name Name

• 1 51.84 OC-1 Undefined

2 155.52 OC-3 STM-1
3 466.56 OC-9 STM-3
4 622.08 OC-12 STM-4
5 933.12 OC-18 STM-6
6 1244.16 OC-24 STM-8
8 1866.24 OC-36 STM-12
9 2488.32 OC-48 STM-16
10 9953.28 OC-192 STM-64
 Internet Access to Home
(PSTN Modems)
• The Client work station connects to modem which is connected through
the PSTN twisted pair to CO and finally to the modem pool at the server

• PSTN MODEM STANDARDS

– V.21/Bell - 301 300 baud, FSK, 2-wire, async

– V.32 9600 baud, QAM with trallis FEC and Echo
cancellation
– V.34 28000 baud
– V.42bis ISDN 64/128 Kbps With error correction and compression
– V.90, V.92 56 Kbps voice band modem
– V.54 100 Kbps leased line baseband modem 2 wire and 4 wire
 Shannon’s theorem on channel capacity

• C < B log (1 + S/N)

. - 2

• For B = 4 KHz and S/N = 30 dB C = 40 KBps approx.

• Assumption AWGN,
• Modulation Technique and Coding technique not defined
• Cross talk and ISI are major issues in PSTN lines
•
 Issues in PSTN based access to Internet

• Slow connect time to server (via local switch)

(Not suitable for on-line transaction processing)

• Low band width

• Cost of connect time on PSTN even when not being used
for data transmission
• Not suitable for many high BW applications like video
conferencing, Bulk file transfer etc.
 Accessing Network using ISDN

• Digital Network Access

– Networks are digital
– Services are integrated
– Two types of access
• (One for home and another for business (PABX))

– Considerable economy in terms of access time

and ease in operation and maintenance
 ISDN (cont.)
• Uses two wires (basic access) or 4 wires (primary access)
for getting connected to the central office digital switc
• ISDN based equipment (TE!) can be directly connected to
the network Terminator
• Non-ISDN based equipment (TE2) can be connected via
Terminal Adapter (TA)
• Network Terminator - 2 (NT2) can connect multiple
number of equipments
• Various ISDN reference interfaces R, S, T, U for
interfacing between NT1/2, TA and TE1/2
 ISDN Services & Access Network
Interface (ANI) structure
Int erface St r uct ure Us er Tot al
dat a rat e bit rat e

Basi c BRI 2B + D( 16) 144 Kbps 192 Kbps

Access

Pri mar y PRI 23B + D( 64) 1. 536 Mbps 1. 544 Mbps

( USA)
Access
PRI 30B + D( 64) 1. 984 Mbps 2. 048 Mbps
( Eur ope)
 ISDN Merits
• Simultaneous voice and data transmission
• 128 Kbps delivery rate
• Integration of multiple services on single line
• cost effective than PSTN
• Most local loops can be used without
modification
• Lower error rate
• Faster connect time to server
 Voice Over IP (VOIP)
• VOIP is the fastest growing area in comm. Today
• Carries voice traffic as data packets over packet switched
data networks instead of as asynchronous stream of binary
data over a circuit switched TDM voice network
• Address and control info of IP packet carries voice to dest.
• Convenient to talk with multi-media PC
• VOIP on LAN is convenient since no additional resources are
needed (PC should be on all the time)
• Saves resources as against circuit switched network
• Economical and with reduced maintenance cost
• Alternatively : voice enabled cable modem, or DSL boxes
 Steps Involved in VoIP
• Analog voice digitized at 8 K samples per second generating
64 Kbps bit stream, non-linear ADC, A-law (India)
• Digital filtering to remove line echo, remove silence period,
time stamping, (add comfort noise at the rx end )
• Voice frame formation and data compression
64 Kbps compressed to 8 Kbps, 10 msec frame (10 byte data)
• IP packet preparation, Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
with 12 byte header, 8 byte UDP header, 20 byte IP header
• IP packet transmission on internet (hubs, switches, routers)
• Steps 1 to 5 are executed in reverse order at the rx. end
End-to-end VoIP packet latency (Delay)

• Delay source Typical values in msec.

Recording (in PC) 10 - 40

Encoding (codec) 5 - 10
Compression 5 - 10
Internet delivery 70 - 120
Jitter buffer 50 - 200
De-compression 5 - 10
Decode 5 - 10
------------------------------------------------------------------
Average delay 150 - 400 msec
 PSTN v/s VoIP
• PSTN delay is less than 30 msec across globe,
VoIP delay is approx. 150 msec
• QOS (delay) and QOV are variable and not guaranteed
• PC should be on all the time
• Annoying echoes due to larger delays
(echo suppression can not be used,
complex echo cancellation need to be used)
• Larger overhead per packet
• Much lower monthly is the main motivating factor
 Protocol Stacks
• Application ftp, mail protocols sw, speech coders
• P, S, T TCP, UDP, RTP, RTCP, SNMP
• Network IP, ICMP, X.25
• Data link Ethernet ATM, V.34, 90
LLC, MAC Frame relay
HDLC, LAPB
• Physical 10baseT ISDN SLIC
U, S, T int. codec

LAN ISDN, WAN POTS

 QOS in Internet networks

• QOS is a measure of how quickly and reliably the data is

transferred from source to the destination.
(data : Time sensitive financial transactions, still images,
larger data files, voice, video)
• How to quantify and measure QOS
• Each service may require different types of QOS
• Subscriber Lease Agreement (SLA) must mention how
QOS will be measured, conveyed to the customer, and
what are the compensation clauses if it is not met.
 5 Important performance of QOS

• Availability 100 % theoretically,

99.8 (90 minutes down time per month)
99.9999 (2.6 secs/month)

• Throughput (is not maximum capacity of the network)

– Sharing network lowers throughput
– Overhead of extra-bits per packet reduces the effective transfer rate

– The service provider must guarantee minimum rate of throughput

for an application
 QOS (cont.)

• Packet loss Buffered queues get overflow or errors

Retransmission adds delay
– Normal value of less than 1 % average delay per month
• Latency (Delay)
– PSTN less than 30 msec,
– Internet 150 msec (digitizatin, compression, queuing )
• Jitter
– Variation in queue length
– Variation in processing time
– Time to re-order segmented packets
 Sensitivity of data types to QOS on internet

• Traffic Type Bandwidth Loss delay Jitter

Voice Very low Med. High High E-
commerce Low High High Low (Transactions) E-
mailLow High Low Low Telnet Low High
Med. Low Serious Browsing Medium
High High Low FTP High Med. Low
LowVideo conf. High Med. High High
 Provisions for QOS
• IP Best effort, no guarantee on delivery or delay

• TCPChecks for sequence number of rx. Packet and

requests for retransmission (slow)

• UDP Runs faster than TCP

• ATM Extensive provisions for QOS tags

• Soln : IPV-6, IP over ATM, Edge routers

 Broadband Access Technologies
• xDSL Technologies (Digital subscriber line)

• CATV Technology

• Fiber To The Home/Cabinet (FTTx) Technology

• Wireless access

• Satellite Technology

• Power line Technology

 Various DSL Technologies
• IDSL ISDN based DSL (128 kbps modem banks)

• HDSL High Data rate DSL (T1/E1 speed) earlier DSL

• ADSL Asymmetric DSL (1.5 to 9 Mbps downstream) (16 to

800 Kbps upstream depending on dis.)

• UDSL, SDSL Unidirectional, Symmetric

• VDSL 12.9 Mbps (4500 ft) - 52.8 (1000 ft)

• Uses twisted copper wire, future local loops

 DSL Application
• High speed internet access, real-time access on remote LAN

• Distance learning (school, colleges, libraries), always on

• Video conferencing

• Combined voice and high speed data on same line

• Video on demand in apartment blocks using VDSL

Advantages of ADSL (over cable or satellite)

• Low infra structure investments (shares telephone line)

• Can adapt to varying line conditions

• As secure as dial-up modem or T1 connection
• Asymmetric matches with future internet applications
• High dedicated BW (unlike sharing in cable TV)
• ADSL switches bypass the telephone switches that are
getting overloaded with data traffic
• 40 times faster than ISDN and 100 times than 28 K modem
 Key features of ADSL

• 4 KHz is reserved for POTS

• The high bit rate data is line encoded using efficient and
robust line coding techniques like DMT or CAP
• Multiplexed at CO by
DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexor)
• Uses DSP techniques for echo-cancellation of Near-End
(NEXT) and Far-End (FEXT) cross talk of multi-pair
• Line is properly terminated to reduce loading of loop
• better UTP category cable used
 ADSL Modulation
• CAP - Carrierless Amplitude/phase modulation
– a version of QAM in which incoming data modulates a single
carrier which is them transmitted, the carrier itself is suppressed

• DMT - Discrete Multi-tone

– a version of multi-carrier modulation in which incoming data is
collected and then distributed over a large number of small
individual carriers each of which uses QAM
 Wireless Access Techniques
• 2G 1991 GSM (Digital circuit switched) 16 Kbps
• 2.5G 2001 HSCSD/EDGE 192 Kbps
(High Speed Circuit Switched Data)
• 3G 2004 EDGE_2, 3G_IP (ckt + packet) upto 2 Mbps

• Broadband wireless access

– 13 frequencies allocated by ITU (700 MHz to 40 GHz)
 Broadband access in wireless
• Challenges
– Spectral allocation and BW limitations
– Noise environment and interference
• Techniques used
– Line coding and error correction coding
– Signal processing
– Antenna design
– TDMA/FDMA/SDMA/CDMA
 FTTx Technology
• Advantages
– Bandwidth for large number of users at a site
– Growth potential (cost of fiber reducing)
– QOS
– can directly connect to SDH/SONEt

– Topologies : bus, ring or star (Unidirectional)

– Access : TDMA, WDMA
 Cable Modems
• Set-top box interfaces TV at customer premises with cable
modem connected by co-axial cable to cable operator

• Uses collision resolution protocol (request for mini-slots)

• Uses 64 or 256 QAM

• 6 MHz channel (30 - 40 Mbps (shared), 450 - 750 MHz

• 17 Million cable connections, security is an issue

 Satellite Constallation
• Orbit LEO MEO GEO

Altitude 1400 10,352 36,000 KM

Round 13 84 250 msec

trip delay

Data rate nx2 Mbps - 128 Kbps

 Conclusions
• The ability to access broadbase contents from internet
regardless of physical location is beneficial in increasing
productivity through telecommuting
• At global level, data comm. Is moving to a single, public
networking environment environment with multi-gigabit
tx. Rates, optical fiber based SDH (SONET) at physical
layer with ease in mux/demux of low data rate traffic in
high speed links
• (Core networks and transmission between exchanges are
capable of carrying high bit rate user data)
• Types of services significantly increased at user premises
• Access at high speed from customer premises and QOS is
the main issue
• Many options : Dial-up, ISDN, cable, ADSL
• More options in future : FTTX, satellite, mobile, PLCC
• Availability, reliability and economy as deciding factor
• No unique solution
• Knowledge of access technologies, their QOS and cost and
market trends are important in making long term investmens
 Bibliography
• www.xdsl.com
• `The cost of quality in internet-style networks’ Amitya Dutta-
Roy, IEEE spectrum, Sept. 2000
• `Internet Telephony : going like crazy’ Thomsen & Jani, IEEE
spectrum, May 2000
• Dr. Dobb’a journal, May 2000
• `An engineering approach to computer networking’ S.
Kesav, 1999, Addison wesley
• `Telecommunication Transmission systems’ R. G. Winch,
1993, McGraw Hill
• `Digital Communications’ Glover and Grant, 1998, prentice Hall
• Telecommunications Network management Aidarous and
Plevyak, IEEE press, 2001
• Security for Telecomm. Network Manag. Rozenblit, IEEE press, 2001
• Fundamentals of Digital Switching McDonald, Plenum press
• IP technology: History, current state and prospects Yanovsky, St.
Petersburg univ, Russian fed.
• IT and Telecomm. Impact on developing countries W. Luther,
FCC, USA
• Chaotic electronics in telecomm. Kennedy CRC press
• Digital comm. Systems with sat. and fiber optics appln Kolimbiris,
Addison wesley, 2001