Electrical Machines

EE-260
Instructor: Maj Junaid

Department of Electrical Engineering, Military College of Signals

National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Grading Policy (Tentative):

OHT-1: 15%
OHT-2: 15%
FINAL EXAM: 50%
ASSIGNMENTS (3 – 4): 10%
QUIZZES (3 -4): 10%

• Unannounced / Announced Quizzes !!!

Course Objectives

To understand basic principles of Electromagnetism &

working of common electrical machines i.e. Transformers,
DC and AC machinery.
 Magnetic materials form a major part in the
construction of electrical machines.

In this chapter
• Production of a Magnetic Field
• Magnetic Circuits
• Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials
• Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
Each time you turn on a light, listen to your music, fly in an airplane, undergo MRI or watch TV, you are
depending on the principles of magnetism to work for you

What is magnetism?

• Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion in and around a material

• Magnetism is present in all materials but at such low levels that it is not easily detected

• Certain materials such as magnetite, iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and alloys of rare earth elements, exhibit
magnetism at levels that are easily detectable
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
What is a magnet?
• Any piece of material that has the property of attracting iron (or steel)
• Magnetite, also known as lodestone (naturally magnetized), is a naturally occurring rock that is a
magnet
• Magnetism may be naturally present in a material or the material may be artificially magnetized by
various methods
• After being magnetized (difficult to do), a permanent magnet will retain the properties of magnetism
indefinitely (ferromagnetic materials)
• A temporary magnet is a magnet made of soft iron, that is usually easy to magnetize; however,
temporary magnets lose most of their magnetic properties when the magnetizing cause is discontinue
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
Cutting a magnet
• A magnet can be cut into smaller and smaller pieces indefinitely, and each piece will still act as a small
magnet
• Thus, the cause of magnetism must be from a property of the smallest particles of the material, the
atoms
• So what is it about the atoms of magnets, or objects that can be magnetized (ferromagnetic materials),
that is different from the atoms of other material? For example, why is it that copper keys or aluminum
soda cans cannot be magnetized?
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
• Matter is made up of atoms which have a positively charged nucleus
• A nucleus contains one or more protons and neutrons and is orbited by one or more negatively charged
particles called electrons
• Electrons circle the nucleus of the atom, they also spin, similar to the way the Earth spins on its axis
• As the electrons spin and orbit the nucleus, they produce a magnetic field
What is a magnetic field and how is it created?
• A magnetic field describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy
• A magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion
• The spinning and orbiting of the electrons of an atom produces a magnetic field as does electrical
current flowing through a wire
• The direction of the spin and orbit determine the direction of the magnetic field
• The strength and direction of this field is called the magnetic moment.
 Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
All matter is made up of atoms and all atoms have electrons that are in motion, do all atoms have
magnetic fields.
• All the electrons do produce a magnetic field as they spin and orbit the nucleus; however, in some atoms,
two electrons spinning and orbiting in opposite directions pair up and the net magnetic moment of the atom
is zero
• The direction of spin and orbit of the electron determines the direction of the magnetic field
• Electron pairing occurs commonly in the atoms of most materials
• A helium atom has two electrons spinning and orbiting around the the nucleus which are paired, spin and
orbit in opposite directions
• The magnetic fields produced by the motion of the electrons are in opposite directions, they add up to zero
• The overall magnetic field strength of atoms with all paired electrons is zero
• Materials that have all paired electrons have no net magnetic moment are called diamagnetic materials yet,
there are some exceptions
• When placed in the magnetic field of a magnet, diamagnetic materials will produce a slight magnetic field
that opposes the main magnetic field
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
Are all materials that have unpaired electrons magnetic?
• Most materials with one or more unpaired electrons are at least slightly magnetic
• Materials with a small attraction to a magnet are called paramagnetic materials, and those with a
strong attraction are called ferromagnetic materials
• Magnetic domain is a region in which the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped together and aligned
• The magnetic domains are indicated by the arrows in the metal material
• One can think of magnetic domains as miniature magnets within a material
• In an unmagnetized object all the magnetic domains are pointing in different directions
• But, when the metal becomes magnetized which is what happens when it is rubbed with a strong
magnet, all like magnetic poles lined up and pointed in the same direction
• It would quickly become unmagnetized when its magnetic domains returned to a random order
• The metal in our experiment is a soft ferromagnetic material, which means that it is easily magnetized
but may not retain its magnetism very long
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
What is different about ferromagnetic materials that make them strongly magnetic?
• In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic moments of a relatively large number of atoms are aligned
parallel to each other to create areas of strong magnetization within the material
• In the unmagnetized condition, the material will be attracted to a magnet but will not act as a magnet

Difference between Magnetism and Electrostatics

• Magnetism always come in dipoles even if we cut a magnet into no matter how small, as oppose to
charges
Magnetic Field
• It describes the volume of space where there is change in energy that can be detected and measured
Introduction to Mystery of Magnetism
Permeability
• Law of magnetism are dependent upon a property of a medium called permeability
• It is the ability of a material to support magnetic field with in itself, it isn’t permanent
• Degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field
• Its opposite is reluctance (resistance vs conductance)
• Its unit is Henrys /meter
• Every medium is supposed to possess two permeabilities :
• absolute permeability (μ) and relative permeability (μr)
• For measuring relative permeability, vacuum/free space is chosen as the reference medium
• Free space absolute permeability of μ0 = 4π × 10−7 henry/metre and relative permeability of unity
• For any other medium absolute permeability is μ = μ0 μr H/m
• Its also defined as the property of a material that is equal to the magnetic flux density B established
within the material by a magnetizing field divided by themagnetic field strength H of the
Magnetic Field
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism of electrical machines by
which energy is converted from one form to another in motors, generators
and transformers.
Four basic principles that describe how magnetic fields are used in these
devices are as follow,
A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
 A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in coil of wire through
which it passes (transformer action).
 A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force
induced on it (motor action).
 A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced
in it (generator action).
Magnetic Field
 Production of a Magnetic Field
The magnetic field in space around an electric current is proportional to the
electric current which serves as its source, just as the electric field in space
is proportional to the charge which serves as its source

Ampere’s Law – the basic law governing the production of a magnetic

field by a current:

 H.dl  I net

where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet and dl is a
differential element of length along the path of integration. H is measured in
Ampere-turns per meter.
 Production of a Magnetic Field
• Consider a current carrying conductor wrapped around a
ferromagnetic core (e.g. iron).
• Applying Ampere’s law, the total amount of magnetic field induced
will be proportional to the amount of current flowing through the
conductor wound with N turns around the ferromagnetic material
as shown. Since the core is made of ferromagnetic material, it is
assumed that a majority of the magnetic field will be confined to
the core.
 Production of a Magnetic Field

Area =
 A
i

v N 

Mean path
length lc
Production of a Magnetic Field
The path of integration in Ampere’s law is the mean path length of the core,
lc. The current passing within the path of integration Inet is then Ni, since the
coil of wires cuts the path of integration N times, while carrying the current
i. Hence Ampere’s Law becomes

Hlc  Ni

Ni
 H  lc

Here H is the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity vector.

 Production of a Magnetic
Field
In this sense, H is the effort required to induce a magnetic field. The
strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on
the material of the core, Thus,
B = µH
B = magnetic flux density (webers per square meter, Tesla (T))
µ = magnetic permeability of material (Henrys per meter)
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter)
 Production of a Magnetic Field
The constant µ may be further expanded to include relative permeability which can
be defined as below:

r 
0
where: µ o – permeability of free space.
Hence the permeability value is a combination of the relative permeability and the
permeability of free space. The value of relative permeability is dependent upon the type of
material used. The higher the relative permeability, the higher the amount of flux induced
in the core. Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability of
materials.
 Production of a Magnetic Field

• Also, because the permeability of iron is so much higher than that of air, the
majority of the flux in an iron core remains inside the core instead of travelling
through the surrounding air, which has lower permeability.

• In a core such as in the figure

 Reluctance of a Magnetic Path
The magneto-motive force of N-turn current carrying coil is

F  Ni
The reluctance R of a magnetic path depends on the mean length l, the
area A, and the permeability μ of the material.

  l
R
A
The inverse of reluctance is permeance, it is the ability of material to
allow flow of magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux is analogous to current in electrical circuit and is related to

F and R in a similar way as Ohm’s law (V=RI) here

F  R
 Electric – Magnetic Circuits

ElectricCircuit MagneticCircuit
I – current(A) flux(Wb)

V – emf(V) Electromotive Force F – MMF(A-t) Magnetomotive Force

R –resistance R – reluctance(A-t/Wb)

– conductivity(S/m) p- permeance(Wb/A-t)

24
Simple Magnetic Circuit
 Magnetic Circuits
The flow of magnetic flux induced in the ferromagnetic core can be made
analogous to an electrical circuit hence the name magnetic circuit.

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Analogy Analogy
Magnetic circuit with Air Gap
Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits
(a) Electric circuit, (b) magnetic circuit