Organisation and maintenance of the

organism
2
Cell structure and organisation Levels of organisation
Plant and animal cell structures Specialised cells and their functions
Functions of structures Definitions and examples of tissues, organs and systems

Ribosomes, rough ER and mitochondria Size of specimens

Mitochondria and respiration Calculations of magnification and size, using millimetres

Calculations of magnification using micrometres

Thin slices of this kind are called sections. If you

● Cell structure and cut along the length of the structure, you are taking
organisation a longitudinal section (Figure 2.2(b)). Figure 2.1
shows a longitudinal section, which passes through
two small developing leaves near the tip of the
Cell structure
shoot, and two larger leaves below them. The leaves,
If a very thin slice of a plant stem is cut and studied buds and stem are all made up of cells. If you cut
under a microscope, it can be seen that the stem across the structure, you make a transverse section
consists of thousands of tiny, box-like structures. These (Figure 2.2(a)).
structures are called cells. Figure 2.1 is a thin slice
taken from the tip of a plant shoot and photographed
through a microscope. Photographs like this are called
photomicrographs. The one in Figure 2.1 is 60 times
larger than life, so a cell which appears to be 2 mm
long in the picture is only 0.03 mm long in life.

(a) transverse section (b) longitudinal section

Figure 2.2 Cutting sections of a plant stem

It is fairly easy to cut sections through plant

structures just by using a razor blade. To cut sections
of animal structures is more difficult because they
are mostly soft and flexible. Pieces of skin, muscle or
liver, for example, first have to be soaked in melted
wax. When the wax goes solid it is then possible to
cut thin sections. The wax is dissolved away after
making the section.
When sections of animal structures are examined
under the microscope, they, too, are seen to be made
up of cells but they are much smaller than plant cells
and need to be magnified more. The photomicrograph
of kidney tissue in Figure 2.3 has been magnified 700
times to show the cells clearly. The sections are often
Figure 2.1 Longitudinal section through the tip of a plant shoot (×60).
The slice is only one cell thick, so light can pass through it and allow the treated with dyes, called stains, in order to make the
cells to be seen clearly. structures inside the cells show up more clearly.
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 Cell structure and organisation

In plant cells it may be seen to be flowing about. The

particles may be food reserves such as oil droplets
or granules of starch. Other particles are structures
known as organelles, which have particular functions
in the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, a great many
chemical reactions are taking place which keep the
cell alive by providing energy and making substances
that the cell needs.
The liquid part of cytoplasm is about 90% water
with molecules of salts and sugars dissolved in it.
Suspended in this solution there are larger molecules
of fats (lipids) and proteins (see Chapter 4). Lipids
and proteins may be used to build up the cell
Figure 2.3 Transverse section through a kidney tubule (×700). A section structures, such as the membranes. Some of the
through a tube will look like a ring (see Figure 2.14(b)). In this case, each
‘ring’ consists of about 12 cells.
proteins are enzymes (see Chapter 5). Enzymes
control the rate and type of chemical reactions
Making sections is not the only way to study cells. which take place in the cells. Some enzymes are
Thin strips of plant tissue, only one cell thick, can be attached to the membrane systems of the cell,
pulled off stems or leaves (Experiment 1, page 28). whereas others float freely in the liquid part of
Plant or animal tissue can be squashed or smeared the cytoplasm.
on a microscope slide (Experiment 2, page 29) or
Cell membrane
treated with chemicals to separate the cells before
This is a thin layer of cytoplasm around the outside
studying them.
of the cell. It stops the cell contents from escaping
There is no such thing as a typical plant or animal
and also controls the substances which are allowed
cell because cells vary a great deal in their size and
to enter and leave the cell. In general, oxygen, food
shape depending on their function. Nevertheless, it
and water are allowed to enter; waste products are
is possible to make a drawing like Figure 2.4 to show
allowed to leave and harmful substances are kept out.
features which are present in most cells. All cells have
In this way the cell membrane maintains the structure
a cell membrane, which is a thin boundary enclosing
and chemical reactions of the cytoplasm.
the cytoplasm. Most cells have a nucleus.
Nucleus (plural: nuclei)
nucleus
Most cells contain one nucleus, which is usually
cell membrane seen as a rounded structure enclosed in a membrane
and embedded in the cytoplasm. In drawings of
cells, the nucleus may be shown darker than the
cytoplasm
cytoplasm because, in prepared sections, it takes
up certain stains more strongly than the cytoplasm.
The function of the nucleus is to control the
type and quantity of enzymes produced by the
cytoplasm. In this way it regulates the chemical
changes which take place in the cell. As a result,
the nucleus determines what the cell will be, for
example, a blood cell, a liver cell, a muscle cell or
mitochondria granules a nerve cell.
Figure 2.4 A group of liver cells. These cells have all the characteristics The nucleus also controls cell division, as shown
of animal cells. in Figure 2.5. A cell without a nucleus cannot
reproduce. Inside the nucleus are thread-like
Cytoplasm structures called chromosomes, which can be seen
Under the ordinary microscope (light microscope), most easily at the time when the cell is dividing (see
cytoplasm looks like a thick liquid with particles in it. Chapter 17 for a fuller account of chromosomes).

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 2 ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM

(a) Animal cell about to (b) The nucleus divides first. (c) The daughter nuclei separate (d) Two cells are formed – one
divide. and the cytoplasm pinches may keep the ability to
off between the nuclei. divide, and the other may
become specialised.
Figure 2.5 Cell division in an animal cell

Plant cells 2 Most mature plant cells have a large, fluid-filled

A few generalised animal cells are represented by space called a vacuole. The vacuole contains cell
Figure 2.4, while Figure 2.6 is a drawing of two sap, a watery solution of sugars, salts and sometimes
palisade cells from a plant leaf. (See ‘Leaf structure’ in pigments. This large, central vacuole pushes the
Chapter 6.) cytoplasm aside so that it forms just a thin lining inside
the cell wall. It is the outward pressure of the vacuole
cell wall on the cytoplasm and cell wall which makes plant cells
and their tissues firm (see ‘Osmosis’ in Chapter 3).
Animal cells may sometimes have small vacuoles in
chloroplast their cytoplasm but they are usually produced to do a
particular job and are not permanent.
3 In the cytoplasm of plant cells are many organelles
cytoplasm
nuclear called plastids. These are not present in animal
membrane cells. If they contain the green substance
vacuole nucleus chlorophyll, the organelles are called chloroplasts
(see Chapter 6). Colourless plastids usually contain
starch, which is used as a food store. (Note: the
term plastid is not a syllabus requirement.)

Figure 2.6 Palisade cells from a leaf

chloroplast

Plant cells differ from animal cells in several ways. cell

membrane
1 Outside the cell membrane they all have a cell wall
which contains cellulose and other compounds.
vacuole
It is non-living and allows water and dissolved
substances to pass through. The cell wall is not cytoplasm
selective like the cell membrane. (Note that plant cell wall
cells do have a cell membrane but it is not easy to
see or draw because it is pressed against the inside
of the cell wall (see Figure 2.7).)
Under the microscope, plant cells are quite
distinct and easy to see because of their cell walls.
In Figure 2.1 it is only the cell walls (and in some
(a) longitudinal section (b) transverse section
cases the nuclei) which can be seen. Each plant cell
has its own cell wall but the boundary between two Figure 2.7 Structure of a palisade mesophyll cell. It is important to
cells side by side does not usually show up clearly. remember that, although cells look flat in sections or in thin strips of
tissue, they are in fact three-dimensional and may seem to have different
Cells next to each other therefore appear to be shapes according to the direction in which the section is cut. If the cell is
sharing the same cell wall. cut across it will look like (b); if cut longitudinally it will look like (a).

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 Cell structure and organisation

The shape of a cell when seen in a transverse section why this is so. Figures 8.4(b) and 8.4(c) on page 112
may be quite different from when the same cell is show the appearance of cells in a stem vein as seen in
seen in a longitudinal section and Figure 2.7 shows transverse and longitudinal section.
Table 2.1 Summary: the parts of a cell
Name of part Description Where found Function
(supplement only)
cytoplasm jelly-like, with particles and organelles in enclosed by the cell contains the cell organelles, e.g. mitochondria, nucleus
Animal and plant

membrane site of chemical reactions

cell membrane a partially permeable layer that forms a around the cytoplasm prevents cell contents from escaping
cells

boundary around the cytoplasm controls what substances enter and leave the cell
nucleus a circular or oval structure containing inside the cytoplasm controls cell division
DNA in the form of chromosomes controls cell development
controls cell activities
cell wall a tough, non-living layer made of around the outside of prevents plant cells from bursting
Plant cells only

cellulose surrounding the cell membrane plant cells allows water and salts to pass through (freely permeable)
vacuole a fluid-filled space surrounded by a inside the cytoplasm of contains salts and sugars
membrane plant cells helps to keep plant cells firm
chloroplast an organelle containing chlorophyll inside the cytoplasm of traps light energy for photosynthesis
some plant cells

When studied at much higher magnifications with

the electron microscope, the cytoplasm of animal mitochondrion
cell
and plant cells no longer looks like a structureless jelly nuclear pore membrane
but appears to be organised into a complex system of
nucleus
membranes and vacuoles. Organelles present include rough endo-
the rough endoplasmic reticulum, a network of plasmic
flattened cavities surrounded by a membrane, which reticulum

links with the nuclear membrane. The membrane holds cytoplasm

ribosomes, giving its surface a rough appearance.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has the function
of producing, transporting and storing proteins.
Ribosomes can also be found free in the cytoplasm. ribosome (on rough
endoplasmic reticulum)
They build up the cell’s proteins (see Chapter 4).
(a) diagram of a liver cell (×10 000)
Mitochondria are tiny organelles, which may
appear slipper-shaped, circular or oval when viewed in
section. In three dimensions, they may be spherical,
rod-like or elongated. They have an outer membrane cell
membrane cytoplasm
and an inner membrane with many inward-pointing
folds. Mitochondria are most numerous in regions
of rapid chemical activity and are responsible for ribosomes
producing energy from food substances through the (on rough
process of aerobic respiration (see Chapter 12). endoplasmic
reticulum)
Note that prokaryotes do not possess mitochondria
or rough endoplasmic reticulum in their cytoplasm. nucleus
Figure 2.8(a) is a diagram of an animal cell magnified nuclear pore
10 000 times. Figure 2.8(b) is an electron micrograph
of a liver cell. Organelles in the cytoplasm can be seen mitochondrion
clearly. They have recognisable shapes and features. rough
Figure 2.8(c) is an electron micrograph of a plant endoplasmic
cell. In addition to the organelles already named and reticulum

described, other organelles are also present such as (b) electron micrograph of two liver cells (×10 000)

chloroplasts and a cell wall. Figure 2.8 Cells at high magnification

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 2 ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM

nucleus
cell wall
ribosomes
cell membrane
cytoplasm
mitochondrion

(a) peel the epidermis

(a) alternatively, peelfrom the inside of
the epidermis an onion
from bulb leaf
the inside
of an onion scale
chloroplast
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
(c) electron micrograph of a plant cell (×6 000)
Figure 2.8 Cells at high magnification (continued)

Practical work
Looking at cells
1 Plant cells – preparing a slide of onion epidermis cells
The onion provides a very useful source of epidermal plant tissue
(b) place
placethe
the epidermis
epidermis onin atodrop of water
the slide, addingor2–3
weak iodine
drops of iodine
which is one cell thick, making it relatively easy to set up as a solution
solution on
anda carefully
slide and carefullylower
lowering a cover-slip
a coverslip on to it over it
temporary slide. The onion is made up of fleshy leaves. On the
incurve of each leaf there is an epidermal layer which can be
peeled off (Figure 2.9(a)).
■ Using forceps, peel a piece of epidermal tissue from the
incurve of an onion bulb leaf.
■ Place the epidermal tissue on a glass microscope slide.
■ Using a scalpel, cut out a 1 cm square of tissue (discarding the
rest) and arrange it in the centre of the slide.
■ Add two to three drops of iodine solution. (This will stain any
starch in the cells and provides a contrast between different
components of the cells.)
■ Using forceps, a mounted needle or a wooden splint, support (c) peel a strip of
alternatively, reda epidermis
peel strip of redfrom a piece
epidermis ofarhubarb
from piece of skin
a coverslip with one edge resting near to the onion tissue, at rhubarb skin
an angle of about 45° (Figure 2.9(b)). Figure 2.9 Looking at plant cells
■ Gently lower the coverslip over the onion tissue, trying to
avoid trapping any air bubbles. (Air bubbles will reflect light
when viewing under the light microscope, obscuring the
features you are trying to observe.)
■ Leave the slide for about 5 minutes to allow the iodine stain
to react with the specimen. The iodine will stain the cell nuclei
pale yellow and the starch grains blue.
■ Place the slide on to the microscope stage, select the lowest
power objective lens and focus on the specimen. Increase the
magnification using the other objective lenses. Under high power,
the cells should look similar to those shown in Figure 2.10.
■ Make a large drawing of one cell and label the following
parts: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.
An alternative tissue is rhubarb epidermis (Figure 2.9(c)). This
can be stripped off from the surface of a stalk and treated in the
same way as the onion tissue. If red epidermis from rhubarb stalk
is used, you will see the red cell sap in the vacuoles. Figure 2.10 Onion epidermis cells

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 Levels of organisation

2 Plant cells – preparing cells with chloroplasts will reflect light when viewing under the light microscope,
obscuring the features you are trying to observe.)
■ Using forceps, remove a leaf from a moss plant. ■ Leave the slide for a few minutes to allow the methylene blue
■ Place the leaf in the centre of a microscope slide and add one stain to react with the specimen.
or two drops of water. ■ Place the slide on to the microscope stage, select the lowest
■ Place a coverslip over the leaf. power objective lens and focus on the specimen. Increase
■ Examine the leaf cells with the high power objective of a the magnification using the other objective lenses. Under
microscope. The cells should look similar to those shown in high power, the cells should look similar to those shown in
Figure 2.11. Figure 2.12, but less magnified.
■ Make a large drawing of one cell and label the following
parts: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.
■ Place your used slide in laboratory disinfectant before washing.

Figure 2.11 Cells in a moss leaf (×500). The vacuole occupies most
of the space in each cell. The chloroplasts are confined to the layer of
cytoplasm lining the cell wall.
Figure 2.12 Cells from the lining epithelium of the cheek (×1500)
3 Animal cells – preparing human cheek cells
Human cheek cells are constantly being rubbed off inside the An alternative method of obtaining cells is to press some
mouth as they come in contact with the tongue and food. They transparent sticky tape on to a well-washed wrist. When the tape
can therefore be collected easily for use in a temporary slide. is removed and studied under the microscope, cells with nuclei
Note: The Department of Education and Science and, can be seen. A few drops of methylene blue solution will stain
subsequently, Local Authorities, used to recommend that the cells and make the nuclei more distinct.
schools should not use the technique which involves studying
the epithelial cells which appear in a smear taken from the
inside of the cheek. This was because of the very small risk of
transmitting the AIDS virus. However, this guidance has now
changed. A document, Safety in Science Education (1996) by
● Levels of organisation
the DfEE in Britain states that official government guidance on
cheek cells has been effectively reversed, indicating that the use Specialisation of cells
of cotton buds is now ‘permitted’ together with appropriate Most cells, when they have finished dividing and
precautions to treat contaminated items with disinfectant or growing, become specialised. When cells are specialised:
by autoclaving.
■ Rinse your mouth with water to remove any fragments of food.
● they do one particular job
■ Take a cotton bud from a freshly opened pack. Rub the cotton ● they develop a distinct shape
bud lightly on the inside of your cheek and gums to collect ● special kinds of chemical change take place in their
some cheek cells in saliva. cytoplasm.
■ Rub the cotton bud on to the centre of a clean microscope
slide, to leave a sample of saliva. Repeat if the sample is too The changes in shape and the chemical reactions
small. Then drop the cotton bud into a container of absolute enable the cell to carry out its special function. Red
alcohol or disinfectant. blood cells and root hair cells are just two examples
Add two to three drops of methylene blue dye. (This will stain
■
of specialised cells. Figure 2.13 shows a variety of
parts of the cheek cells to make nuclei more visible.)
■ Using forceps, a mounted needle or wooden splint, support a specialised cells.
coverslip with one edge resting near to the cheek cell sample, The specialisation of cells to carry out particular
at an angle of about 45 °. Gently lower the coverslip over the functions in an organism is sometimes referred to as
tissue, trying to avoid trapping any air bubbles. (Air bubbles ‘division of labour’ within the organism. Similarly,

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 2 ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM

the special functions of mitochondria, ribosomes and cell wall

other cell organelles may be termed division of labour
within the cell.
cilia chloroplast

cytoplasm
nuclear
membrane
nucleus
vacuole nucleus

(a) ciliated cells

(a) ciliated cells
These form the lining of the nose and windpipe, and the
These cells
tiny form the lining
cytoplasmic of the
‘hairs’, nosecilia,
called and are
windpipe, and the tiny
in a continually (d) palisade mesophyll cells
cytoplasmic
flicking movement keeping up a stream of fluid movement
‘hairs’, called cilia, are in a continual flicking (mucus) These are found underneath the upper epidermis of
which creates
that a stream
carries dust and of flbacteria
uid (mucus) thatfrom
away carries
the dust and bacteria
lungs. plant leaves. They are columnar (quite long) and packed
through the bronchi and trachea, away from the lungs. with chloroplasts to trap light energy. Their function is
to make food for the plant by photosynthesis using
root hair carbon dioxide, water and light energy.
(very thin cell wall)

nerve fibre

(b) root
(b) haircell
root hair cell
TheseThese cells, inwater
cells absorb theirandthousands, form
mineral salts thethe
from outer
soil. The hair-like
layer on
projection of each
young cellroots and present
penetrates betweena vast
the soil particles and offers
surface
a large for absorbing
absorbing surface. The water and mineral
cell membrane salts.
is able to control which
dissolved substances enter the cell.

lignified wall
cells merged to
form long tubes

no cell contents

(e) nerve cells

These cells are specialised for conducting
(c) xylem vessels electrical impulses along the fibre, to and
These cells transport mineral ions from the roots to the leaves. A from the brain and spinal cord. The fibres are
substance called lignin impregnates and thickens the cell walls making often very long and connect distant parts of
the cells very strong and impermeable. This gives the stem strength. The the body to the CNS, e.g. the foot and the
lignin forms distinctive patterns in the vessels – spirals, ladder shapes, spinal column. Chemical reactions cause
reticulate (net-like) and pitted. Xylem vessels are made up of a series of the impulses to travel along the fibre.
long xylem cells joined end-to-end (Figure 8.4(a)). Once a region of the
plant has stopped growing, the end walls of the cells are digested away cell body
to form a continuous, fine tube (Figure 8.4(c)). The lignin thickening
prevents the free passage of water and nutrients, so the cytoplasm in the
nucleus
cells dies. Effectively, the cells form long, thin, strong straws.
Figure 2.13 Specialised cells (not to scale)

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 Levels of organisation

plants and animals cannot survive on their own. A

cytoplasm containing haemoglobin muscle cell could not obtain its own food and oxygen.
Other specialised cells have to provide the food and
oxygen needed for the muscle cell to live. Unless
these cells are grouped together in large numbers and
made to work together, they cannot exist for long.
(f) red blood cells
These cells are distinctive because they have no nucleus when mature. They
are tiny disc-like cells which contain a red pigment called haemoglobin. This
Tissues
readily combines with oxygen and their function is the transport of oxygen A tissue, such as bone, nerve or muscle in animals,
around the body.
and epidermis, xylem or pith in plants, is made up
acrosome of many hundreds of cells often of a single type.
mid-piece The cells of each type have a similar structure and
nucleus
function so that the tissue itself can be said to have
a particular function; for example, muscles contract
to cause movement, xylem carries water in plants.
tail Figure 2.14 shows how some cells are arranged to
form simple tissues.

Key definition
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures, working
together to perform a shared function.

Organs
Organs consist of several tissues grouped together to
(g) sperm cell make a structure with a special function. For example,
Sperm cells are male sex cells. The front of the cell is oval shaped and the stomach is an organ which contains tissues made
contains a nucleus which carries genetic information. There is a tip,
called an acrosome, which secretes enzymes to digest the cells around an from epithelial cells, gland cells and muscle cells.
egg and the egg membrane. Behind this is a mid-piece which is packed These cells are supplied with food and oxygen brought
with mitochondria to provide energy for movement. The tail moves by blood vessels. The stomach also has a nerve supply.
with a whip-like action enabling the sperm to swim. Their function is
reproduction, achieved by fertilising an egg cell.
The heart, lungs, intestines, brain and eyes are further
examples of organs in animals. In flowering plants, the
root, stem and leaves are the organs. The tissues of the
leaf include epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy tissue,
jelly coat xylem and phloem (see Chapter 8).
nucleus
cell membrane
Key definition
cytoplasm An organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues, working
containing yolk together to perform a specific function.
droplets follicle cells

(h) egg cell Organ systems

Egg cells (ova, singular: ovum) are larger than sperm cells and are An organ system usually refers to a group of organs
spherical. They have a large amount of cytoplasm, containing yolk
droplets made up of protein and fat. The nucleus carries genetic
whose functions are closely related. For example,
information. The function of the egg cell is reproduction. the heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory
Figure 2.13 Specialised cells (not to scale) (continued)
system; the brain, spinal cord and nerves make up
the nervous system (Figure 2.15). In a flowering
plant, the stem, leaves and buds make up a system
Tissues and organs called the shoot (Figure 8.1 on page 110).
There are some microscopic organisms that consist
of one cell only (see ‘Features of organisms’ in Key definition
Chapter 1). These can carry out all the processes A system is a group of organs with related functions,
working together to perform a body function.
necessary for their survival. The cells of the larger
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 2 ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM

brain

spinal
cord nerve

(a) cells forming an epithelium

A thin layer of tissue, e.g. the lining of the mouth cavity. Different
types of epithelium form the internal lining of the windpipe, air
passages food canal, etc., and protect these organs from physical
or chemical damage.

(a) nervous system (a) nervous system

(b) cells forming a small tube
e.g. a kidney tubule (see p. 177). Tubules such as this carry liquids from
one part of an organ to another.

artery
(c) one kind of muscle cell
Forms a sheet of muscle tissue. Blood vessels, nerve fibres and heart
connective tissues will also be present. Contractions of this kind of
muscle help to move food along the food canal or close down
small blood vessels. vein

(d) cells forming part of a gland

The cells make chemicals which are released into the central space an
carried away by a tubule such as shown in (b). Hundreds of cell groups
like this would form a gland like the salivary gland. (b) circulatory system(b) circulatory system
Figure 2.14 How cells form tissues Figure 2.15 Two examples of systems in the human body

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 Size of specimens

Organisms An example in the human body of how

An organism is formed by the organs and systems cells, tissues and organs are related is shown
working together to produce an independent plant in Figure 2.16.
or animal.

gullet
stomach lining

muscle layer
stomach
(b) an organ – the stomach,
from the digestive system
(cut open to show the
small large lining and the muscle layer)
gland
intestine intestine

circular
muscle

longitudinal
muscle

(c) tissue – a small piece

of stomach wall with
(a) a system – the digestive system (d) cells – some muscle cells muscle tissue and
of the human organism from the muscle tissue gland tissue
Figure 2.16 An example of how cells, tissues and organs are related

quick to prepare, but the specimens dry out quite

● Size of specimens rapidly, so they cannot be stored successfully. A
coverslip (a thin piece of glass) is carefully laid
The light microscope over the specimen. This helps to keep it in place,
Most cells cannot be seen with the naked eye. slows down dehydration and protects the objective
A hand lens has a magnification of up to ×20, lens from moisture or stains. A permanent
but this is not sufficient to observe the detail in preparation usually involves dehydrating the
cells. The light microscope (Figure 2.17) has specimen and fixing it in a special resin such as
two convex lenses, providing magnifications of Canada Balsam. These types of slides can be kept
up to ×1500, although most found in school for many years.
laboratories will only magnify to ×400. The
eyepiece lens is usually ×10 and there is a choice of Calculating magnification
objective lenses (typically ×4, ×10 and ×40), set in A lens is usually marked with its magnifying power.
a nosepiece which can be rotated. Light, provided This indicates how much larger the image will be,
by a mirror or a bulb, is projected through the compared to the specimen’s actual size. So, if the lens
specimen mounted on a microscope slide. It passes is marked ×10, the image will be ten times greater
through the objective and eyepieces lenses and the than the specimen’s real size. Since a light microscope
image is magnified so that detail of the specimen has two lenses, the magnification of both of these
can be seen. Coarse and fine focus knobs are used lenses needs to be taken into account. For example,
to sharpen the image. Specimens are mounted if the specimen is viewed using a ×10 eyepiece lens
on microscope slides, which may be temporary and ×40 objective lens, the total magnification will be
or permanent preparations. Temporary slides are 10 × 40 = 400.

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 2 ORGANISATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM

eye piece lens observed size of the image (or drawing)

Magnification =
barrel actual size of the specimen

When performing this type of calculation, make

sure that the units of both sizes are the same. If
they are different, convert one to make them the
objective lens same. For example, if the actual size is in millimetres
body and the observed size is in centimetres, convert the
clip
centimetres to millimetres. (There are 10 millimetres
in a centimetre.)
stage You may be required to calculate the actual size of
focusing knob
a specimen, given a drawing or photomicrograph and
light source a magnification.

stand Actual size of observed size of the image (or drawing)

=
the specimen magnification

When you state the answer, make sure you quote

Figure 2.17 A light microscope the units (which will be the same as those used for
measuring the observed size).
When the image is drawn, the drawing is usually
much larger than the image, so the overall
magnification of the specimen is greater still.

Organelles in cells are too small to be measured in scale is in nanometres because of the tiny size of
millimetres. A smaller unit, called the micrometre some of the objects. There are 1000 nanometres in
(micron or µm) is used. Figure 2.18 shows a 1 micrometre. (Note: the term nanometre is not a
comparison of the sizes of a range of objects. The syllabus requirement.)
electron microscope optical microscope unaided eye

water sugar antibody virus bacterium Amoeba a full stop an orange

molecule molecule

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000 10 000 000 100 000 000

size / nanometres
Figure 2.18 Comparing the sizes of a range of objects

There are Remember to make sure that the units of both

sizes used in a calculation involving magnification
1 000 000 micrometres in a metre
are the same. So, if the actual size is in micrometres
10 000 micrometres in a centimetre and the observed size is in millimetres, convert the
millimetres to micrometres.
1000 micrometres in a millimetre.

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 Size of specimens

Questions Checklist
After studying Chapter 2 you should know and understand the
Core following:
1 a What structures are usually present in both animal and
t Nearly all plants and animals are made up of thousands or
plant cells?
millions of microscopic cells.
b What structures are present in plant cells but not in
t All cells contain cytoplasm enclosed in a cell membrane.
animal cells?
t Most cells have a nucleus.
2 What cell structure is largely responsible for controlling the
t Many chemical reactions take place in the cytoplasm to keep
entry and exit of substances into or out of the cell?
the cell alive.
3 In what way does the red blood cell shown in Figure 2.13(f)
t The nucleus directs the chemical reactions in the cell and
differ from most other animal cells?
also controls cell division.
4 How does a cell membrane differ from a cell wall?
t Plant cells have a cellulose cell wall and a large central
5 Why does the cell shown in Figure 2.7(b) appear to have no
vacuole.
nucleus?
t Cells are often specialised in their shape and activity to carry
6 a In order to see cells clearly in a section of plant tissue,
out particular jobs.
which magnification would you have to use?
t Large numbers of similar cells packed together form a tissue.
A ×5
t Different tissues arranged together form organs.
B ×10
t A group of related organs makes up a system.
C ×100
t The magnification of a specimen can be calculated if the
D ×1000
actual size and the size of the image are known.
b What is the approximate width (in millimetres) of one of
the largest cells in Figure 2.3?
t Cytoplasm contains organelles such as mitochondria,
7 In Figure 2.3, the cell membranes are not always clear. Why
chloroplasts and ribosomes.
is it still possible to decide roughly how many cells there are
t The magnification and size of biological specimens can be
in each tubule section?
calculated using millimetres or micrometres.
8 a Study Figure 8.7 on page 113 and identify examples of
tissues and an organ.
b Study Figure 7.13 on page 97 and identify examples of
tissues and an organ.

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