Fluid Mechanics

What This Lesson is About

This lesson demonstrates your understanding on the concepts of
Fluid mechanics and on how Physics relate density, mass, volume,
specific gravity, pressure and how it is calculated based on their
relationship. It also discusses the application of Pascal’s law,
Archimedes’ and Bernoulli’s principle.
Specifically, this topic will discuss five (5) lessons:
Lesson 1- Specific gravity, density, mass, and volume
Lesson 2–Pressure
Lesson 3- Pascal’s principle
Lesson 4- Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
Lesson 5- Bernoulli’s principle
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Relate specific gravity, density, mass, and volume to each other
(STEM_GP12FM-llf-40).
2. Relate pressure to area and force (STEM_GP12FM-llf-41)
3. Relate pressure to fluid density and depth (STEM_GP12FM-llf-42).
4. Apply Pascal’s principle in analyzing fluids in various systems (STEM_GP12FM-
llf-43).
5. Apply the concepts of buoyancy and Archimedes’ principle (STEM_GP12FM-If-
44).
6. Apply Bernoulli’s principle and continuity equation, whenever appropriate, to
infer relations involving pressure, elevation, and speed (STEM_GP12FM-Ilf-46).
Specific gravity,
density,
mass, and volume
Lesson 1
Instruction: Answer the questions below as directed.
Let’s review for a second.
1. Can you tell me what matter is?
2. What is mass?
3. What is volume ?
4. Why do you think volume is important to you?
5. How do you measure the volume of a solid?
6. How do you measure the volume of an irregular shaped object?
7. Do you think that the shape of an object changes volume? Why or why
not?
 An object's density is the ratio of mass to volume of an object.
The mass is how much it resists acceleration when a force is applied to
it and generally means how much of an object or substance there is.
Volume describes how much space an object takes up.
Density= mass÷volume
For example if the water at 40C has a mass of 1000kg in a one
cubic meter, what is the water density?
Solve: D= 1000kg / 1 m3
Therefore: D=1000kg/m
Does density change with mass and volume?

Density is an intensive property of the material or substance and

depends upon the relationship between the mass and volume. Unless
the mass changes in relation to the volume, the density will not
change.
Is density proportional to mass and volume?

Note that density is directly proportional to the mass (or weight)

and indirectly proportional to the volume: If volume stays the same as
mass increases, the density will increase by the same factor. ... If the
mass stays the same as the volume is increased, the density will
decrease by that factor.
What is the relationship between mass volume and density?
Density is proportional to both mass and volume. Density is
inversely proportional to both mass and volume.
What does specific gravity means?
Specific gravity is the density of a substance divided by the
density of water. Since (at standard temperature and pressure) water
has a density of 1000Kg/m3 or 1 gram/cm3 , and since all of the units
cancel, specific gravity is usually very close to the same value as
density (but without any units).
Specific gravity = density of an object ÷ density of water

For example the density of Gold is 19300kg/m3 . Solve for the specific
gravity of Gold.
Solution: Specific gravity of Gold= density of Gold ÷ density of water
Specific gravity of Gold= 19300kg/m3 ÷ 1000kg/m3
Specific gravity of Gold= 19.3 kg/m3

Note: There is no specific unit of specific gravity because it is a ratio of one

density to another density so the unit cancel each other.
Let’s Work it Out
Direction:
A. Solve the water density at 4°C
1. D = 2000 kg ÷ 2 m3
2. D = 4000 kg ÷ 4 m3
3. D = 6000 kg ÷ 6 m3
4. D = 8000 kg ÷ 8 m3
5. D = 10000 kg ÷ 10 m3
B. Solve the Gold density
1. D = 19300 kg ÷1 m3
2. D = 38600kg ÷ 2 m3
3. D = 57900kg ÷ 3 m3
4. D = 77200 kg ÷ 4 m3
5. D = 96500 kg ÷ 5 m3
C. If you change the mass and volume does the density of a fluid
changes?
1. D = 1000 kg ÷ 4 m3
2. D = 1000 kg ÷ 2 m3
3. D = 600 kg ÷ 3 m3
4. D = 400 kg ÷3 m3
D. Solve for the specific gravity of the following objects
Formula: Sp = Density of an object ÷ density of water
Note: Water density is 1000kg/m3
1. Coconut oil has density of 930kg/m3 Sp ___________
2. Gasoline vehicle has density of 737 kg/m3 Sp ___________
3. Kerosene has density of 820 kg/m3 Sp____________
4. Mercury has density of 13590 kg/m3 Sp___________
5. Sea water has a density of 1025 kg/m3 Sp____________
Pressure
Lesson 2
 Pressure is defined as the force exerted on a surface divided by
the area over which that force acts. ... Pressure is measured in units of
Pascals, and to find the pressure exerted on a surface, simply divide the
force (in Newtons) by the area that is in contact with the surface (in
m2).
Pressure is defined as force per unit area and is calculated from the
simple formula
pressure = force normal to the surface ÷ area of that surface,
P = F ÷A, F = P x A, A = F ÷ P

P, pressure in pascals (Pa); F, contact force in newtons (N); A, area on

which force acts in square metres (m2)

A force of 1 N acting on 1 m2 creates a pressure of 1 Pa

Examples of pressure calculations
based on P = F÷A
Examples of pressure calculations
based on P = F÷A
Ex.1 If a weight of fluid of 200 N acts on a surface of 5 m2 , calculate the
pressure created.
pressure = force ÷ area, P = F ÷ A = 200 ÷ 5 = 40 Pa

Ex.2 What force must be applied to a surface area of 0.0025 m2 , to

create a pressure of 200,000 Pa?
P = F ÷A, rearranging gives: F = P x A = 200000 x 0.0025 = 500 N
Ex.3 In a hydraulic lift system, what must the surface area of a piston be
in cm2 if a pressure of 300 kPa is used to give a desired upward force of
2000 N?
P = F÷ A, rearranging gives: A = F÷ P = 2000 / 300000 = 0.00667 m2

What is the piston surface area in cm2?

1 m2 = 100 cm x 100 cm = 10 000 cm2 ,
so the area of the piston = 10 000 x 0.00667 = 66.7 cm2
What is the relationship between area and pressure?
The relation between pressure and area is that pressure and
area are inversely proportional to each other. That is when area
decreases pressure exerted on that area increases. When area
increases pressure exerted on that area decreases.
What happens to pressure when area increases?
With more particles there will be more collisions and so a greater
pressure. ... Because the area of the container has increased, there will
be fewer of these collisions per unit area and the pressure will
decrease. Volume is inversely proportional to pressure, if the number
of particles and the temperature are constant.
Pressure in a liquid - density and depth
factors - calculations
Density is a measure of how close the particles are together. The
more compact they are, the greater the density.
As already mentioned, in liquids the density is uniform throughout
and because there is so little space between the particles the density only
slightly decreases with increase in temperature with the increased kinetic
energy of the particles.
However, the volume shows almost no change with increased
pressure (so here you can consider liquids to be virtually incompressible).
All liquids expand on heating - observe a mercury or alcohol
thermometer.
Liquid pressure significantly increases with depth as the weight of the
column of liquid increases.
A simple experiment can demonstrate this rule using a tall
container with holes in the side. When you fill it with water, the water
gushes out of the holes, but the lower the hole, the greater the water
pressure, the faster the water comes out and travels a greater distance.
The pressure also increases with increase in density of the fluid
- so air and water differ significantly for a pressure created at a specific
depth of fluid (densities: air density 1.2 kg/m3 and water 1000 kg/m3
at room temperature).
From your own experience you may have observed:
Sometimes in a car descending or ascending a few hundred metres
on a road can make your ears 'pop' and hurt slightly because of the
change in pressure with height.
BUT, you only have to dive into a few meters of water to
experience the same effect on your ears. As you suddenly into the water,
the pressure is suddenly increased on your ear drums - the pain comes
from the greater external water pressure than the internal body pressure
on the other side of your ear drum. However, for most people, when
under the water at shallow depths, the pressures become equal quite
quickly
 You can calculate the pressure at a given depth created by the
weight of liquid in the earth's gravitation field using the following
formula:
pressure in a liquid = depth of liquid x density of liquid x gravitational
field strength
P = hρg
P, pressure in pascals (Pa); h = depth in metres (m); ρ = density (kg/m3),
and the gravitational field strength = g = 9.8 N/kg (on the Earth's
surface)
Unit connections
Taking the formula P = h x ρ x g 'apart' in terms of units.
pressure = force per unit area = height of column of material x density
of material x gravitational constant
N÷ m2 = m x kg/m3 x 9.8 N/kg
unit analysis: on the right the kg cancel out, m/m3 = 1/m2 , you are left
with N/m2 !!
Example calculations involving liquid pressure
(the gravitational field effect is taken as 9.8 kg/N in these questions).
Q2.1 Divers have to be careful when working at depth in water and need
to carefully control the dissolving of gases in their blood stream.
(a) Calculate the pressure created by a 30 m depth of water given the
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and gravity 9.8 N/kg.
P = hρg
P = 30 x 1000 x 9.8 = 294 000 Pa (2.94 x 105 Pa, 294 kPa)
(b) Comment on the dangers when diving at great depths and how to
avoid dangerous problems.
 Atmospheric pressure is about 101 kPa, so a diver at these
depths will experience a much greater pressure than on the surface of
the water
Increase in pressure causes more gases to dissolve in the blood
stream (this is a general rule for gases in contact with a liquid that can
act as a solvent).
This can have serious consequences if time isn't allowed for the
body pressure to adjust to the new external pressure, particularly when
returning back to the surface.
 The bends, also known as decompression sickness disease,
occurs in divers when dissolved gases (mainly nitrogen) come out of
solution in bubbles and can affect any body area including joints, lung,
heart, skin and brain.
The effects can be fatal unless time is allowed for the body to
adjust in a decompression chamber.
Q2.2 The density of sea water is ~1025 kg/m3 , the maximum depth of
the Atlantic ocean is ~8500 m (8.5 km).
(a) Calculate the water pressure at this depth.
P = hρg
P = 8500 x 1025 x 9.8
= 85 400 000 Pa
(to 3 sf, 85.4 MPa, 85400 kPa, 8.54 x 107 Pa, 8.54 x 104 kPa)
(b) By what factor is the pressure greater at these depths compared to the ocean
surface?
Atmospheric pressure is ~101 kPa
Pressure at bottom of ocean ÷ pressure at surface
= 85400 ÷ 101
= 846 (3 sf).

Note: This extraordinary increase in pressure mean to explore this 'alien' world you
need a very strong submersible craft. However, evolution has allowed all sorts of
creatures to live down at these depths, all fully pressure adjusted over time! If you
(theoretically) brought any such creatures rapidly to the surface and exposed them to
normal pressure, it would kill them
Q2.3 At what depth in water is the increased pressure five times
greater than atmospheric pressure (101 kPa)?
5 x 101 = 505 kPa, 505000 Pa, density of water 1000 kg/m3
P = hρg, rearranging gives h = P/ρg = 505000/(1000 x 9.8) = 51.5 m

Note: The pressure increase in water increases by about the value of

atmospheric pressure for every 10 m.
Q2.4 At a depth of 12.5 m of a chemical solvent the pressure at the
bottom of the storage tank due to the solvent was 306 kPa
Calculate density of the solvent.
P = hρg, rearranging gives ρ
= P/hg
= 306000/(12.5 x 9.8)
= 2498 kg/m3
Direction: to sum up what you have learned explain your answer
1. What happens to pressure when Force increases and the surface
area is keep in constant?
2. What happens to pressure when surface area increases and the
Force is keep in constant?
3. How does density affect pressure in liquids?
4. How does pressure vary with depth?
5. Why does water pressure increase with depth?
6. Does pressure depend on density?
Pascal's Principle
Lesson 3
 In the previous lesson, you have learned that Pressure is defined
as the force exerted on a surface divided by the area over which that
force acts. It is very important to master this principle because this is
the bases of the Pascal’s law for lesson 3.
Associated Activities
Physics - Application of Pascal's Law in Hydraulics –English- Students
apply their understanding of Pascal’s law.
Watch this activity on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hV5IEooHqIw
Lesson 14 - Pascal's Principle - The Properties of Liquids -
Demonstrations in Physics.
Watch this activity on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ma4kW3xVT0
 A fluid can be a liquid or a gas, like air and air is everywhere, and
even the air surrounding us has a weight and exerts a pressure. We do
not realize how heavy the air is, or feel the pressure it exerts upon us
because we are accustomed to the "atmospheric pressure." Pressure is
defined as a measure of force over a given area. Pascal's law states that
a pressure applied to a fluid in a closed container is transmitted equally
to every point of the fluid and the walls of the container, as seen in
Equation
P = F÷ A
Where P is the pressure, F is the force, and A is the area. Note that a
closed system may have two areas, so the force is different at the two
locations, but the pressure remains the same, as stated by Pascal's law.
 This pressure is transmitted equally in all directions and at right
angles, and a change in pressure disperses equally throughout the fluid.
Pascal's law is used by engineers when designing hydraulic systems that
use liquid power to do work. Some examples are hydraulic jacks that lift
cars up in repair shops and hydraulic brakes that apply a pressure to a
large area to stop a large vehicle such as a train. Pascal's law is also
used in water distribution systems and sewage systems to move water
throughout a network of pipelines.
How is Pascal calculated?
Conversion of pressure = newton per square meter is pascal force per
area unit units.
psi = pounds per square inch.
The SI unit of the pressure is the pascal with the formula sign Pa. 1
Pascal is equal to the pressure of 1 newton per square meter. 1 Pa = 1 N
/ m2 ≡ 1 kg / m · s2 .
Pascal’s Principle – problems
and solutions
Pascal’s Principle – problems
and solutions
At the following URL, read how a hydraulic car lift works and do the
animation. Then answer the questions below.
http://
webphysics.davidson.edu/physlet_resources/bu_semester1/c23_press
ure_pascal.html

1. How does force change in a hydraulic lift?

2. In the animation of the lift, what happens when you add mass to
the small cylinder?
3. Explain how a hydraulic lift can raise an object as heavy as a car.
Direction: answer the questions
Have you heard of the term hydraulics?
What are examples of hydraulic devices?
Pascal’s Principle
1. An engineering student wants to build a hydraulic pump to lift a
1,815 N crate. The pump will have two pistons connected via a fluid
chamber. The student calculates that a force of 442 N will be
exerted on the small piston, which will have an area of 50.2 cm2 .
What must the area of the large piston be to exert the desired
force?
2. The motor on a construction-grade hydraulic shovel exerts 3.11 x
107 Pa of pressure on a fluid tank. The fluid tank is connected to a
piston that has an area of 153 cm2. How much force does the piston
exert?
Archimedes’ Principle
Lesson 4
Associated Activities
• Buoyancy & Pressure in Fluids: Soda Bottle Cartesian Diver - Students
observe Pascal's law, Archimedes' principle and the ideal gas law as a
Cartesian diver moves within a closed system.
Watch this activity on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soIey3Q2moE
• Rock and Boat: Density, Buoyancy & Archimedes’ Principle - Students observe
Archimedes' principle and use terminology learned in the classroom as well
as critical thinking to derive equations needed to answer a challenge
question:
Watch this activity on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K4Y-52gVcEA
Discussion Questions: This is to your base knowledge of the lesson
topics. The same questions will be asked at lesson end.
• Why ships float?
• When you are swimming in a pool do you feel lighter or heavier than
when you are walking on Earth?
Why is it called Archimedes Principle?
Archimedes' principle, named after an inventor and a
mathematician who lived in ancient Greece, states that the buoyant
force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid that is
displaced by the object. Buoyancy is the ability of an object to float in
water or air.
Archimedes Principle Formula
The Archimedes principle states that the upward buoyancy force
exerted on a body partially or completely immersed in a fluid is equal to
the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in an upward
direction in the center of the mass of the displaced fluid. The
Archimedes principle is a fundamental law of physics for fluid
mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse.
push = density of fluid * gravity acceleration * volume of object.
The equation is:
p=ρf*g*V
we have,
p = push
ρf = density of fluid.
g = gravity acceleration.
V = volume of object.
Archimedes Principle Questions:
1) A steel ball of 5cm radius is immersed in water. It calculates the
thrust and the resulting force (lead density = 7900kg/m3 ).
Answer: To calculate the resulting push, to calculate the push we must
calculate the volume of the ball.
V = 4/3πr3= 4/3π (0,05 m)3 = 5.24*10-4 m3
and know the density of water (1000 kg/m3 ).
p = Pf*g*v= 1000 kg/m3 * 9.8 m/s² *5,23*10-4 m3 = 5.1254 N.
p = 5.1254 N.
Let's go with the resulting force. Here two forces act: the push of the water
upwards and the weight of the ball downwards. We still have to calculate
this last one: the density of lead is 7900kg/m3 , then the mass of lead is
ml = 7900kg/m m* 5.24*10-4 m3 = 4.1396 Kg
The weight of the ball is
w = ml*g = 4.1396 Kg* 9.8m/s2 = 40.568 N
The resulting apparent weight is:
Wa = w-p = 40.568 N - 5.1254 N = 35.443 N
Wa = 35.443 N.
2) Weigh a cube of 10cm edge into the air resulting in 19 N and then weighed immersed
in water giving a value of 17 N. Calculate the apparent weight and the push.
Answer: The apparent weight is the weight of the object immersed in a fluid, or in other
words, the result of the actual weight and thrust. Therefore, the apparent weight is 17 N
.
Wa = 17 N.
The push is:
w = 19 N.
Wa = w-p-→
p = w-Wa = 19 N- 17 N = 2 N
p = 2 N.
 All of us have experienced Archimedes' principle, even though we may not
be aware of it. A common experience is realizing that it is rather easy to lift a
person in a swimming pool. This is because the water provides partial support in
the form of an upward force called the buoyant force. The buoyant force is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced. Refer to Buoyancy & Pressure in Fluids: Soda
Bottle Cartesian Diver activity to have students observe these variables in action.
Ships float in water because the weight of the water displaced by the ship's hull is
greater than the ship's weight, and if the weight of the water displaced was less
than that of the ship, it would sink. Engineers use fluid mechanics and dynamics
modeling software to simulate different phenomena that occur, which is essential
to create optimal ship designs. Engineers model hull form and appendage
optimization to increase a ship's efficiency and propulsive power, reduce fuel
consumption, and analyze resistance in calm water and irregular waves.
Practice applying Archimedes’ law by doing the brainteaser at this URL:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lasalle/buoyquestion.html
1. If a block of aluminum measures 4.0 cm x 5.0 cm x 2.0 cm is completely
submerged in a tank of water, what volume of water does it displace?
2. What is the mass of the displaced water?
3. What is the weight of the displaced water?
4. How large of a buoyant force acts on the block?
5. The mass of the aluminum block is 108 g. Determine its density.
6. If you release the metal block, will it sink, or will it float to the surface?
Explain your reasoning.
7. If the block was submerged in ethyl alcohol instead, would the tension in
the string be bigger or smaller?
Bernoulli’s Principle
Lesson 4
Associated Activities
Adventures with Bernoulli- Demonstrations in Physics - Students
observe Bernoulli’s principle
Watch this demonstration on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZClP-m9g24
Bernoulli’s Equation -Students observe Bernoulli’s Equation, principle
and its application.
Watch this presentation on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytCuHh5PwwY&t=408s
Fluid in Motion—Bernoulli’s
Principle
The derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation represents an elegant
application of the Work-Energy Theorem. Here we discuss the
conditions under which Bernoulli’s Equation applies and then simply
state and discuss the result.
 Bernoulli’s Equation applies to a fluid flowing through a full pipe. The degree to
which Bernoulli’s Equation is accurate depends on the degree to which the following
conditions are met:
1. The fluid must be experiencing steady state flow. This means that the flow rate at all
positions in the pipe is not changing with time.
2. The fluid must be experiencing streamline flow. Pick any point in the fluid. The
infinitesimal fluid element at that point, at an instant in time, travelled along a
certain path to arrive at that point in the fluid. In the case of streamline flow, every
infinitesimal element of fluid that ever finds itself at that same point travelled the
same path. (Streamline flow is the opposite of turbulent flow.)
3. The fluid must be non-viscous. This means that the fluid has no tendency to “stick
to” either the sides of the pipe or to itself. (Molasses has high viscosity. Alcohol has
low viscosity.)
 Consider a pipe full of a fluid that is flowing through the pipe. In
the most general case, the cross-sectional area of the pipe is not the
same at all positions along the pipe and different parts of the pipe are
at different elevations relative to an arbitrary, but fixed, reference level.
What is Bernoulli's principle in simple terms?
Bernoulli's principle is an idea of fluid dynamics. It says that as speed
of the fluid increases, pressure decreases. ... A higher pressure pushes
(accelerates) fluid toward lower pressure. So any change in a fluid's
speed must be matched by a change in pressure (force)
What does Bernoulli's equation State?
The simplest form of Bernoulli's equation (steady and
incompressible flow) states that the sum of mechanical energy,
potential energy and kinetic energy, along a streamline is constant.
Therefore, any increase in one form results in a decrease in the other.
Bernoulli's principle states that pressure and velocity are inversely
related, or that the pressure in a fluid decreases when the fluid's
velocity increases, as seen in Equation
P 1 + ½ρ v 1 2 + ρ g h 1 = P 2 + ½ρ v 2 2 + ρgh2
Where P 1 is the pressure at point 1, ρ is the density of the fluid, v1 is the
velocity of the fluid at point 1, g is the acceleration due to gravity, h1 is
the elevation of point 1, P2 is the pressure at point 2, v2 is the velocity of
the fluid at point 2, and h2 is the elevation of point 2.
Practice questions
Using physics, you can apply Bernoulli’s equation to calculate the
speed of water. For example, if you know that a dam contains a hole
below water level to release a certain amount of wate, you can
calculate the speed of the water coming out of the hole. Using physics,
you can apply Bernoulli’s equation to calculate the speed of water. For
example, if you know that a dam contains a hole below water level to
release a certain amount of wate, you can calculate the speed of the
water coming out of the hole.
Here are some practice questions that you
can try.
Use Bernoulli’s law to explain what you observe in the demonstrations
at this URL:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-xNXrELCmU
Summary
Pascal’s law states that a change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid is
transmitted equally throughout the fluid. The ability of fluids to transmit pressure in this
way can be very useful—from getting toothpaste out of a tube to applying the brakes on a
car.
Archimedes’ determined that an object displaces the same volume of fluid as its
own volume.
According to Archimedes’ law, the buoyant force acting on an object equals the
weight of the fluid that the object displaces.
The shape of an object may affect how much fluid it displaces and therefore the
buoyant force acting on it. This explains why one object may sink while another object
with the same weight but a different shape may float. Bernoulli’s law states that the
pressure of a moving fluid such as air is less when the fluid is moving faster. Bernoulli’s law
explains how wings of airplanes and birds create lift and allow them to fly.