X-RAY

RADIOGRAPHY
By Eyob.A.
X- RAYS
• are invisible
– penetrate matter
– can be diffracted
– ionize gases
– Change a photo emulsion
– create light emission in different substance
– induce biological changes in living tissue
X-ray Production
• X-rays are produced when highly energetic electrons interact
with matter and convert their kinetic energy into electromagnetic
radiation.
• A device that accomplishes such a task consists of
– an electron source,
– an external energy source to accelerate the electrons
– an evacuated path for electron acceleration,
– a target electrode,
X-ray Production
• Requirements:
– a source of fast moving electrons
– must be a sudden stop of the electrons’ motion
– in stopping the electron motion, kinetic energy (KE) is
converted to EMS energies
• Infrared (heat),
• light
• x-ray energies
X-ray Production
• Positive voltage (kVp) is applied to ANODE
• Negative electrons from CATHODE = attracted across the
tube to the positive ANODE.
• Electrons “slam into” anode – suddenly stopped.
• X-RAY PHOTONS ARE CREATED
X-ray Production
• Electron beam is focused from the cathode to the anode target by
the focusing cup
• Electrons interact with the electrons on the tungsten atoms of
target material
• PHOTONS sent through the window PORT
X-ray Production
• Principle Parts of the X-ray Imaging System
– Operating Console
– High-voltage generator
– X-ray tube
• The system is designed to provide a large number of e- with
high kinetic energy focused to a small target
Tube Interactions

• possible tube interactions

Heat
– Most kinetic energy of projectile e- is converted into heat
– Projectile e- interact with the outer-shell e- of the target atoms
but do not transfer enough energy to the outer-shell e- to
ionize.
x-rays
• X-rays = Characteristic (20%) or Bremsstrahlung (80%)
• Heat is an excitation
rather than an ionization
Characteristic Radiation

• The incident electron interacts with the K-shell electron via a

repulsive electrical force.
• The K-shell electron is removed leaving a vacancy in the K-shell.
• An electron from the adjacent L-shell (or possibly a different shell)
fills the vacancy.
• A characteristic x-ray photon is emitted with an energy equal to
the difference between the binding energies of the two shells.
Characteristic Radiation

• It is called characteristic
because it is characteristic
of the target element in the
energy of the photon
Produced
• characteristic x-rays require
a tube potential of at least
70 kVp
• Only Kcharacteristic
x-rays of
tungsten are
useful for
imaging
• has discrete
energies
based on the
e- binding
energies of
tungsten
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Bremsstrahlung radiation arises from energetic electron
interactions with an atomic nucleus of the target material.
• In a "close" approach, the positive nucleus attracts the
negative electron, causing deceleration and redirection,
resulting in a loss of kinetic energy that is converted to an xray.
• The x-ray energy depends on the interaction distance
between the electron and the nucleus; it decreases as the
distance increases
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Brems can be
produced at any
projectile e- value
• Major factors that
affect
producx-raytion
efficiency are
– the atomic number
of the target
material and
– the kinetic energy
of the incident
electrons
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Brems x-rays have a range of energies and form a continuous
emission spectrum
x-ray tube

• The x-ray tube provides an environment for x-ray production via

bremsstrahlung and
characteristic radiation mechanisms.
• Major components are
– the cathode,
– anode,
– rotor/stator,
– glass (or metal) envelope,
– and tube housing
x-ray tube
 CATHODE
• Cathode is a helical filament of
tungsten wire surrounded by a
focusing cup
• This structure is electrically
connected to the filament circuit.
• Electrical resistance heats the
filament and releases electrons
via a process called thermionic
emission.
 CATHODE
• It consists of filament and focusing cup.
• Current from filament circuit heats the filament, which releases
electrons by thermionic emission.
Anode
• The anode is a metal target electrode that is maintained at a
positive potential difference relative to the cathode.
• Electrons striking the anode deposit the most of their energy
as heat, with a small fraction emitted as x-rays.
• Tungsten is the most widely used anode material because of its
high melting point and high atomic number.
• The high atomic number of tungsten provides better
bremsstrahlung production efficiency compared with low-Z
elements
Rotating Anode X-ray Tube
OFF-FOCUS RADIATION
Interaction of X-ray with matter

• Several modes of interaction of x-rays with matter:

– Scattering
» Thompson or Rayleigh scattering,
» Compton scattering)
– Photoelectric absorption (transfer its energy to atoms
of the target material)
– Pair production
Rayleigh scattering

• It is the collision of a photon with an electron such that the

photon is deflected into a new direction…elastic scattering
• Energy of incident photon same as the scattered photon
Compton scattering
• The incident photon transfers parts of its energy to an outer shell
( free electron).
• This electron ejected from the atom.
• Dominant type of interaction in materials with low atomic number.
• Eg human tissue (Z=7.5)
Compton scattering

• The energy of the scattered photon is

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𝑬 =
𝑬
𝟏+ ¿¿
𝒎𝒐𝒄 𝟐
• The wavelength of the scattered photon increases over the
incident photon, and thus its energy decreases.
• Compton scattering is the major source of tissue damage due
to X-rays.
For these reasons, this phenomenon is very undesirable
Photoelectric Effect

• All of the incident photon energy is transferred to an

electron, and eject the electron from the atom.
• The photoelectric effect or photo ionization is the emission of
electrons or other free carriers when light is shone onto a material.
• Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons.
Photoelectric
• If this electron has a binding energy Eb, then this is the
amount of energy required to remove the electron from its
shell.
• If E>Eb, then the remainder of the energy ends up as kinetic
energy.

• The moving electron is the photoelectron.

Pair production

• Occurs when a photon of high energy (>1.02MeV) interacts

with a nucleus.
• Pair production is the creation of an elementary particle and its
antiparticle.
• Examples include creating an electron and a positron, or a proton and
an antiproton.
Different modes of interaction
Attenuation of photons in
matter
• At low photon energies (<26 keV), the photoelectric effect
dominates the attenuation processes in soft tissue.
• When higher energy photons interact with low Z materials (e.g.,
soft tissue), Compton scattering dominates.
• Rayleigh scattering occurs with low probability, 10% of the
interactions in mammography and 5% in chest radiography.
• Only at very high photon energies (>1.02 MeV), pair production
contribute to attenuation.
Attenuation of photons in
matter
Linear attenuation coefficient

• The linear attenuation coefficient is the sum of the individual

linear attenuation coefficients for each type of interaction:

• linear attenuation coefficient is proportional to the density of

the material.
– For instance
Mass attenuation coefficient

• For a given thickness, the probability of interaction is

dependent on the number of atoms per volume.
• This dependency can be overcome by normalizing the linear
attenuation coefficient for the density of the material, called
the mass attenuation coefficient:
Half value layer

• The thickness of material required to reduce the intensity

of an x- or gamma-ray beam to one-half of its initial
value.
Mean free path

• One cannot predict the range of a single photon in matter.

• However, the average distance a photon traveled before
interaction is called the mean free path (MFP) of the photon
beam,
Example 2

• A 2mm thickness of material transmits 25% monoenergetic

beam of photons, calculate the HVL of the beam and mean
free path of a photon
Instrumentation of Planer
Radiography

• Basic components of a planar X-ray radiography

system are:
– X-ray tube
– a collimator
• reduce the patient dose and amount of Compton scattered X-rays,
– an anti-scatter grid
• reduce further the contribution of scattered X-rays to the image,
– a detector
• converts the energy of the transmitted X-rays into li
X-ray Detectors

• Traditional x-ray film

– Screen-film radiography
• Digital detectors
– Computed radiography
– Digital radiography
Screen-film cassette

• The screen-film detector system used for general

radiography consists of
– a cassette,
– one or two intensifying screens,
– a sheet of film.
• The film is a sheet of thin plastic with a photosensitive
emulsion coated onto one or both sides.
• A typical screen film cassette and its cross-section
The Latent Image
• The silver halide grains, fixed in a thin gelatin film, oxidize
when exposed to photons.
• Chemical development of the exposed film precipitates the
fine silver particles, making them opaque to visible light.
• Careful attention to exposure time and development produces
a degree of blackening across the film which varies with the
original variation in photon flux and thus produces a 2D
latent image.
Specialized X-ray imaging
techniques
•
1. Mammography
2. Fluoroscopy
3. Digital Subtraction Angiography
1. Mammography

• Mammography is a radiographic examination that is

specially designed for detecting breast pathology.
• It uses a low-dose x-ray system to examine breasts.
• A mammography exam, called a mammogram, is used to
aid in the early detection and diagnosis of breast diseases
in women.
Distinguishing features of mammography
equipment
from other x-ray imaging

These features are due to:-

• Cancer produce very small physical changes in the breast that
are difficult to visualize with conventional x-ray imaging.
• Mammography examination requires the highest image quality
than other x-ray procedures.
– This is because the breast consist soft tissues with relatively small
differences in density (or atomic number)
Attenuation of breast tissues

• The attenuation differences between normal tissue and cancerous

tissue is highest at very low x-ray energies (lO to 15 keV) and is poor
at higher energies (>35 keV)
A mammography system
Collimation

• Fixed-size metal apertures or variable field size shutters

collimate the x-ray beam.
• For most mammography examinations, the field size matches
the film cassette sizes (e.g., 18 X 24 cm or 24 X 30 cm).
• The exposure switch is enabled only when the collimator is
present.
• Many new mammography systems have automatic
collimation systems that sense the cassette size
Compression

• Breast compression is a necessary part of the mammography

examination.
• Firm compression reduces overlapping anatomy and decreases
tissue thickness of the breast .
• This results in fewer scattered x-rays, less geometric blurring of
anatomic structures, and lower radiation dose to the breast tissues.
• Achieving a uniform breast thickness lessens exposure dynamic
range and allows the use of higher contrast film.
Compression
• Compression is achieved with a compression paddle, a flat Lexan
plate attached to a pneumatic or mechanical assembly.
• Suspicious areas often require "spot“ compression to eliminate
superimposed anatomy by further spreading the breast tissues over
a localized area
Compression
Types Of Digital Mammography

1. 2D mammography
• also called full-field digital mammography (FFDM),
• With 2D digital mammography, the radiologist is
viewing all of the complexities of breast tissue in a one
flat image.
• Disadvantage
– Sometimes breast tissue can overlap, giving the illusion of
normal breast tissue looking like an abnormal area
2. 3D mammography/
tomosynthesis
•
• is a mammography system where the x-ray tube and
imaging plate move during the exposure.
• creates a series of thin slices through the breast that allow
doctors to examine breast tissue detail one slice at a time to
help find breast cancer at its earliest stages.
• allows radiologists to view the breast tissue in one
millimeter slices, so that they can provide a more confident
assessment.
• finds cancers missed with conventional 2D mammography
2. FLOUROSCOPY
2. FLOUROSCOPY
• It is an x-ray imaging procedure that allows real time
imaging of a patient with high temporal resolution.
• Allows continuous viewing of a time varying x-ray image
and permits live visual evaluation of dynamic events.
• Uses TV technology which provides 30 frames per second
imaging.
• Allows acquisition of a real time digital sequence of images
(digital video) that can be played back as a movie loop.
2. FLOUROSCOPY
• Fluoroscopy uses continuous X-ray imaging,
• The image output of a fluoroscopic imaging system is a projection
radiographic image, but in a typical 10-minute fluoroscopic
procedure a total of 18,000 individual images are produced.
• fluoroscopy is used
– to monitor interventional surgery,
• for the placement of catheters, guide-wires and pacemakers in cardiac
catheterization laboratories,
– for dynamic studies of the GI tract and cardiovascular system using
contrast agents.
3. Digital Subtraction Angiography

• Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is a new radiographic

technology used in diagnosing vascular disease.
• DSA is employed to obtain images of arteries in various parts of the
body.
• highly effective in contrasting arterial structures with their
surrounding bone and soft tissue
3. Digital Subtraction Angiography

• An imaging technique that produces very high resolution images of the

vasculature in the body, being able to resolve small blood vessels which
are
less than 100 µm in diameter.
• Steps to acquire image
– acquiring a regular radiographic image,
– injecting iodinated contrast agent into the bloodstream and acquiring a
second image,
– performing image subtraction of the two digital images.
• It is used to investigate diseases such as stenosis and clotting of arteries
and veins, and irregularities in systemic blood flow.