Electric Current

Definition: rate of positive charge flow

Symbol: i
Units: Coulombs per second ≡ Amperes (A)
i = dq/dt
where q = charge (in Coulombs), t = time (in seconds)

Note: Current has polarity.

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 1

 Electric Potential (Voltage)
• Definition: energy per unit charge
• Symbol: v
• Units: Joules/Coulomb ≡ Volts (V)
v = dw/dq
where w = energy (in Joules), q = charge (in Coulombs)

Note: Potential is always referenced to some point.

a Subscript convention:
vab means the potential at a
minus the potential at b.
b vab ≡ va - vb
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 2
 Electric Power
• Definition: transfer of energy per unit time
• Symbol: p
• Units: Joules per second ≡ Watts (W)

p = dw/dt = (dw/dq)(dq/dt) = vi

• Concept:
As a positive charge q moves through a
drop in voltage v, it loses energy
 energy change = qv
 rate is proportional to # charges/sec

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 3

 The Ideal Basic Circuit Element
i
• Polarity reference for voltage can be
+ indicated by plus and minus signs
v
• Reference direction for the current
_
is indicated by an arrow

Attributes:
• Two terminals (points of connection)
• Mathematically described in terms of current
and/or voltage
• Cannot be subdivided into other elements
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 4
A Note about Reference Directions
A problem like “Find the current” or “Find the voltage”
is always accompanied by a definition of the direction:

i - v +

In this case, if the current turns out to be 1 mA flowing

to the left, we would say i = -1 mA.
In order to perform circuit analysis to determine the
voltages and currents in an electric circuit, you need to
specify reference directions. There is no need to guess
the reference direction so that the answers come out
positive, however.
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 5
 Sign Convention Example
Suppose you have an unlabelled battery and you measure
its voltage with a digital voltmeter (DVM). It will tell you the
magnitude and sign of the voltage.

a With this circuit, you are

measuring vab.
1.401
The DVM indicates 1.401, so va
DVM
is lower than vb by 1.401 V.
b 
Which is the positive battery
terminal?

Note that we have used the “ground” symbol ( ) for the reference
node on the DVM. Often it is labeled “C” for “common.”
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 6
 Sign Convention for Power
Passive sign convention

p = vi p = -vi
i i i i
_ _
+ +
v v v v
_ + _ +

• If p > 0, power is being delivered to the box.

• If p < 0, power is being extracted from the box.
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 7
 Power Calculation Example
Find the power absorbed by each element:

Conservation of energy
 total power delivered
equals
total power absorbed
Aside: For electronics these are un-
realistically large currents – mA is
more typical than A
vi (W) p (W)
918
- 810
- 12
- 400
- 224
1116

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 8

 Circuit Elements
• 5 ideal basic circuit elements:
– voltage source active elements, capable of
– current source generating electric energy

– resistor
passive elements, incapable of
– inductor generating electric energy
– capacitor

• Many practical systems can be modeled with just

sources and resistors
• The basic analytical techniques for solving
circuits with inductors and capacitors are the
same as those for resistive circuits
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 9
 Electrical Sources
• An electrical source is a device that is capable of
converting non-electric energy to electric energy and
vice versa.
Examples:
– battery: chemical electric
– dynamo (generator/motor): mechanical electric

 Electrical sources can either deliver or absorb power

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 10

 Ideal Independent and Dependent Voltage
Sources
• Circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage
across its terminals, regardless of the current
flowing in those terminals.
– Voltage is known, but current is determined by the circuit
to which the source is connected.
• The voltage can be either independent or dependent
on a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit, and
can be constant or time-varying.
Circuit symbols:

vs +_ vs=vx +_ vs=ix +_

independent
EECS 42, Spring 2005 voltage-controlled
Week 2a current-controlled
11
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 12
Other Independent Voltage Source Symbols
Sinusoidal AC source

v(t) = Vpeaksin(t)
Veffective = Vpeak\/2
(In US, 120 V, so
Vpeak = 170 V)

Battery (realistic source)

+
VS

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 13

 Realistic Voltage Source
 A real-life voltage source, like a battery
or the function generator in lab, cannot
sustain a very high current. Either a
fuse blows to shut off the device, or
something melts…
 Additionally, the voltage output of a
realistic source is not constant. The
voltage decreases slightly as the
current increases. RS
 We usually model realistic sources 
considering the second of these two Vs

phenomena. A realistic source is
modeled by an ideal voltage source in
series with an “internal resistance”, RS.
Spring 2005 EE 42 Lecture 3 14
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 14
 I-V Plot for a Real Battery

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 15

 Ideal Independent and Dependent Current
Sources
• Circuit element that maintains a prescribed current
through its terminals, regardless of the voltage
across those terminals.
– Current is known, but voltage is determined by the circuit
to which the source is connected.
• The current can be either independent or dependent
on a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit, and
can be constant or time-varying.
Circuit symbols:

is is=vx is=ix

independent
EECS 42, Spring 2005 voltage-controlled
Week 2a current-controlled
16
 Electrical Resistance
• Resistance: Electric field is proportional to current
density, within a resistive material. Thus, voltage is
proportional to current. The circuit element used to
model this behavior is the resistor.
R
Circuit symbol:

Units: Volts per Ampere ≡ ohms ()

• The current flowing in the resistor is proportional to the

voltage across the resistor:
(Ohm’s Law)
v=iR
where v = voltage (V), i = current
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a
(A), and R = resistance () 17
 Resistance of an actual resistor

Material resistivity
= (-cm)
T

Resistance = resistivity x length/(cross-sectional area)

R = (L/WT)

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 18

 Electrical Conductance
• Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.
Symbol: G

Units: siemens (S) or mhos ( )

Example:
Consider an 8  resistor. What is its conductance?

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 19

 Short Circuit and Open Circuit
Wire (“short circuit”):
• R = 0  no voltage difference exists
(all points on the wire are at the same potential)
• Current can flow, as determined by the circuit

Air (“open circuit”):

• R =   no current flows
• Voltage difference can exist,
as determined by the circuit

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 20

 Circuit Nodes and Loops
• A node is a point where two or more circuit elements
are connected.
• A loop is formed by tracing a closed path in a circuit
through selected basic circuit elements without
passing through any intermediate node more than
once

Example:

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 21

 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):
– The algebraic sum of all the currents entering any
node in a circuit equals zero.

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

– The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any
loop in a circuit equals zero.

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 22

 Example: Power Absorbed by a
Resistor
p = vi = ( iR )i = i2R
p = vi = v ( v/R ) = v2/R
Note that p > 0 always, for a resistor.
Example:
a) Calculate the voltage vg and current ia.
b) Determine the power dissipated in the 80 resistor.

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 23

 “Lumped Element” Circuit
Modeling
(Model = representation of a real system which simplifies analysis)
• In circuit analysis, important characteristics are grouped
together in “lumps” (separate circuit elements) connected by
perfect conductors (“wires”)
• An electrical system can be modeled by an electric circuit
(combination of paths, each containing 1 or more circuit
elements) if
 = c/f >> physical dimensions of system
Distance travelled by a particle travelling at the speed of light
in one period

Example: f = 60 Hz
 = 3 x 108 m/s / 60 = 5 x 106 m
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 24
 Construction of a Circuit Model
• The electrical behavior of each physical
component is of primary interest.

• We need to account for undesired as well as

desired electrical effects.

• Simplifying assumptions should be made

wherever reasonable.

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 25

Terminology: Nodes and Branches
Node: A point where two or more circuit elements
are connected

Branch: A path that connects two nodes

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 26

 Notation: Node and Branch
•
Voltages
Use one node as the reference (the “common” or
“ground” node) – label it with a symbol
• The voltage drop from node x to the reference node
is called the node voltage vx.
• The voltage across a circuit element is defined as the
difference between the node voltages at its terminals
Example: – v1 +
a R1 b
+ +
va +_ vs R2 vb
_ _
EECS 42, Spring 2005
c Week 2a  REFERENCE NODE27
 Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL)
Consider a node connecting several branches:

i2
i3
i1

i4

• Use reference directions to determine whether

currents are “entering” or “leaving” the node – with no
concern about actual current directions
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 28
 Formulations of Kirchhoff’s
Current Law
(Charge stored in node is zero.)
Formulation 1:
Sum of currents entering node
= sum of currents leaving node

Formulation 2:
Algebraic sum of currents entering node = 0
• Currents leaving are included with a minus sign.

Formulation 3:
Algebraic sum of currents leaving node = 0
• Currents entering are included
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a with a minus sign. 29
 A Major Implication of KCL
• KCL tells us that all of the elements in a single
branch carry the same current.
• We say these elements are connected in series.

Current entering node = Current leaving node

i1 = i 2
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 30
 KCL Example
Currents entering the node:
-10 mA
i
5 mA Currents leaving the node:

15 mA

3 formulations of KCL:
1.
2.
3.
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 31
 Generalization of KCL
• The sum of currents entering/leaving a closed
surface is zero. Circuit branches can be inside this
surface, i.e. the surface can enclose more than one
node!
i2
i3

This could be a big

chunk of a circuit, i4
e.g., a “black box” i1

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 32

 Generalized KCL Examples
50 mA

5A

2A i

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 33

 Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL)
Consider a branch which forms part of a loop:

+ –
loop v1 voltage loop v2 voltage
“drop” “rise”
_ (negative drop)
+

• Use reference polarities to determine whether a

voltage is dropped – with no concern about actual
voltage polarities
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 34
 Formulations of Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law
(Conservation of energy)
Formulation 1:
Sum of voltage drops around loop
= sum of voltage rises around loop

Formulation 2:
Algebraic sum of voltage drops around loop = 0
• Voltage rises are included with a minus sign.
(Handy trick: Look at the first sign you encounter on each element when tracing the loop.)

Formulation 3:
Algebraic sum of voltage rises around loop = 0
• Voltage drops are included
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2awith a minus sign. 35
 A Major Implication of KVL
• KVL tells us that any set of elements that are
connected at both ends carry the same voltage.
• We say these elements are connected in parallel.

+ +
va vb
_ _

Applying KVL in the clockwise direction,

starting at the top:
vb – va = 0  vb = va
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 36
 KVL Example
Three closed paths:
+ v2  b v3
 +
a c

1 2
+ + +
va vb vc
 - 

3
Path 1:

Path 2:

Path 3:
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 37
 An Underlying Assumption of
KVL
• No time-varying magnetic flux through the loop
Otherwise, there would be an induced voltage (Faraday’s Law)

• Note: Antennas are designed to “pick up”

electromagnetic waves; “regular circuits” 
B( t )
often do so undesirably.

Avoid these loops! + 

v( t )

How do we deal with antennas (EECS 117A)?

Include a voltage source as the circuit representation
of the induced voltage or “noise”.
(Use a lumped circuit model rather than a distributed (wave)
model.)
EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 38
 Resistors in Series
Consider a circuit with multiple resistors connected in series.
Find their “equivalent resistance”.

I
• KCL tells us that the same
current (I) flows through
R1
every resistor
R2
+ • KVL tells us
VSS
 R3

R4

Equivalent resistance of resistors in series is the sum

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 39
 Voltage Divider
I I = VSS / (R1 + R2 + R3 + R4)
+
R1
– V1
R2
VSS +
+
 R3
– V3
R4

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 40

 When can the Voltage Divider Formula
be Used?
I I
R1 R1

R2
+ R2
+
+ – V2 VSS + – V2
VSS
 R3  R3

R4 R4 R5

R R
V  2 V V ≠ 2 V
2 SS 2 SS
R R R R R R R R
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Correct, if nothing else because R5 removes condition
isEECS
connected
42, Spring 2005 to nodes Weekof
2a resistors in series 41
 Resistors in Parallel
Consider a circuit with two resistors connected in parallel.
Find their “equivalent resistance”.
x
• KVL tells us that the
I1 I2 same voltage is dropped
across each resistor
ISS R1 R2
Vx = I1 R1 = I2 R2
• KCL tells us

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 42

 General Formula for Parallel
Resistors
What single resistance R is equivalent to three resistors in parallel?
eq

I I
+ +
eq
V R1 R2 R3  V Req
 

Equivalent conductance ofWeek

EECS 42, Spring 2005
resistors
2a
in parallel is the sum
43
 Current Divider
x

I1 I2

ISS R1 R2 Vx = I1 R1 = ISS Req

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 44

 Generalized Current Divider
Formula
Consider a current divider circuit with >2 resistors in parallel:

+ I
I1 I2 I3 V V
I R1 R2 R3  1   1   1 
     
  R1   R 2   R 3 

V  1/R 3 
I3   I 
R3 1/R
 1  1/R 2  1/R 3

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 45

 EE 42: Checklist of Terms
25 Jan. 2005
Charge, current, voltage, resistance, conductance, energy, power
Coulomb, ampere, volt, ohm, siemen (mho), joule, watt
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL), Ohm’s Law
Series connection, parallel connection
DC (steady), AC (time-varying)
Independent and dependent ideal voltage and current source
Voltage divider, current divider
Analog (A/D), Digital (D/A)

EECS 42, Spring 2005 Week 2a 46