Chapter ONE

introduction

Fundamentals of electricity and

electronics device

By ahmed s.
1
 INTRODUCTION

In electrical engineering, we are often interested in communicating

or transferring energy from one point to another. To do this requires an
interconnection of electrical devices. Such interconnection is referred to as
an electric circuit, and each component of the circuit is known as an
element

An electric circuit is an
interconnection of electrical
elements.

Fig: simple electric circuit

2
 Charge

 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of

which
matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).
The following points should be noted about electric charge:
1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are 1/(1.602 × 10-19)
= 6.24 × 1018 electrons. Thus realistic or laboratory values of charges are on the order
of pC, nC, or µC.
2. According to experimental observations, the only charges that occur in nature are
integral multiples of the electronic charge e = -1.602 × 10-19 C.
3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created nor
destroyed, only transferred. Thus the algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system
does not change.

3
 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in
amperes (A).
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is
i
where current is measured in amperes (A), and
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
or q=
The way we define current as i :
1) If the current does not change with time, but remains constant, we
call it a direct current (dc).
2) A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common form of
time-varying current is the sinusoidal current or alternating current (ac).
4
 cont…
Example #1: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
Solution:
Each electron has -1.602 × 10-19 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have
-1.602 × 10-19 C/electron × 4,600 electrons = -7.369 × 10-16 C
Example #2: The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin 4πt mC. Calculate
the current at t = 0.5 s.
Solution:
i = (5t sin 4πt) mC/s) = (5 sin 4πt + 20πt cos 4πt) mA

At t = 0.5,
i = 5 sin 2π + 10π cos 2π = 0 + 10π = 31.42 mA
Example #2: Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s
if the current passing the terminal is i = (3t2 - t) A.

5
 Voltage

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit

charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
i.e Vab
Where w= energy or work
q= charge
Vab= voltage or potential
difference b/n point a and b.
Note that Vab= -Vba

 Keep in mind that electric current is always

through an element and that electric voltage is always across the element or between two points.

6
 Power and energy
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W).

We write this relationship as p

p= .

Fig: polarity for power

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in

joules ( J) the energy(w) absorbed or supplied by
an element from time t0 to time t is
7
 Circuit Elements
An element is the basic building block of a circuit. Hence an electric circuit is an
interconnection of elements.
There are two types of element found in electric circuit.
1. Active elements
2.Passive elements
An active element is capable of generating energy while passive element is not.
An examples for passive elements are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
Typical active elements are battery, generator and operational amplifiers.
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources
that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.
There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a
specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit variables 8
 cont…

(c)
Fig symbol for indpendant
Voltage source(fig a and b) and current source(fig c)

9
 Dependant source

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in

which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.

 there are four possible types of dependent sources,

namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

Fig: dependant source a) voltage b)

current
10
 Basic law’s

Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of

electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as
resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The resistance of any material
with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its length L, as shown
in.
In mathematical form,
R

where ρ is known as the resistivity

of the material in ohm-meters
 cont…
Ohom’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor.

That is, v ∝ i
 Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R.
 (The resistance is a material property which can change if the internal or external conditions
of the element are altered, e.g., if there are changes in the temperature.)
vwhich is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R is measured in the unit of ohms, designated Ω.
 We may deduce ohom’s law as:
R, hence 1 Ω= 1V/A

Thus ,

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to

resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in ohms
(Ω)
open circuit and short circuit

A short circuit is a circuit element with a resistance approaching to

zero while an open circuit is the one having resistance approaches to
infinity.

short circuit open circuit

 conductance
A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance
R, known as conductance and denoted by G:
i.e G

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct

electric current; it is measured in mhos ( ) or
siemens (S).
The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R as:
pR= ………………………..eq(1)
The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G as
p= ………………………………….eq(2)
 cont….
We should note two things from Eqs. (1) and (2) in the previous slide:
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of
either current or voltage.
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor is always
positive. Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit. This confirms the idea
that a resistor is a passive element, incapable of generating energy .
Example1 : An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
Solution: From Ohm’s law,
R =v/ i=120/2=60Ω
Practice problem: The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element (a
resistor)
that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How much current is drawn
by a toaster with resistance 12 at 110 V?
Answer: 9.167 A.
cont…Example-2:
Example-3:
  A branch represents a single element suchas a voltage source or a
NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS

resistor
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will

satisfy the fundamental theorem of network topology:
b=l+n-1
Example-1: How many branch, node and loop the circuit have?
 Solution: 5 branches (these are 10 V source,
5Ω resistor,2Ω resistor, 3Ω resistor and 2A current source)
3 nodes(i.e node a, node b and node c)
3 independent closed path(loops)
 cont…
 Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected
sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
 Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two
nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.

Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown in Fig 2.12.
Identify which elements are in series and which are in parallel.
Solution: Since there are four elements in the circuit, the circuit has four branches: 10 V, 5 Ω, 6 Ω,
and 2 A. The circuit has three nodes as
identified in fig. 2.13
cont…
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety
of electric circuits.
These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage
law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge,
which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge,
which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot
change.
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the

nth current entering (or leaving) the node
 KCL cont…
Alternatively, we can define KCL as:
 The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum
of the currents leaving the node.
Consider the node in Fig. Applying
KCL gives:
i1+(-i2)+i3+i4+(i5)=0
Entering current to the node= leaving current
from the node
i.e i1+i3+i4=i2+i5
 KCL cont…
A simple application of KCL is combining current sources in parallel.
The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current supplied
by the individual sources.
For example, the current sources shown in Fig.
(a) can be combined as in Fig. (b). The combined or equivalent
current source can be found by applying KCL to node a.
IT + I2 = I1 + I3

IT = I1 - I2 + I3
A circuit cannot contain two different
currents, I1 and I2, in series,
unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path(or loop) is zero.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

Note that KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a
counterclockwise trip around the loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages
around the loop is zero.
 KVL cont…

When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied

to obtain the total voltage. The combined voltage is the algebraic sum
of the voltages of the individual sources. For example, for the voltage
sources shown in Fig. 2.20(a), the combined or equivalent voltage
source in Fig. 2.20(b) is obtained by applying KVL.
-Vab + V1 + V2 - V3 = 0
Example-1
Example-2
Example-3
SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION
The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows in both of
them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain
v1=iR1, and v2=iR2
if we apply KVL to the loop
(moving in clockwise direction),
We have: -v+v1+v2=0
→ v=v1+v2=iR1+iR2=i(R1+R2)
Or i=v/(R1+R2)
v=iReq
Thus Req=R1+R2 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected
in series
is the sum of the individual resistances
 cont….
For N- resistors connected in series
Req
To determine the voltage across each resistor:
V1 and V2 ……………… these two equations are called voltage division
rule.
PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION
Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors are connected in
parallel and therefore have the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s
law,
v = i1R1 = i2R2
cont…
cont…
cont…
cont…
cont…
Examples on series, parallel and series-parallel
circuits
cont…
cont….
cont…
 WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

 Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel
nor in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig

How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the resistors are neither in

series nor in parallel? Many circuits of the type shown in
Fig. can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks.
These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network and the delta (∆) or pi (∏) network
shown in next slide
 cont…

two form of the same network:

a)Y or b)T network
two form of the same network:
a) ∆ b) ∏
 Delta-to wye conversion
 Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent ∆ branches, divided by the sum of the three ∆ resistors.
i.e R1
R2=
R3=

Reading assignment: read the derivate of Y-∆ or ∆-Y

conversion
 Wye-to delta conversion
 Each resistor in the ∆ network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

i.E Ra
Rb
Rc
 The Y and ∆ networks are said to be balanced when
R1=R2=R3=Ry and Ra=Rb=Rc=R∆
Under this condition ,the conversion formula becomes
Ry
examples
 solution
R1=
R2== 7.
R3== 3
cont…
cont…
exercise