General

Physics

Chapter 8
Lesson 8.1
Density
Have you ever tried eating adobo? If yes, have you ever
wondered why the oil does not mix with the sauce but
floats on it? This is because, Density describes the
amount of matter that takes up a given space. In other
word, it describes how heavy an object is relative to its
size. Mathematically, density () is equal to the mass
of a substance (m) over its volume (V)
Equation
(8.1) : 𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Density is commonly expressed in
units of grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm³). However, you
can convert it to kg/m³. Thus, a
density of 2.0 x10³ kg/m3 is equal
to 2.0 g/cm³. 3
( )( )
3
𝑘𝑔 1000 𝑔 ( 1𝑚 ) 1 𝑥 10 𝑔 −3
1 3 = =10 𝑔/ 𝑐𝑚 ³
𝑚 1 𝑘𝑔 ( 100 𝑐𝑚 ) 3 6
1 𝑥 10 𝑐𝑚 ³
Table 8.1. Densities of common
substances in kg/m³ Water (4°C)
Aluminum
Iron, Steel Sea water

Copper Mercury
Lead Alcohol
Gold Gasoline
Concrete Air
Granite Helium
Wood Steam
Glass
ice
Sample problem 8.1
Using the table above, determine the volume of a 20.0 g gold. Also,
determine the mass of lead with a volume of 1.00 m³.
Solution: Using Equation 8.1 and transposing V, we get:

Solution : Using Equation 8.1 and transposing we

get

𝑚=ρV = (
11.3 g
cm
3
( )
1.00 cm ) =11.3 g
3
Lesson 8.2 Relative Density

The relative density (PRE) or the specific gravity

of an object is the ratio of that object's density
(ps) to a reference density (PR). Generally, we use
the density of pure water at 4°C since it is at its densest.
The relative density allows us to determine how much of
a sample is submerged in water. Since, the relative

Thus, it is unitless.
𝜌 =
𝜌 𝑠
=
𝜌 𝑠
=
𝜌𝑠
(
density is the ratio of two densities, the units
𝑐
𝑔
𝑚 )
cancel.
3

𝑅𝐸
𝜌𝑅 𝜌𝐻 2
𝑂 1.0 𝑔/ 𝑐 𝑚
3
Sample Problem 8.2: Determine the relative density of ice.
Solution:

This would explain why ice do not sink to

the bottom of the glass but does not float
on the surface of the water. This also
explains the famous quote "the tip of the
iceberg" since 92% of it is submerged in
water.
Lesson 8.3 Pressure in
Fluids
Pressure is the amount of force
perpendicularly applied (F⊥) to
an object of unit area (A). The
standard unit of pressure is
Newton per square meter
(N/m2) or a Pascal (Pa). It was
named after the French scientist
Blaise Pascal for his pioneering
P=
work with pressure.
Pressure can also be present in
still water. Consider two tanks of
water, each of depth 1.0 m², but
with cross-sectional areas of
1.0m² and 4.0 m². Find the
pressure being applied on the
bottom of each tank.
Tank A Tank B

The force of gravity is being applied

onto the bottom of the tank by the
water
From the image on the previous page, we can see that no one is
exerting any force to the water inside the tanks, so what force is being
applied on the bottom of the tanks? That is the force due to gravity.
Therefore, we will be using the equation of weight to calculate the
force applied onto the bottom of the tank. For Tank A we will be using
the equation FA = mag. Note that ρ =, so the force is 9.8 × 10³ N.
)) =

Hence, the pressure in Tank A is 9.8 × 10³ Pa.

𝐹𝐴 3
9.8 𝑥 10 𝑁 3
𝑃 𝐴= = = 9.8 𝑥 10 𝑁 / 𝑚 ²
𝐴𝐴 1.0 𝑚 ²
Similarly, for Tank B, we find that the force is
39.2x10³N

The pressure in Tank B is also 9.8x10³ Pa

Notice that the pressure
exerted on the bottom of each
tank is the same, regardless of
the size of the tank. In fact,
the shape of the tank is also of
no significance. The pressure
depends mainly on the depth
and density of the liquid in the
tank. Of course, as the depth
increases, the pressure also
increases.
Lesson 8.4 Pressure in All
Directions
Imagine a container filled with blocks of
water. Going back, Newton's third law of
motion states that an equal and
opposite force would counteract the
force being applied to an object. Thus, if
you pile two blocks of water, the block
below the first would exert a force
opposite to that of the first block's FML
weight. If you add another block, the
third block would exert a force opposite
to that of the first and the second. As
more blocks are being piled up, more
force would be exerted by each
succeeding block to push the blocks
upward. Evidently, it would also cause
 The arrows in the image on the previous page represent the force
being applied. As you go deeper into the container of water, more
force is being applied, thus, the pressure increases. The higher the
depth, the pressure increases. We can prove this mathematically.
Note, pressure is equal to the force over the area P = F⊥/A. The
force being applied by the fluid onto the bottom of the container is
the fluid's weight, so F⊥ = mg.
𝐹⊥ 𝑚𝑔 Plugging in the equation for density, m =
𝑃= = ρV, we have:
𝐴 𝐴

𝑚𝑔 𝜌 𝑉𝑔
𝑃= =
𝐴 𝐴
The volume can be described as the product of the area and the
depth, V = Ad. Therefore, pressure can be defined as product
between the density (p), acceleration due to gravity (g),
and the depth (d).

P=ρgd

Where P is the pressure

ρ is the Density
g is acceleration due to
gravity
And d is depth
Lesson 8.5 : Atmospheric
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by
the weight of the air above us. It can change with
the weather condition and altitude.

Atmospheric Pressure can be measure using

Mercury Barometer
Mercury (Hg) is the most common
liquid used in barometers because
of its high density which allows
measurements to be possible.
Atmospheric pressure varies, and
by taking multiple measurements,
it has been determined that the
average atmospheric pressure at
sea level supports a column of
mercury that is 760 mm high. The
atmosphere, (abbreviated as
atm), is often used as a unit of
pressure and is equated to the
height of mercury column it will
Sample Problem 8.3: Prove that 760 mmHg is equal to
101.3 kPa. Note, the density of mercury
13.6 × 10³ kg / m³
Solution: Apply Equation 8.4:

)(9.8N/kg)(0.760m)=101.3Kpa
Lesoon 8.6 Measuring Presure in Fluids
An open-tube manometer is a U-
shaped tube, sealed at one end
and open at the other, filled with a
liquid of known density that is also
used to measure pressure. An
unknown pressure may be
determined by measuring the
difference between the liquid level
in the open side of the tube and
the liquid level in the side exposed
to the pressure being measured.
However, it is important to
differentiate the pressure of the
fluid and the total pressure. To do
so, we will be introducing the
absolute and gauge pressure.
 Absolute pressure (p abs ) is the total pressure, including atmospheric pressure, to which all
objects at the Earth's surface are subjected. Gauge pressure ( p gauge ), on the other hand, is
any additional pressure over and above atmospheric pressure. Mathematically, the absolute
pressure can be expressed as:

P abs = P atm + P gauge (Equation 8.5)

Sample problem 8.4: Determine the absolute and gauge pressure if the difference in levels
were 16 mm.

Solution: Apply Equaiton 8.4

Pgauge = ρgd = (13.6 x 10³ kg/m³) (9.8 N/kg) (1.6×10-² m) =

2.1 x 10³ Pa
The absolute pressure in this example is:
5 3
 Lesson 8.7 Pascal’s Princple
In 1650, Blaise Pascal, a French mathemati-
cian, scientist, and philosopher, discovered
one of the most important and useful
properties of fluids, subsequently known as
Pascal's principle. Pascal's principle states
that pressure exerted on a contained fluid is
transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid, acting in all directions and
perpendicular to the walls of the container.
An application of Pascal's principle is the
hydraulic lift, commonly used to lift heavy
objects such as cars.
A piston with an area A, applies a force F,, to move the second piston with area
A, upward. By Pascal's law, the pressure exerted by the first piston is equal to the
pressure applied to lift the second piston upward.
𝑃 1= 𝑃 2
Plugging in the equation for pressure for each piston, we have the following
relationship:

F (Equation 8.6)
We can also determine how deep or how high a piston moves relative to the
force applied. Going back, the conservation of energy states that the initial work
done is equal to the final
work done.
(Equation8.7)
Sample Problem 8.5: What is the force of the large piston
with an area of 5.0 m2 in a hydraulic lift if a force of 150N is
applied to the small piston of area 2.0 m2?
Solution:
𝐴2 2
5.0 𝑚 (
𝐹 2= 𝐹 1= 150 𝑁 ) =380 𝑁
𝐴1 ( 2.0 𝑚 )
2
The Siphon
A siphon is a length of glass, rubber, or
plastic tubing, bent so that its short arm
may be immersed in a tank of liquid. To
start the siphon, it must first be filled with
the liquid.
Then the liquid will continue to flow so
long of liquid
as end E is kept below the level of liquid in
the tank. People have always hypothesized
about why siphons work as they do, but
two theories have been proposed.
Atmospheric Pressure Theory
Since points A and D are both at equal levels, they will have equal atmospheric pressure If
the liquid did not flow, the pressure at E would be equal to atmospheric pressure and the
hydrostatic pressure pgh, due to the liquid column DE. This excess pressure, pgh, then
causes liquid to flow from the tube at E, where the outside pressure is again atmospheric.
Also, since the liquid must rise a distance AB, it follows that the siphon will not run if AB is
greater than the barometric height for the liquid being siphoned.

Molecular Cohesion Theory

ball Experiments verify that pure liquids can be siphoned in a vacuum and, under
certain circumstances, the siphon will run even when AB exceeds the appropriate
barometric height. Atmospheric pressure does not seem to be essential. It seems that
the flow of liquid occurs because the greater weight of column CE pulls down on the
shorter column AB through the cohesive force between molecules of the liquid. This is
very similar to the motion of a chain passing over a frictionless pulley, which will always
fall in the direction of the longer side.
Lesson 8.8 Buoyancy
Objects on the ground experience a downward and an
upward force. These are the force due to gravity and the
normal force, respectively. For a falling object, it
experiences a downward force due to gravity and an
opposing upward force caused by air resistance until it
reaches the ground. However, for an object submerged in
water, it does not immediately sink under water but
gradually approaches the ground. In some cases, the
object does not even sink but float on the surface of the
water. This upward force present in fluids is called the
buoyant force. The buoyant force exists because fluids
exert a pressure on submerged objects that increases with
depth.

( )( )
3
Consider a block of iron (Figure 8.6), 1 m x 1 m by 1 m, situated 1.0𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 9.8𝑁 3
underwater with its top surface 1.0 m below the surface of the
water.bpil The water pressure exerted downward on the top of1
𝑃 =𝜌𝑔𝑑1= 3 ( 1.0𝑚)= 9.8𝑥10 𝑁/𝑚²
the iron block is: 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
so that the water's downward
force on the top of the block is:

= A = (9.8 × 103 N/m²)(1.0 m²) = 9.8 x 10³ N

A similar calculation would

show that the water's upward
force on the bottom of the iron
Thus, the net upward Block would be:
force or the buoyant = 1.96 x 104 N
force is:
==
Lesson 8.9 Archimedes’ Principle
The Greek philosopher Archimedes was intrigued by the buoyant
force and believed that it had something to do with the liquid that
was displaced by a submerged object. In our example, the volume of
water displaced by the iron block is V = (1.0 m)(1.0 m)(1.0 m) = 1.0
m3 and the mass of this displaced water is:

m = PwV = (1.0 × 103 kg/m3) (1.0 m3) = 1.0 x 103 kg

The force of gravity on this displaced water is:

Fg = mg = (1.0 x 103 kg) (9.8 N/kg) = 9.8 × 103 N

Notice that the buoyant force and the weight becomes equal. We derived this result for a
cube of iron immersed in water. Experiments verify, though, that this is true for any object
wholly or partially submerged in a fluid. This was discovered by Archimedes and would
later be called Archimedes' principle. It states that, in a still fluid, any immersed object will
experience an upward force equal in magnitude to the object's weight. This force is called
the buoyant force. Mathematically, the expression for the buoyant force is:
Fb= mg (Equation 8.8)
But, m = ρV. Thus, the equation for buoyant
force (Fb) becomes:
(Equation 8.9)
F= ρgV
Recall, the force of gravity on an object is often referred to as its "weight." Submerged
objects "seem" to weigh less due to this buoyant force. There "apparent weight" is given by:
(Equation 8.10)
𝐹 𝑔 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =𝐹 𝑔 − 𝐹 𝑏
Lesson 8.10 Flotation

For an object to float, the buoyant force should be equal to the force of gravity
on the object, so that its "apparent weight" is zero. In general, the principle of
flotation states that a floating object displaces its own weight of the liquid in
which it is floating. Using this principle, we can describe how objects float
when submerged in a certain liquid. If the density of the object submerged in a
liquid is less than that of the density of that liquid, then that object will float.
Also, if the density of the object is equal to the density of the liquid, then the
object will float. Mathematically, if an object floats on a liquid, then the weight
of that object is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.

𝐹 𝑔 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡=𝐹 𝑔 − 𝐹 𝑏=0 (Equation 8.11)

Lesson 8.11 Applications of Flotation

Ships
Although a ship's hull is usually made
of steel, it can float because it is
hollow. The hull displaces far more
water than would be displaced by the
steel alone. The "average density" of a
ship, considering its hull, cargo,
passengers, and all of the other things
on board, including air, is still less than
water, and so it floats.
Hot-air Balloons
Hot-air Balloons yd be Hot-air balloons contain air
inside a large, fabric balloon that expands when
heated and become less dense than the colder air
outside. This difference in density creates a buoyant
force that supports the balloon, its gondola, and
contents. Heating the air causes the balloon to rise
while allowing the air to cool causes the balloon to
descend. Because the balloon's lateral movement
depends on the direction of the wind or air currents,
this is very difficult to control therefore, balloons have
been known to land in some peculiar places.
Lesson 8.12 Bernoulli's Principle
Consider a fluid flowing through a tube. The fluid first
flows through a tube of large area A, to a smaller tube
of area A,. The fluid flows initially with a velocity v,
then experiences change in velocity v, along the
thinner tube. Given a time, At, the fluid moves a
distance Ad, in the large tube and Ad, in the small
tube.
The volume of fluid moving through the large tube, in time At, is given by , and the volume of
fluid moving through the small tube in the same time is ,. If the fluid flow is steady, and the
fluid is incompressible, (which is a good assumption for most liquids and even for some gases
at constant pressure), then we can say that, in equal time:

Δ V 1= Δ V 2
And dividing both sides of this
equation by Δt, we have: 𝐴1 Δ d 1 𝐴2 Δ d 2
=
Δt Δt

But note, v = Δd/Δt. Thus, we

𝐴1 𝑉 = 𝐴2 𝑉
have the expression: 1 2
(Equation 8.12)

where A is the area of the tube,

and v is the velocity of the fluid.
This is the continuity equation.
Sample Problem 8.6: A fluid is flowing from a tube
with an area of 4 m² at a rate of 2 m/s. If the fluid
flows to a smaller tube of area 2 m², determine the
rate of motion of the fluid as it flows through the
smaller tube.

𝑣 2=
𝐴2 𝑣 2
=
(4 𝑚 )2
( 2𝑚
𝑠 )=4 𝑚 /𝑠
𝐴1 (2 𝑚 )
2
Fluids move faster through smaller areas than they do through larger
areas. An example is a nozzle on a garden hose. With the nozzle wide
open, water is ejected at the same speed as it moves through the hose. By
constricting the opening, water comes out with a much greater velocity
and, as a result, can be projected further.

The pressure of any still fluid increases as the

depth increases. However, for moving fluids,
the pressure varies depending on the velocity
of that fluid. Measurements of fluid pressure at
positions 1 and 2 in the tubes reveal that the
pressure P, is greater than P2
This relationship would later be called the
Bernoulli's principle which was developed by
Daniel Bernoulli. This principle states that an
increase in the velocity causes a decrease in
the pressure while decrease in the velocity
would cause an increase in the pressure.

This principle can be applied to the application of a

paint sprayer (Figure 8.10). In a paint sprayer, fast-
moving air from a compressor moves across the top of
a vertical tube in a reservoir of paint, creating a low-
pressure area. The reservoir is open to the atmosphere,
so normal atmospheric pressure pushes paint up the
tube so that small droplets mix with fast moving air to
form a fine spray. Atomizers and spray cans use the
same technique to mix fine drops of perfume, hair
spray, or household cleansers with the fast-moving air
from a squeeze bulb, pump, or compressed gas
propellant.