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Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Feeder Protection:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam

Control and Protection Division (STPG)

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 What is a Feeder?

Overhead lines or cables which are used to distribute

the load to the customers.

This is an electrical supply line, either overhead or

underground, which runs from the substation, through
various paths, ending with the transformers.

usually less than 69,000 volts,

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Why Protection Is Important?

The modern age has come to depend heavily upon

continuous and reliable availability 0f electricity and a
high quality of electricity too. Computer and
telecommunication networks, railway networks, banking
and continuous power industries are a few applications that
just cannot function without highly reliable power source.

No power system cannot be designed in such a way that

they would never fail. So, protection is required for proper
working.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 A protection apparatus has three main functions:

1. Safeguard the entire system to maintain continuity of

supply.
2. Minimize damage and repair costs where it senses
fault.
3. Ensure safety of personnel.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Feeder Protection:

Non DOC & EF Relays.

DOC & EF Relays.

Distance Relays

Current differential Relays

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Non DOC & EF Relays:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Introduction:

As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the

fault current is more than load current.
If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced
to a low value and therefore a fault is accompanied by large
current.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Over current relay:

A protective relay which operates when the load

current exceed a preset value, is called an over current
relay.
The value of the preset current above which the relay
operates is known as its pick-up value.
An Over Current Relay (OCR) is used in substation
for the power equipment protection against short circuit
of phase to phase and ground fault.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Time current characteristics:

A wide variety of time current characteristics is

available for over current relays.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The name is assigned to an over current relay indicates its time-
current characteristic as described below:

i. Definite-time Over current Relay.

ii. Instantaneous Over current Relay.
iii. Inverse-time Over current Relay.
iv. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over current (IDMT) Relay.
v. Very Inverse-time Over current Relay.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Definite-time Over current Relay:

A definite-time OCR operates after a predetermined time

when the current exceeds its pick-up value.
The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude
of the current above pick-up value.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Instantaneous Over current Relay:

An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when the

current exceeds its pick up value.
The operating time is constant, irrespective of the
magnitude of the currents and there is no intentional time
delay.
It operates in 0.1s or less.
Sometimes the term like high set or high speed is used for
very fast relays having operating times les than 0.1s.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Inverse-time Over current Relay:

An inverse-time OCR operates when the current exceeds its

pick up value.
The operating time depends on the magnitude of operating
current.
The operating time decrease as the current increases.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over current (IDMT) Relay:

This type of relay gives an inverse-time current

characteristic at lower values of the fault current and
definite-time characteristic at higher values of the fault
current.
Generally, an inverse time characteristic is obtained if the
value of the plug setting multiplier between 10 and 20, the
characteristic tend to become a straight line.
These relays are widely used for the protection of lines.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Very Inverse-time Over current Relay:

A very inverse-time over current relay gives more inverse

characteristic than previous ones.
The very inverse characteristic gives better selectivity than the IDMT
characteristic.
Hence, it can be used where an IDMT relay fails in selectivity,
extremely inverse relays are employed.
Its time-current characteristic according to I 3.5
t = K. This relay is
very suitable for the protection against overheating for machines,
power transformers, grounding transformers, and expensive cables.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 INVERSE TIME CHARACTERISTIC
Operating time

DEFINITE TIME CHARACTERISTIC

Pick Up Value

Actuating Quantity

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Characteristic of Definite and Inverse time OCR

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Moderately, Very and Extremely inverse-time characteristics

The time-current characteristic for relay that
respective of the magnitude of the current in generally is
given by t = K / (I n –1). The approximate expression is
t = K / I n. For definite time characteristic, the value of n
is equal to 0.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 According to the British Standard, the following are
the important characteristic of over-current relays:

i). I.D.M.T t
ii). Very inverse t
iii). Extremely inverse t

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The time-current curves for induction relays can be
approximated by the following equation:

where,
t : trip time (sec)
M : multiple of pickup current (M>1)
TD : time dial setting
A,B,p : curve shaping constant such as in Table x.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Table x. IEEE Standardized Relay Curve Equation Constant

A B C
Moderately inverse 0.0515 0.114 0.02

Very inverse 19.61 0.491 2.0

Extremely inverse 28.2 0.122 2.0

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is
provided in addition as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine
from sustained through fault.

Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these include:
1. Fuses
2. Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-
current relays.
3. Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
4. Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The primary requirements of over-current protection are:

• The protection should not operate for starting currents,

permissible over-current, and current surges.
To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of
inverse relays).
If time delay cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneous
relaying is used.
• The protection should be coordinated with neighboring
over-current protections so as to discriminate.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Applications of Over-current Protection:

Over-current protection has a wide range of applications.

It can be applied where there is an abrupt difference
between fault current within the protected section and that
outside the protected section and these magnitudes are
almost constant.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The over-current protection is provided for the following:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Motor Protection:

Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used

against overloads and short-circuits in stator windings of motors.
Inverse time and instantaneous phase and ground over-current
relays can be employed for motors above 1200 H.P.
For small/medium size motors where cost of CT's and protective
relays is not economically justified, thermal relays and HRC
fuses are employed, thermal relays used for overload protection
and HRC fuses for short-circuit protection.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Transformer Protection:

Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only, when
the cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current relays
are provided in addition to differential relays to take care of through faults.
Temperature indicators and alarms are always provided for large transformers.
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are generally
protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-breakers is not
generally justified.
Line Protection:
The lines (feeders) can be protected by:
1. Instantaneous over-current relays.
2. Inverse time over-current relays.
3. Directional over-current relay.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Lines can be protected by impedance or carrier current protection also.
Relays used in Over-current Protection:
The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the Time / current
characteristic and other features desired.
The following relays are used:
1. For instantaneous over-current protection.
Attracted armature type, moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type and
static.
2. For inverse time characteristic.
Electromagnetic induction type, permanent magnet moving coil type and static.
3. For Directional over-current protection.
Double actuating quantity induction relay with directional feature.
4. Static over-current relays.
5. HRC fuses, drop out fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium voltage
and high voltage distribution systems, generally up to 11 kV.
6. Thermal relays are used widely for over-current protection.
Note: Now Digital Numerical Relays are used for all types.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice
of CT's and polarity connections should be correct.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Over Current protection with three phase OC relays

 Methods of CT Connections in Over-
current Protection of 3-Phase Circuits

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays:

Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-

current relays or by two over-current relays
Fig Description Note
One OC relay For balanced load only.
1
with one CT for
over load
protection.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Fig Description Note
Two OC relays with
2
two CT's for phase to
phase fault protection.

Fig Description Note

Three OC relays with EF current > two
three CT's for phase to time pick-up phase
3
phase fault protection. current

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Fig Description Note
Three OC relays with EF setting less than
three CT's for phase to phase fault setting
3
phase fault protection
and phase to earth
fault.

Fig Description Note

Two OC and one EF
relays for phase to
3
phase and phase to
earth fault protection

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Vidue

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Earth-Fault Protection:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Earth-Fault Protection:

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault
is called Earth Fault.
Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults.
Since earth faults are relatively frequent, earth fault protection
is necessary in most cases.
When separate earth fault protection is not economical, the
phase relays sense the earth fault currents.
However such protection lacks sensitivity.
Hence separate earth fault protection is generally provided.
Earth fault protection senses earth fault current.
Following are the method of earth fault protection.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Connections of CT's for Earth-fault Protection:
1. Residually connected Earth-fault Relay:
Referring to Fig (3) In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of
three line currents is zero.
Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.
IR+I Y +I B =0

The sum (IR+I Y +I B ) is called residual current

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Earth-fault Relay connected in Residual Circuit.

 Earth fault protection combined with phase fault protection
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
2. Earth-fault Relay connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit:
The relay is connected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in
neutral to earth connection.
Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting earth-
fault relay in the neutral-to-earth con­nection of that voltage level. The fault
current finds the return path through the earth and then flows through the
neutral-to-earth connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent on
type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault. In this
type of protection,The zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The
protected area is not restricted to the transformer/generator winding alone.
The relay senses the earth faults beyond the transformer/generator winding
hence such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection. The earth-
fault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit depends upon the type of
neutral Earthing.
In case of large generators, voltage transformer is connected between neutral
and earth.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Earth-fault protection by earth-fault-relay connected in neutral-to-earth circuit
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
3. Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection:

It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays and earth-fault

relay in a combined phase-fault and earth-fault protection.
The increase in current of phase causes corresponding increase
in respective secondary currents.
The secondary current flows through respective relay-units
Very often only two-phase relays are provided instead of three,
because in case of phase faults current in any at least two phases
must increase.
Hence two relay-units are enough.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

4. Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Current
Transformers. (Zero Sequence CT):
In this type of protection a single ring shaped core of magnetic material,
encircles the conductors of all the three phases.
A secondary coil is connected to a relay unit.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Principle of core-balance CT for earth fault protection

so that saturation is not a problem. During no-earth-fault
condition, the components of fluxes due to the fields of three
conductors are balanced and the secondary current is
negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is disturbed and
current is induced in the secondary. Core-balance protection can
be conveniently used for protection of low-voltage and medium
voltage systems. The burden of relays and exciting current are
deciding factors. Very large cross-section of core is necessary
for sensitivity less than 10 A. This form of protection is likely
to be more popular with static relays due to the fewer burdens
of the latter.
Instantaneous relay unit is generally used with core balance
schemes.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Theory of Core Balance CT:
Let Ia, Ib and I c , be the three line currents and Φa, Φb and Φc be corresponding
components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant
fluxΦ as, Φ=k (Ia + Ib + I c )
where k is a constant Φ = K * Ia. Referring to theory of symmetrical components
(Ia + Ib + I c )=3I c=I n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in neutral to ground
circuit. During normal condition, when earth fault is absent, (Ia + Ib + Ic) =0
Hence Φr = 0 and relay does not operate.
During earth fault the earth fault current flows through return neutral path.
For example for single line ground fault, I f = 3I a o = I n
Hence the zero-sequence component of I o produces the resultant flux Φr in the
core. Hence core balance current transformer is also called as zero sequence current
transformers (ZSCT).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Application for Core Balance CT's with Cable Termination Joints:
The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is through
cable terminal box. the Core Balance Protection is used along with the cable box and
should be installed before making the cable joint.
The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable needs
particular attention with respect to the core balance protection.
The sheath currents (Ish) flow through the sheath to the cover of cable-box and then
to earth through the earthing connection between cable-box. For eliminating the error
due to sheath current (Ish) the earthing lead between the cable-box and the earth
should be taken through the core of the core balance protection.
Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The cable box should be
insulated from earth.
1. Cable terminal box
2. Sheath of 3 core cable connection to (1)
3. Insulator support for 1
4. Earthing connection passing through 5
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

5. Core balance CT
Mounting of Core Balance CT with Cable Terminal Box
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
5. Frame-leakage Protection:

The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage

protec­tion. The switchgear is lightly y insulated from the earth.
The metal-frame-work or enclosure of the switchgear is earthed
with a primary of a CT in between.
The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-boxes
and other conduits are slightly insulated from earth, the
resistance to earth being about 12 ohms. In the event of an earth
fault within the switchgear, the earth-fault current finds the' path
through the neutral connection. While doing so, it is sensed by
the earth fault relay.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Principle of frame-leakage protection of metal-clad-switchgear

Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth-

faults within its protected zone.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Earth-fault protection can be achieved by following methods:
1.Residually connected relay.
2.Relay connected in neutral-to-ground circuit.
3.Core-balance-scheme.
4.Frame leakage method.
5.Distance relays arranged for detecting earth faults on lines.
6.Circulating current differential protection.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 DOC & EF Relays:

Directional Over-current Protection

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The over-current protection can be given directional feature by
adding directional element in the protection system.
Directional over-current protection responds to over-currents
for a particular direction flow.
If power flow is in the opposite direction, the directional over-
current protection remains un-operative.
Directional over-current protection comprises over-current
relay and power directional relay- in a single relay casing.
The power directional relay does not measure the power but is
arranged to respond to the direction of power flow.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be
achieved by directional relaying.
The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault
occurs, relative to the location of the relay.
It is set such that it actuates for faults occurring in one direction
only.
It does not act for faults occurring in the other direction.

Principle of directional protection

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of
reverse power protection of generator (Fig. 10).
If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run as a
motor and takes power from bus-bars.

Reverse powers protection against motoring action of a generator

Directional power protection operates in accordance with the

direction of power flow.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is
reversed in relation to the normal working direction.
Reverse power relay is different in construction than
directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does
not measure the magnitude of power.
It senses only direction of power flow.
Reverse Power Relays, the directional element measures mag­
nitude and direction of power flow.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Relay maximum torque:

The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the
current applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to
the relay to produce maximum torque.
Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its
characteristic can be varied by the addition of phase shifting com­ponents
to give maximum torque at the required phase angle.
A number of different connections have been used and these are
discussed below.
Examination of the suitability of each arrangement involves determining
the limiting conditions of the voltage and current applied to each phase
element of the relay, for all fault conditions, taking into account the
possible range of source and line impedances.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 30° relay connection (0° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vac. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied V ac voltage by 90°, so the
maximum torque occurs when the current lags the system phase to neutral
voltage by 30°.
For unity power factor and 0.5 lagging power factor the maximum torque
available is 0.866 of maximum. Also, the potential coil voltage lags the
current in the current coil by 30° and gives a tripping zone from 60°
leading to 120° lagging currents, as shown in (Fig. 13a).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 A phase element connected la Vac
B phase element connected lb Vba
C phase element connected Ic Vcb
(a) Characteristic and inputs for phase A element
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 (b) B-C Fault with voltage distortion

(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams for the 30° connection

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this
connection, that ensures correct operation when used for the
protection of plain feeders, is 0°, and it can be shown that a
directional element having this connection and 0° MTA will
provide correct dis­crimination for all types of faults, when
applied to plain feeders.
If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger
that at least one of the three phase relays will operate for
faults in the reverse direction; for this reason a directional
element having this connection should never be used to
protect transformer feeders.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

60° No. 1 connection (0° MTA):
The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90°,
so maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to
neutral voltage by 60°. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with delta
current produced by adding phase A and phase B currents at unity power
factor, gives a current leading the voltage Vac by 60°, and provides a correct
directional tripping zone over a current range of 30° leading to 150°
lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0 .5 of maximum torque and at
zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this
relay connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional
discrimination with the minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to
either plain or transformer feeders, is 0°.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility of
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

the element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed B—

 A phase element connected lab Vac B phase
element connected I bc V ba
C phase element connected Ica Vcb

(Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60°

No.section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection 1 connection
(phase A element)
 60° No. 2 connection (0° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this case, the flux
of the voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90° so the maximum torque is
produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60°.
This connection gives

A phase element connected Ia —Vc

B phase element connected Ib — Va
C phase element connected Ic —Vb

(Fig.15) Vector diagram for the 60° No. 2 connection (phase A element).
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the
current range of 30° leading to 150° lagging.
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0 .5 of the relay maximum
torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.15).
The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional element
using this connection is 0°.
However, even if this maximum torque angle is used, there is a risk
of incorrect operation for all types of faults with the exception of
three-phase faults.
For this reason, the 60° No. 2 connection is now never
recommended.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 A phase element connected Ia
VbcB phase element connected Ib Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab

(Fig.16) Vector diagram for the 90°- 30° connection

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

(Phase A element)
90° relay quadrature connection:

This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay;

depending on the angle by which the applied voltage is
shifted to produce the relay maximum torque angle, two
types are available.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 90°- 30° characteristic (30° MTA):

The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage

displaced by 30° in an anti-clockwise direction.
In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied
voltage Vbc by 60°, and the relay maximum torque is produced
when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60°.
This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the
current range of 30° leading to 150° lagging; see (Fig.16).
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum
torque and at zero power factor lagging 0 .866.
A relay designed .for quadrature connection and having a maximum
torque angle of 30° is recommended when the relay is used for the
protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence source behind
the relaying point.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
90°- 45° characteristic (45° MTA):

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage

Vbc displaced by 45° in an anti-clockwise direction.
In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied
voltage Vbc by 45°, and the relay maximum torque is produced
when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by
45°.
This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over
the current range of 45° leading to 135° lagging.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.707 of the maximum
torque and the same at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected Ia ,Vbc

B phase element connected Ih Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab

(Fig.17) Vector diagram for the 90°-45° connection

(Phase A element)
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
This connection is recommended for the protection of
transformer feeders or feeders which have a zero sequence
source in front of the relay. The 90°- 45° connection is
essential in the case of parallel trans-formers or transformer
feeders, in order to ensure correct relay operation for faults
beyond the star/ delta transformer.
This connection should also be used whenever single-phase
directional relays are applied to a circuit.
Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of
the directional element: a phase-phase­ ground fault on a plain
feeder, a phase-ground fault on a transformer feeder with the
zero sequence source in front of the relay and a phase-phase
fault on a power transformer with the relay looking into the
delta winding of the transformer.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to
establish the maximum angular displace­ment between the current and voltage
quantities at the relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of the current
input to the relay would be insufficient to cause the over current element to
operate. It can be shown analytically that the possibility of mal-operation
with the 90°- 45° connection is, for all practical purposes, non-existent.

Directional relays applied to parallel feeders.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Finding the Direction in Directional
Overcurrent Relays:

I used electro-mechanical directional relays as an

example, which may have been a mistake.
Let’s take another look at the Directional Overcurrent
(67) element from a system perspective.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 We will start with a simple transmission line with the source on the
left and a load on the right.
The current flows into the polarity mark of the CT on Breaker 3, and
into the Directional Overcurrent (67) Relay using the same
direction.
Any current flowing into the polarity mark is considered to be the
forward direction.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The phasor diagram for this situation might look like the following.
Every load is a combination of resistance and inductance, so the normal
operating range for this line is the green shaded region when the current
flows into Circuit Breaker 3.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Let’s look at what the Directional Overcurrent (67) relay connected to
Circuit Breaker 4 sees under the same conditions.
This relay is designed to protect the same transmission line from the
other direction.
The current enters the non-polarity mark of the CT, and the relay
determines that current is leaving the transmission line; or the reverse
direction.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The phasor diagram of a meter test on the Directional Overcurrent (67)
relay connected to Circuit Breaker 4 would look like the following.
The current is flowing in the reverse direction and the orange/red shaded
area displays the normal region when the current flows into a load behind
the relay.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

If we reversed the source and load, you could swap the
phasor diagrams above for each relay.
Let’s shake things up by closing Circuit Breaker 8 and
applying a Phase A-to-Ground fault 50% down the line. This
is a fault, so:
 The faulted voltage should drop in proportion to the
severity of the fault
 The fault current should be significantly larger than the
normal load current.
 The fault current should lag the voltage by 40-89.9 degrees
depending on the line characteristics, voltage, and severity
of the fault.
 The non-faulted phases should stay relatively the same.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Both fault currents flow into the transmission line, so the directional
overcurrent relays connected to Circuit Breakers 3 and 4 will see the
current in the forward direction because the current flows into both
CT polarity marks.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 If we pretend that the fault is exactly 50% down the line, both sources
are identical, and the impedance between the sources and the fault are also
identical, we can use the same phasor diagram for both relays.
Obviously this won’t be true in the real world and the current
magnitudes would be different. The typical region for a fault in the
forward direction occurs in the green shaded area for both relays.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Now let’s look at a fault that is not on the transmission
line.

The fault current flows into the polarity mark of the CT connected to
Circuit Breaker 3, so the Directional Overcurrent (67) relay sees the
fault in the forward direction.
If the fault current is larger than the overcurrent setting, the relay
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

will trip.
Directional overcurrent protection schemes were replaced with line
impedance relays (21) to prevent a situation like this from occurring.
This relay’s primary purpose is to trip for faults on the transmission line,
not for faults somewhere else on the system, as would happen here.
A line impedance relay would recognize that the fault was not on the
transmission line and ignore this fault unless it was programmed to also
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

provide backup protection with a significant time delay.

The fault current flows into the non-polarity mark of the CT
connected to Circuit Breaker 4, so the Directional Overcurrent (67)
relay sees the fault in the reverse direction. The orange/red shaded
region indicates the typical region for a fault behind a relay.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Overcurrent directional relays can be set to trip for faults in the forward
direction, which will protect the equipment in front of the relay.
Or they can also be set to trip for faults behind the relay in the reverse
direction.
Forward and reverse are typically determined by the normal flow of current
into the relay, so be sure to confirm the CT connections before you make
any assumptions.
Incorrectly determining forward and reverse is an easy mistake to make. If
I ever have doubts about some relay settings or directional overcurrent tests,
I usually ask the design engineer, “Did you mean to trip if the fault is on the
transmission line, or on the buss?” (You can use whatever easy-to-define
characteristic for your situation.) Once they answer that question, I will
review the CT connections and build a test on the transmission line and see
if it trips.
I then apply the fault in the reverse direction to make sure it doesn’t trip.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Always ask the engineer what they intended if there is any doubt.
 You could also perform a test in either direction first and see what
direction the relay is set to trip. If it doesn’t make sense to you, you
can ask the engineer, “Did you mean for the relay to trip if there is a
fault on the buss?”
I hope this helps clear up the definitions of forward and reverse for
Directional Overcurrent (67) relays.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Directional Earth-Fault Protection

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Directional Earth-Fault Protection:
In the directional over-current protection the current coil of
relay is actuated from secondary current of line CT.
whereas the current coil of directional earth fault relay is
actuated by residual current.
In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by
secondary of line VT.
In directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by
the residual voltage.
Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which
earth fault occurs with respect to the relay location and it
operates for fault in a particular direction. The directional earth
fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils.
The polarizing quantity is obtained either from residual
current.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)

or residual voltage VRs = V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and Vc are phase voltages.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 The directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to the
coils is connected in residual current circuits.
This coil gets current during earth-faults. The other coil
gets residual voltage,
V RS= V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and V c are secondary voltages of the

potential transformer

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 (Fig. 20) Connections of a directional earth-fault relay.

('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single

phase potential transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil
connected in potential-transformer secondary circuit gives a
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
polarizing field.
The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to
the current coil and the residual voltage VRs is given to the
voltage coil of the relay. The torque is proportional to

T = I RS * V RS * cos (Φ - α)

Φ = angle between I RS and VRs

α = angle of maximum torque.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-
up value over-currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer.
The characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic,
definite time characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and
double line to ground faults.
The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral to ground
circuit or in residually connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to
fault in which power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT
locations.
Such directional relays are used when power can flow from both directions
to the fault point.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Co-ordination:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Co-ordination:

Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the

fault current that can flow in each part of the network.
Since large scale tests are normally im­practicable, system
analysis must be used.
It is generally sufficient to use machine transient reactance
X'd and to work on the instantaneous symmetrical currents.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

The data required for a relay setting study are:
1.A one-line diagram of the power system in­volved, showing the type and
rating of the protective devices and their associated current transformers.
2.The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power transformers,
rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3.The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that are
expected to flow through each protective device.
4.The starting current requirements of motors and the starting and stalling
times of induction motors.
5.The maximum peak load current through pro­tective devices.
6.Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current supplied
by the generators.
7.Performance curves of the current transformers.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the shortest
operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to see if
operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault current
expected.
It is always advisable to plot the curves of relays and other
protective devices, such as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a
common scale.
It is usually more convenient to use a scale corresponding to the
current expected at the lowest voltage base or to use the predominant
voltage base.
The alternatives are a common MVA base or a separate current scale
for each system voltage.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 9.The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be
stated as follows:

1. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating characteristic

in series with each other.
2. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current
settings equal to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the
primary current required operating the relay in front is always equal
to or less than the primary current required operating the relay
behind it.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING:

Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct

relay co-ordination are those using either time or over current
or a combination of both time and over-current.
The common aim of all three methods is to give correct
discrimination.
That is to say, each one must select and isolate only the faulty
section of the power system network, leaving the rest of the
system undisturbed.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 1.Discrimination by time
In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the
relays controlling the circuit breakers in a power system to ensure that
the breaker nearest to the fault opens first.
A simple radial distribution system is shown to illustrate the principle.

Radial systems with time discrimination

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of each section of the
power system.
Each protection unit comprises a definite time delay over current relay in which the operation of the
current sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of the current
element is below the fault current value this element plays no part in the achievement
of discrimination.
For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an 'independent definite time delay relay' since its
operating time is for practical purposes independent of the level of over current.
It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of discrimination. The relay at B is
set at the shortest time delay permissible to allow a fuse to blow for a fault on the secondary side of
trans-former A. Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is adequate.
If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the subsequent operation of the
circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E have time to operate.
The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time occurs
for faults in the section closest to the power source, where the fault level (MVA) is highest.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

2. Discrimination by current:
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current
varies with the position of the fault, because of the difference in
impedance values between the source and the fault. Hence,
typically, the relays controlling the various circuit breakers are
set to operate at suitably tapered values such that only the relay
nearest to the fault trips its breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the
method.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Radial system with current discrimination
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1) A

Where Zs = source impedance = 11 2 / 250 = 0.485 ohms

ZL1= cable impedance between C and B = 0.24
ohms
Hence I=6350/0.725 = 8800 A

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a
fault current of 8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of
the cable section between C and B. However, there are two important
practical points which affect this method of co-ordination.
1.It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at Fl and a fault
at F2, since the distance between these points can be only a few
meters, corresponding to a change in fault current of approximately
0.1%.
2.In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level,
typically from 250 MVA to 130 MVA. At this lower fault level the
fault current would not exceed 6800 A even for a cable fault close
to C, so a relay set at 8800 A would not protect any of the cable
section concerned.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical
proposition for correct grading between the circuit breakers at
C and B.
However, the problem changes appreciably when there is
significant impedance between the two circuit breakers
concerned.
This can be seen by considering the grading required
between the circuit breakers at B and A

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Assuming a fault at F4, the short-circuit current is given by:
I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT) A
Where
Z S = source impedance
=112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms
ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B 0.24 ohms

ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA

transformer 0.04 ohms
ZT = transformer impedance
=0.07(112/4) =2.12 ohms
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Hence I = 6350/ 2.885 = 2200 A

For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to
operate at a current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for
a fault at F4 and would thus discriminate with the relay at A.
Assuming a safety margin of 20% to allow for relay errors and a further
10% for variations in the system impedance values, it is reasonable to
choose a relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B.
Now, assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable
feeding the 4 MVA transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)

I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:
I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.
In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would
operate correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the
transformer.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 3. Discrimination by both time and current:

Each of the two methods described so far has

a fundamental disadvantage. In the case of discrimina­tion
by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the fact that the
more severe faults are cleared in the longest operating time.
Discrimination by current can only be applied where there
is appreciable impedance between the two circuit breakers
con­cerned.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use
of either time or current co-ordina­tion that the inverse time over
current relay charac­teristic has evolved.
With this characteristic, the time of operation is inversely
proportional to the fault current level and the actual characteristic
is a function of both 'time' and 'current' settings.
The advantage of this method of relay Co-ordination may be
best illustrated by the system except that typical system
parameters have been added.
In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-
ordination study of the system, it is necessary to refer all the
system impedances to a common base and thus, using 10 MVA
as the reference base, we have:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
4MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10MVA base=7X (10/4) =17.5%
11 kV cable between B and A percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (0.04 X 100 X 10) / 112= 0.33%

11 kV cable between C and B percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (0.24 X 100 X10) /112 =1.98 %

30 MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %

132 kV overhead line percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (6.2x100x10)/ 1322 =0.36%

132 kV source percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

= (100 x 10) /3500 =0.29%

The illustrates the use of 'dis­crimination curves', which are an
important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination.
In this example, a voltage base of 3.3kV has been chosen and
the first curve plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which is assumed
to protect the largest outgoing 3.3kV circuit.
Once the operating characteristic of the highest rated 3.3kV fuse
has been plotted, the grading of the over current relays at the
various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as follows:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Substation B
CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse, as
for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the 200A fuse at fault levels
up to:

(10 x 100) / (17.5+0.33+1.98+7.5+0.36+0.29) = 35.7 MVA

That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG 14
relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and 4.76 MVA at 11 kV, and at a
time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable discrimination with the 200 A fuse is achieved.
Substation C
CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to
be extremely inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must
discriminate with the relay in substation
B at fault levels up to:

(10 X 100) / (1.98 +7.5 +0.36 +0.29) = 98.7MVA

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV.
The operating characteristics of the CDG 14 relay show that at
a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 9.52 MVA at 11 kV,
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable discrimination
with the relay at substation B is achieved.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Time and current grading

Substation D
CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation
C at fault levels up to

(10 X 100) / (7.5 + 0.36 + 0.29) = 123 MVA

That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 150 A and 34.2 MVA at
132 kV and at a time multiplier setting of 0.25, suitable discrimination with the relay
at substation C is achieved.
Substation E
CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in
substation D at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (0.36+ 0.29) = 1540 MVA

That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDGEng.14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at
Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

132 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9, suitable discrimination with the relay
A comparison between the relay operating times and the
times obtained from the discrimination curves of at the
maximum fault level reveals significant differences.
These differences can be summarized as follows:

Relay Fault level (MVA) Time from relay Time from

operating times curves
(seconds) (seconds)
B 98.7 0.25 0.07
C 123 0.65 0.33
D 1540 1.05 0.07
E 3500 1.45 0.25

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the
inverse time characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in
fault clearance times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections,
reductions in fault clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the
following table:

Relay Fault level (MVA) Time from Fig.14

(seconds)
B 35.7 0.17
C 98.7 0.42
D 123 0.86
E 1540 0.39

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

To finalize the co-ordination study it is instructive to assess the average
operating time for each extremely inverse over current relay at its maximum
and minimum fault levels, and to compare these with the operating time
shown in (Fig.21) for the definite time over current relay.

Relay Fault level Time from Fig.14 Average time

(Max./Min MVA) (seconds) (seconds)
(Max./ Min)
B 98.7/35.7 0.07/0.17 0.12
C 123/98.7 0.33/0.42 0.375
D 1540/123 0.07/0.86 0.465
E 3500/1540 0.25/0.39 0.32

This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault
level all along the system network the overall performance of the inverse time
over current relay is far superior to that of the definite over current relay.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
4. GRADING MARGIN:

The time interval between the operations of two adjacent

relays depends upon a number of factors:
1.The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
2.The overshoot time of the relay.
3.Errors.
4.Final margin on completion of operation.
A. Circuit breaker interrupting time
The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely
interrupted the current before the dis­criminating relay ceases
to be energized.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 B. Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a
little longer until any stored energy has been dissipated.
For example, an induction disc relay will have stored kinetic
energy in the motion of the disc; static relay circuits may have
energy stored in capacitors.
Relay design is directed to minimizing and absorbing these
energies, but some allowance is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some
forward operation takes place, but the time which would have
been required by the relay if still energized to achieve the same
amount of operational advance.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 C. Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers
are subject to some degree of error.
The operating time characteristic of either or both relays
involved in the grading may have a positive or negative error,
as may the current transformers, which can have phase and
ratio errors due to the exciting current required to magnetize
their core.
This does not, however, apply to independent definite time
delay over current relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy
of the calibration curves published by manufacturers, but since
some error is to be expected, some tolerance must be allowed.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 D. Final margin
After the above allowances have been made, the
discriminating relay must just fail to complete its operation.
Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is required to
ensure that a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent)
remains.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 E. Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items
depends on the operating speed of the circuit breakers and the
relay performance.
At one time 0.5s was a normal grading margin. With faster
modern circuit breakers and lower relay overshoot times 0.4s is
reasonable, while under the best possible con­ditions 0.35s may
be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading
margin, it is better to adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the
operating time of the circuit breaker and relay overshoot, and to
add to it a variable time value that takes into account the relay
errors, the CT errors and the safety margin.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made
up of 0.1 s for the fault current interrupting time of the
circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay over-shoot time and 0.1
s for the safety margin.
Considering next the variable time values required, it
is first assumed that each inverse time over current
relay complies with Error Class E7 .5 defined as normal
British practice in BS 142:1966.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are ±7.5%
but allowance should also be made for the effects of
temperature, frequency, and departure from reference
setting.
A practical approximation is to assume a total
effective error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%, this to apply to
the relay nearest to the fault, which shall be considered
to be slow.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be
added for the overall current transformer error.
Hence, for the time interval t' required between inverse time
over current relays it is proposed to adopt the equation:

t' = 0.25t + 0.25 seconds

Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to the fault.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are
concerned, it is assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0,
defined as normal British practice in BS 142:1966.
The normal limits of error for an El 0 relay are ± 10%, but allowance
should also be made for the effects of temperature, voltage, frequency
and departure from reference setting.
A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 10,
that is, 20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall
be considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over
current relay, it is not necessary to add a further error for the current
transformers.
Hence, for the time interval t' required between independent definite
time delay over current relays, it is proposed to adopt the equation:
t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds

Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11):
Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees and (Fig.24)
shows a typical example of the limits set by the British Standards Institution
specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse definite minimum time over current
relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of such a relay to
a sec­tioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the assumed relay settings and the
tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the permissible grading margin between the over
current relays at each section breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in system
fault current it is desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the power source,
in order to minimize damage.
It is therefore necessary to reduce the time errors, which are in this situation
disproportionately large when compared with the clearance time of modern
circuit breakers; this can only be achieved by improving the limits of accuracy, pick-up
and overshoot
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 (Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy set by BS 142: 1966 for an inverse
Definite Minimum Time over current relay
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 NORMAL BRITISH PRACTICE ACCURACY CLASS E7.5%
TIME/CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC ALLOWABLE LIMIT
At 2 times setting 222E
At 5 times setting 1.13E
At 10 times setting 1.01E
At 20 times setting 1.00E

NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less

than 100ms

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

All this must be obtained without detriment to the general
performance of the relay; in other words, there must be no reduction
in the operating torque or weakening of the damper magnets or
contact pressures, and the construction must remain simple with the
minimum number of moving parts.
While these requirements present considerable difficulties in
manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical toler­ances,
the progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it
possible to discriminate more closely by reducing the margin between
both the current and the time setting of the relays on adjacent
breakers.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 (Fig.25) application of an IDMT over current
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

relay to a sec­tioned Radial feeder

 These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay
nearest the power source to be reduced, or, alternatively,
make it possible to increase the number of breakers in
series without increasing the time setting of the relays at
the power source.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Example: 33KV, X/R=10, 3ɸ =25A, ɸ-1=2100A

Cable 1: 8Km, Z1 =0.168+j0.323Ω/Km

Z0= 0.303+j1.416 Ω/Km

Cable 2: 2Km, Z1 =0.079+j0.106Ω/Km

33KV C Z0 =0.325+j0.4 Ω/Km
B
33/11KV
6MVA, 6%

A
11KV
Cable 3: 5Km, Z1 =0.228+j0.338Ω/Km
Find? Z0= 0.406+j1.630 Ω/Km
1- 3ɸ Fault at F
2- Eng.
Set O.C at 11KV A,B,C
Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
F
 Z1 Source

Z1 Cable1

Z1Cable2 =
Z Bus1 33KV=

Z Bus2 33KV=
Z Tr =1.21˂90ᴼΩ

Z Bus3 11KV=

Z1 Cable3

Z Fault =

If KA
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 O.C Setting
Fault at Bus 11KV
If C

11KV Tr C.B A B

Ir =314.91A D/Y

Is =1.1 K= 0.05 A

Ph- Ph Fault = 3ɸ at 33KV, Tr Δ- Y, If 2ɸ = 0.866

CB A: K=0.05, t=0.1496 sec

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
33KV Tr Incoming C.B B:

t
If C
Ir
B
t K=0.1598
D/Y
33KV Incoming C.B B:
A
t
If = 1311A,
t K=0.266

If/Is K
A 11.35 0.05
B 11.35 0.1598
C 11.35 0.266
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Example :

33KV, 25KA, 3ɸ, 50Hz

A
20MVA
12.5%

11KV
B

C
Find?
CTs Ratio
OC setting A,B and C
O.C cractaristic carve for A,B and C
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protecio
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Distance Protection:

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

SIPROTEC 7SA522 protection relay – Single line diagram (provides full-scheme
distance protection and incorporates all functions usually required for the protection
of a power line)
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 ANSI Description ANSI Description
21/21N Distance protection 50HS Switch-onto-fault
protection
FL Fault locator 50BF Breaker failure protection
50N/51N; 67N Directional ground-fault 59/27 Overvoltage/undervoltage
protection protection
50/51/67 Backup overcurrent protection 81O/U Over/underfrequency
protection
50 STUB STUB-bus overcurrent stage 25 Synchro-check
68/68T Power swing detection/tripping 79 Auto-reclosure
85/21 Teleprotection for distance 74TC Trip circuit supervision
protection
27WI Weak-infeed protection 86 Lockout (CLOSE
command – interlocking)
85/67N Teleprotection for ground-fault
protection
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
1. Introduction to Distance Protection:

Distance relays are double actuating quantity relays with

one coil energized by voltage and the other coil energized by
current Fig. (1).
The torque produced is such that when V/I reduces below a
set value, the relay operates.
During a fault on a transmission line the fault current
increases and the voltage at fault point reduces.
The ratio V/I is measured at the location of CT's and VT's.
The voltage at VT location depends on the distance between
the VT and the fault.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Hence assuming constant fault resistance each value of
V/I measured from relay location corresponds to
distance between the relaying point and the fault along
the line.
Distance protection is non-unit type protection, the
protection zone is not exact.
The distance protection is high speed protection and is
simple to apply.
It can be used as a primary and back up protection.
It can be used in Carrier Aided Distance Scheme and
Autoreclosing Scheme.
Distance protection is very widely used in protection of
transmission line.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 2. Principle of R-X Diagram:

R-X Diagram are useful in plotting characteristic of

Distance relay.
The three variable V,I and Φ are converted into variable R
and X.
Impedance Z1 is defined as ratio of r.m.s values of V and I,
i.e.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Z can be plotted on R-X diagram Fig. (2)
R1 = Z1 cosΦ , X1 = Z1 sinΦ
Φ is positive if I2 lags V1 ,
Φ is negative if I leads V1 .
Thus V1 , I1 and can be converted on R-X diagram as
shown in Fig. (2).
The family of impedance relay (Distance Relays) can offer
wide range of characteristics.
Relays which measure plain impedance (Z) are called
impedance relay.
Their characteristic on R-X plane is a circle with center as
origin and radius as Z, Fig. (2)
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Relay which measure impedance but responds to faults on
one direction only called directional impedance relay.
Their characteristic on R-X plane is a semi-circle on an
inclined line.
The center of semi-circle is at center of R-X diagram.
Relays having voltage restraint in additional to directional
and impedance elements have a circular characteristic on R-X
diagram but with center shifted from origin.
Mho-relays have a circular characteristic, the circumference
of the circle phases through the origin.
The detail explanation about these characteristic has been
given below.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
3. Theory of Impedance Measurement:

The term impedance applied to resistance plus reactance. We

know that the ratio of voltage across a branch to current gives
impedance of the branch, i.e.

The impedance relay operates for certain condition of the

ratio V to I which may expressed.as impedance.
In any impedance relay, there are tow actuating quantities
namely V and I. The current gives operation torque.
The voltage gives restraining torque.
The characteristic in terms of V and I is shown in Fig (5).
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 The impedance relay can be made to sense the ratio
between voltage and current at a point on the line.
In such a case we can say the relay is sensing the
impedance.
The impedance between the location of CT and VT and
the fault is proportional to the distance between the above
location and the fault.
Hence impedance relay is called distance relay.
Such a relay operates if the impedance is below that of the
relay setting hence if the fault is within a certain length of
the transmission line.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Distance relay is a versatile family of the relays that includes
1.Impedance relay ; measures....Z.
2.Reactance relay ; measure....X.
3.Mho type relay ; measures a component of admittance Y.
A distance relay is one whose operation is based on
measurement of impedance, reactance or admittance of line
between the location of relay and the fault point.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

3.1 R-X Diagram of Plain Impedance relay:
In Fig. (5) the operating characteristic of an impedance
relay on V-I plane. It is in the form of a straight line. By
adjustment, the slope of the operating characteristic can be
changed.
The more convenient way of describing the operating
characteristic of a distance relay is by means of 'Impedance
Diagram' or R-X diagram. Since the relay operates for certain
value, less than the set value of, the Z operating characteristic
is a circle of radius Z.
Any value of Zf less than the radius of the circle
produces positive torque. Any value of I f more than the
radius, of circle produces a negative torque and relay does not
operate. This is a rule regardless of phase angle between V
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

and I.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
3.2 Plain Impedance Characteristic:
The plain impedance characteristic shown in Fig. 7(b) is
the simplest in use and consists of a circle with center at the
origin.
Operating occurs in the shaded area inside the circle. The
significance of this is that the relay operates below certain
impedance level, which is independent of the phase angle
between voltage and current.
A straight line on VI plane Fig. (5) having a constant slope
gets converted into a circle of radius V/I on R-X plane.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 The resistance and the reactance between the relay
location and fault can also be plotted on R-X diagram as
shown on Fig.7(a). The angle α will depend upon the ratio
R/X of line per unit length. For a given fault condition, the
measured impedance can be marked on this line Fig. 7
(a).
The line can also be superimposed in the relay
characteristic Fig. If the measured impedance of the line is
within the circle, the relay operates, the circle gives the
relay characteristics. The distance along transmission line
can be represented by a line on R-X diagram.
By superimposing the line characteristic, on the relay
characteristic, the operation of the relay can be predicted.
(referring to Fig. 8).
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
OX represent the feeder on RX diagram.
If fault occurs within distance OX, the relay operates.
For fault beyond X region XY, relays does not operates.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

3.3 Disadvantage of Plain Impedance Relay:

Plane impedance relay has the following disadvantages:

- It is non directional.
It responds to the faults on both sides of CT,VT location.
Hence it can not discriminate between internal and external
faults.
- It is affected by arc resistance of line fault and result in
under-reach.
- - It is sensitive to power swings as a large area is covered
by the circle on each side on R-X plane

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 3.4 Time Characteristic of High Speed Impedance relay:

Fig. (9) shows a typical operating time.

Impedance characteristic of high speed impedance relay
for one value current.
For other current similar characteristics are obtained.
It is observed that for impedance values above 100%
pick-up impedance, the relay does not operate.
The curve I represents actual characteristic.
Curve II is simplified representation of the same (right
angle instead of curve).
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
The relay unit used for distance protection are double
actuating quantity instantaneous relays.
The electromagnetic relays of balanced beam type or
induction cup type are preferred.
Static impedance relay are preferred in modern
installations.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

4. Methods of Analysis
Characteristic of various types of distance relays of R-X plane are in
form of circles or sectors of circles.
There are mainly three categories of these characteristics on R-X plain.
- Circle with centre at origin.
- Circle with circumstances passing through origin.
- Semi-circle above a directional line passing through origin.
- Circle enclosing the origin.
- Circle cut-off from top by a line parallel to X-axis.
These varieties of characteristics are obtaining by changing the operating
coil/restraining coil design, providing the additional polarised coils
supplied by voltage or current, providing tow or more elements within a
single relay case.
The type of relay can be identified on the basis of the form of
characteristic on R-X plane.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 The characteristic of transmission line is, as a rule, a
straight line on R-X plane. The length of the line is
proportional to the length of transmission line.
The length of transmission line covered by positive
torque region of relay characteristics indicates the reach of
distance relay, i.e. The length of line protected by the
relay.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 5. Directional Impedance Relay:
Directional features senses the direction in which
the fault power flows with respect to the location of CT
and VT.
Directional impedance relay operates for the following
conditions:
- Impedance between fault point and relay location is
less than the relay setting Z.
- The fault power flows in a particular direction from
relay location.
The direction power flow is sensed by measuring phase
angle between voltage and current.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Directional Characteristics
The characteristic presented on R-X diagram is a straight
line passing through the origin as shown in Fig (10).
Operation takes place on one side of the line as indicated
by shading.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Suppose the location of fault, point (with corresponding R and
X) is plotted on R-X diagram.
In case of Directional Relay, the positive torque is provided
when the fault point lie on right hand side of the inclined line
(Hatched area in Fig . (10)).
This line when super imposed on the characteristic of plain
impedance relay, we get final characteristic of Directional
Impedance Relay Fig (11).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 With directional characteristic added to the plain impedance
characteristic, the results in a characteristic with a sector of a
circle Fig. (11).
Consider a locus of fault point on transmission line (locus OY).
Angle ROY = α depends upon the phase angle between V and I
with give setting of directional element, the operating torque is
positive within the semi-circle with radius Z and on right hand
side of the inclined line of directional characteristic DD'.
For faults on one side of the relay location, angle lies between
angle DOD'. Hence relay operates for two conditions :
- Locus OXY should have angle with angle DOD' given by
directional feature.
- - Impedance measured by relay should be less than the setting
Z.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
6. Torque Equation of Directional Impedance Relay

The directional relay responds to the phase angle between

V and I at relay location.
Suppose torque of directional unit is given by,

T = K1 VI cos (Φ - θ)

Where T = Torque.
K1 = Constant.
V = Voltage supplied to relay coil
I = Current supplied to relay coil
Φ = Phase angle between V and I
θ = Angle of maximum torque
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
When the relay is on verge of operation.
T=0
Hence cos(Φ - θ ) = 0
i.e. (Φ - θ ) = ±90°
Hence for positive torque, Φ should be within θ±90°
This directional characteristic when presented on R-X diagram is
a straight line (DOD) for which Φ is within θ ±90°
However, impedance characteristic puts another condition, i.e.
V/I < Z represented by a circle on R-X diagram (Ref. Fig. 11).
Hence the net characteristic of directional impedance relay is a
semi-circle above a straight line passing through zero. (Fig. 11).
The radius of circle corresponds to measured impedance.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 7. Modified (Shifted) Characteristic:

The impedance unit may be given a current bias, i.e.

the voltage coil is supplied by additional voltage
proportional to line current (say DI), Basic Torque equation
gets modified to

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 T = K1 - K2 (V+DI)2 (V+DI)
is the voltage supplied to voltage coil of impedance
relay.
The characteristic when plotted on R-X diagram is a
circle with radius V/I and with center shifted from
origin.
The circle may be completely 'offset' from the origin
so much so that origin is left out of the circle.
Directional feature combined with offset impedance
characteristic is shown in Ref. Table (1).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

8. Reactance Type Distance Relay:

The reactance relay has a characteristic such that all the

impedance radius vectors whose outer ends lie on a straight line
having constant X component.
X is the reactance of protected line between the relay location and
the fault point.
The reactance type distance relay has reactance measuring unit.
The reactance measuring unit has an overcome element
developing positive torque and a directional element (VI cosΦ )
which either gives a positive or negative torque.
Hence reactance relay is an over-current relay with directional
restraint.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 The directional element is arranged to develop a maximum
negative torque when current lags behind voltage by 90° ,
((i.e. Φ = -90°) The complete characteristic of voltage
restrained reactance relay is illustrated in Fig. (14).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
9. Mho Type Distance Relay
Mho relay is also known as admittance relay and measures
a component of admittance Y<θ . It is also called as angle
impedance relay.
The characteristic of Mho relay on admittance diagram is a
straight line.
The Mho characteristic on R-X diagram is a circle passing
through origin. This characteristic is obtained by polarizing the
impedance relay and directional relay (refer : reactance type
distance relay).
From Fig. 14 the following point can be noted :
1. Characteristic is directional and will operate for faults in one
direction relay only.
2. Relative reach of the relay goes on changing for various
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

ratios of R/X.
Summary
The distance protection responds to the ratio V/I.
The impedance relay is set for a value Z such that when the
value V/I measured by the relay is less than the set value Z,
the relay operates.
Characteristic of Distance Relay are plotted on a R-X
plane.
Distance Relays are used for protection of transmission
lines, distribution lines etc.
These relays are generally high speed.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

10. Application of Distance Protection:
Distance protection schemes are used universally for
protection of high voltage AC transmission lines and
distribution lines.
They have replaced the over current protection of
transmission line.
The success of distance protection is due to the following:
- Faster operation - Simple co-ordination.
- Less effect of amount of generation and fault levels, fault
current magnitude.
- Permits high line loading.
- Simpler application ; permanent setting without need for
readjustments.
- Static distance relays have superior and versatile
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

characteristic.
 Distance protection scheme are generally used for
providing the primary protection (main protection) and
Back-up protection for AC transmission and distribution
lines against
- 3 phase faults
- Phase to phase faults.
- Phase to earth faults

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

In some schemes for short lines, the phase to earth faults
protection sensing may be by distance relay and measurement
by over-current relays because distance protection for shorter
lines susceptible to errors due to arc fault resistance. In general,
the choice of type of a distance protection depends on length of
line, configuration of lines, whether single infeed/douple
infeed, tripping time required and co-ordination requirements.
Todays trend is toward the use of static distance protection for
all types of line faults, main and back-up for short, medium and
long lines.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 The following paragraph give an overall review.
Distance relay respond to the ratio of V/I. They
measure impedance V/I or a component of impedance
from the location of CT and VT.
The measured V/I is proportional to the distance between
the location of CT/VT and location of fault. Hence the
relays are called distance relays.
The operating limits of an impedance relays are
usually specified in terms of impedance components
resistance and reactance. It is convenient to describe the
operation limits on R-X diagram on rectangular co-
ordinates with resistance R on abscissa and reactance j-X
on ordinate.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 The operating characteristics on R-X diagram in the form
of geometrical figure such as circles or sectors of a circle
or rectangles.
Electromagnetic relays can achieve only circular
characteristics.
Static distance relays can achieve rectangular,
quadrangular, lens type, double mho and a variety of
characteristics on R-X diagram.
The choice of R-X characteristic is made such that the
relay operates for line faults in the protected portion of
line but remains stable during power swings.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

10.1 R-X Diagram
The geometrical figure on R-X diagram (a circle,
quadrangle or a sector of circle) may be in the first or second
quadrant of rectangular co-ordinates.

Relay Characteristic
The operating region is within the characteristic figure i.e.
when the measured impedance component is less than the set
value ( boundary of characteristic figure) the relay operates
Fig. 7 (b). Ref Fig. 15.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

10.2 Line characteristics
Refer Fig. 7 (a) representing line characteristics. The
locus of line impedance before occurrence of a fault
measured by the relay and plotted on R-X diagram is a
straight line passing through the origin. The angle α of this
line characteristic depends on natural ratio of R/X of line per
unit length. (sinα = X/Z). Each point on the line represent
certain distance from origin in terms of Z.
The setting of the relay decides the radius of the
characteristic circle or shape of boundary of characteristic.
For per-determining the operation of relay in response to
fault on transmission line, the line characteristic. Fig. 7(a) is
superimposed on relay characteristic Fig. 7(b) as in Fig. (8).
Refer Fig. 17 also.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
10.3 Condition For Relay Operation (Refer Fig. 17)
The fault point f shifts from line end towards O depending
the location of the fault with respect to location of CT/VT
(substation). For a fault away form the sub-station, the point is
farther from origin.
If it is outside the boundary of the characteristic figure, (circle
or quadrangle). The relay does not operate. During a fault on
line, (assuming negligible fault impedance) the V/I measured
between origin and the fault reduces and the point moves
towards the origin.
If the point moving along the line characteristic comes within
the characteristic of the relay (Fig. 8) the relay operation.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 10.4 Operating Time

The time characteristic of high speed distance relays

is a straight line (Fig. 9 ).
The relay operates within set time. When measured Z falls
within its pick-up value.
If measured Z is beyond its pick-up value the relay will
not operate.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

10.5 Stage of Relay time characteristics

The long transmission lines are with intermediate

substations.
In each substation the distance relays are provided for line
protection.
The settings of these relays are set with respect of impedance
(radius of characteristic circle) and operating time (position
of horizontal step Fig. 9 ).
The distance relay in each sub-station has generally three
step characteristic with respective setting of Z and t for each
step.
The three step characteristics of distance relay of each sub-
station is achieved by providing three sets of relays in each
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

sub-station for protection of each line. Fig (15).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Step Characteristic
Ref Fig. 15. This figure explains a time distance characteristic of a 3-step
distance scheme in substation A for one direction.
These are three sets of relays for protection of each line. Each relays
provides characteristic for one zone.
The combined effect the distance scheme in substation A provides.
- Primary protection of first zone AB with minimum time setting.
Normally 85% of first zone is covered to take care of errors such as fault
resistance.
- Remote back-up for the second zone BC with time setting ... and
remote Back-up for the 3rd Zone CD with time setting...
First zone:
The first zone setting is 85 to 90%of line length and with highest speed of
protection so that these relays operate at the earliest and will never operate
for the fault in 2nd and 3rd zones.
Also the margin of 15 to 10% takes care of fault resistance seen by the
relay measurement as additional time impedance.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Under reach: Suppose line impedance is ZLand arc
resistance relay measures (ZL + Rf ) instead of measuring
only ZL . Thereby the relay will see the fault as beyond its
characteristic circle and will not operate even thoug it
should have operated. This is called under reach Defin.
Second Zone. The second zone relay at A provides
protection for measuring 15 to 10% of line section AB.
The relay is set to reach beyond the length AB and twenty
to fifty per cent of the next line section BC.
For achieving time co-ordination, the second zone relay at
substation 1 is set with time t2 with a time delay of 0.2 to
0.5 seconds between the first zone t1 and second zone t2 .
The primary protection for section BC is provided by first
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

zone relay at substation B.

 Third Zone. The third zone relay at A provides Back-up
protection for section AB, BC and CD. The primary
protection for line section CD is provided by first zone
relay at substation C.
Third zone protection at sub-station A is delayed by 0.4 to
one second from first zone and 0.2 to 0.5 seconds from
second zone.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

10.6 Co-ordination Characteristic of Distance Relays in
Three Station
Fig. 16 illustrates the time distance characteristic
setting of distance relays at station A, B, C for one
direction. Similar relays are provided for other direction.
1. Relays at Substation A
2. 3 step distance characteristic of relay at sub-station A
having following feature :
- First zone: Primary protection to 85 to 90% on line AB
(First zone) with time t A1 to operate breaker RA.
- Second zone cover remaining 15 to 10% of section AB
and about 20 to 50% of section BC with time t A2.
- Third zone covering remaining 80 to 50% of section
BC and further 20% of section CD.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
2. Relays at sub-station B
This has 3 step characteristic just like that of sub-station A,
- First zone protects 85 to 100% of section BC as primary
protection with time t B1and,
- second zone covering remaining 15 to 10% of BC with
higher time.
- Third zone covering remaining protection of line BC and
further 20% of line CB.
- - Relay at station B provides primary protection to Section
BC and remote Back-up to DC, DE.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
3. Relay at Sub-station C.

This provides primary protection to 85 to 90% of section

CD as first zone protection with minimum time t C1.
This is primary protection at sub-station C to operate breaker
RC.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Three steps in R-X Diagram

The impedance characteristic of zone 1,2,3 are similar

geometrical figures with different impedance setting
(Fig.14).
In case of static distance relays with quadrangular
characteristics, the characteristics of three zones are in the
form of different straight lines forming the quadrangle.
Significance of R-X Diagram and Method of Analysis

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 A distance relay should be operate below set fault
impedance within set time.
It should not fail to operate for faults beyond protected zone.
It should operate for faults within protected zone.
It should not operate due to power swings.
For the purpose of analysis and choice of settings of first
zone, second zone and third zone distance relays in each sub-
station and their co-ordination ;
the R-X diagram is very useful. The following characteristics
are plotted on the same R-X diagram.
- Relays characteristic should cover the time characteristic.
- Line characteristic (Straight line passing through origin).
- Load impedance region.
- Power swings.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Relays characteristic should cover the line characteristic.
Relays characteristic should be away from load region.
Normal power swing should touch relay characteristic.
Fig. 17.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
10.8 Load Impedance
The load in transmission line represented by certain load
impedance having certain R and X values.
This is covered by region ZL shown in Fig. 17
Load impedance is much higher than fault impedance and
line impedance.
Therefor, the distance relay does not operate due to change in
load impedance under normal load conditions.
During faults on the line the measured line impedance falls.
Operating point suddenly comes from region Z Lon line AB.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

10.9 Line Impedance
This is represented by a straight line passing through the
origin.
During no load the point on the line represents the
impedance seen by the relay from origin. During the fault,
the relay will measure the line impedance upto fault point.
Fault Resistance. The faults on overhead line will be arc
faults having pure resistance Rf. This is represented by a
horizontal line on R-X diagram.
Total impedance measured by the relay is equal to line
impedance upto fault point ( ZL) plus arc resistance (Rf) i.e.
ZL + Rf..
The relay characteristic should be broad in the middle ( Fig.
17) so that X is within relay characteristic.
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional
to its length, for distance measurement it is appropriate to
use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line
up to a predetermined point. Such a relay is called
distance relay ( 21 ).

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 The basic principle of impedance measurement ( Z )
involves the comparison of the fault current ( I ) with
the voltage ( V ) “ seen” by the relay at the relaying
point.

Zr = Vr / Ir

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Impedance seen by relay Zr =Vr/Ir =Zline + Zload
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 We use R-X diagram to represent the line impedance:

Relation between rectangular and polar form:

I. Rectangular form Z
R

II. Polar form P

P,

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 115kVsystemnormalcondition

I= 100 A ZL= 10 ohm= 10 km

R Ph – G voltage V=115/ = 66.4KV

Line Impedance : 1 ohm / 1 km

Line 10 km = 10 ohm
Impedance seen by relay = V / I = 66.4 kV / 100
A
= 664 ohm ( load impedance )

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Load Area
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 115kVsystem fault condition at10km

I= 1000 A ZL= 10 ohm= 10 km

R Ph – G voltage V=Ix ZL V = 1000x10 V Ground Fault

Line Impedance : 1 ohm / 1 km

Line 10 km = 10 ohm
Impedance seen by relay = V / I = 10000V /
1000 A
= 10 ohm ( Fault impedance )

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 115kV system fault condition at 8km

I= 1200 A ZL= 8 ohm= 8 km

Ground Fault
R Ph – G voltage V=Ix ZL V = 1200x8 V

Line Impedance : 1 ohm / 1 km

Line 8 km = 8 ohm
Impedance seen by relay = V / I = 9600V / 1200
A
= 8 ohm ( Fault impedance )

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 115kV system fault condition at 2km

I= 2000 A ZL= 2 ohm= 2 km

R Ph – G voltage V=Ix ZL V = 2000x2 V

Line Impedance : 1 ohm / 1 km

Line 2 km = 2 ohm
Impedance seen by relay = V / I = 4000V / 2000
A
= 2 ohm ( Fault impedance )

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Impedance seen by relay Zr = VF/IF =Z F

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Example:
Calculation of 21:
Data-___ Base voltage=115 KV, 1000MVA, CTR=800/5 A, PTR= 115/115 KV/V
Conductor type:477MCM AAC ___ 590 A,
-Length & Line __ AB=70Km, BC= 30Km, BD= 50Km.
Impedances: AB= Z1= Z2= 9.7+j29.1Ω , Z0= 25.4+j101Ωp
BC= Z1=Z2= 5.8+j16.9Ωp
BD= Z1= Z2= 8+j26Ωp

21 C

A B D
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 Z secondary = Z primary

𝑪𝑻𝑹 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏𝟓

= ∗ =( 𝟎 . 𝟏𝟔 )
𝑷𝑻𝑹 𝟓 𝟏𝟏𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎
𝟑

AB: 70Km
Z1

Z0

BC:30Km
Z1

BD:50Km
Z1
Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
Zone1 = 85% of AB, Time= zero sec

Zone1 ¿𝟐𝟗𝟐.𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒 ∠𝟕𝟏.𝟓𝟔𝟓ᴼ

Zone2 = 120% of AB or 85% AB+85% (Tr1//Tr2), Time= 0.5 sec

Zone2 ¿𝟒∠𝟑𝟎ᴼ

Zone3 = 100% Line AB +120% BC or 100% line AB+ large Time= 1 sec
Tr impedance

Zone3

¿ ( 𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟎𝟒𝟖+ 𝒋 𝟒𝟐𝟑. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 )=𝟒∠𝟑𝟎ᴼ

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.
 jX

Zone 3

Zone 2

Zone 1

71 .565 ᴼ R

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Current differential Relays:

With transformer

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.

 Thanks

Eng. Yousif Ishag Mohamed Elimam, STPG Protection section.