Chapter- Crop Production and Management

(i) All the living organisms require food for their life processes like digestion, respiration,
and excretion etc. Plants can make their own food by the process of photosynthesis and
animals included humans cannot make their food so they are depended on the plants.

(ii) In order to provide food for a large population— regular production, proper
management and distribution of food is necessary.

Agricultural Practices:

(i) When the same kinds of plants are grown at one place on a large scale, it is called a
crop. Different type crops like cereals, vegetables and fruits etc, can be classified on the
basis of the season in which they grow.
(ii) India is a vast country. Here climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and
rainfall vary from one region to another. There is a rich variety of crops grown in
different parts of the India. Despite this diversity, two broad cropping patterns can be
identified. These are:

(a) Kharif Crops:- The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called kharif crops.
The rainy season in India is generally from June month to September month. Paddy,
maize, soyabean, groundnut, cotton, etc., are the examples of kharif crops.

(b)Rabi Crops:-The crops which are grown in the winter season are called rabi crops.
Their time period is generally from October month to March month. Wheat, gram, pea,
mustard and linseed are the examples of rabi crops.
Besides these, pulses and vegetables are grown during summer at many places.
Examples of Rabi Crops:

Basic Practices of Crop Production:

The several activities undertaken by the farmers for the cultivation of crops over a period
of time are referred to as agricultural practices. These activities are:

1. Preparation of Soil: One of the most important tasks in agriculture is to turn the soil
and loosen it. The loose soil allows the roots to penetrate and breathe easily even when
they go deep into the soil. The loosened soil helps in the growth of earthworms and
microbes present in the soil.
The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. This is
done by using a plough which is made of wood or iron.
If the soil is very dry, it may need watering before ploughing. The ploughed field may
have big pieces of soil called crumbs. It is necessary to break these crumbs with a plank.
The field is levelled by leveller for sowing as well as for irrigation purposes.

2. Sowing: Sowing is the most important part of crop production. Before sowing, good
quality seeds are selected. These are clean and healthy seeds of a good variety. Farmers
prefer to use seeds which give a high yield.
Before sowing, one of the important tasks is to know about the tools used for sowing
seeds.

(i) Traditional Tool: It is the tool shaped liked funnel used traditionally for sowing seeds.
The seeds are filled into the funnel, passed down through two or three pipes having sharp
ends. These ends pierce into the soil and place seeds there.
(ii) Seed Drill: Now days the seed drill is used for sowing with the help of tractors. With
help of this tool sows the seeds uniformly at proper distances and depths. It ensures that
seeds get covered by the soil after sowing and prevents damage caused by birds. It saves
time and labour.

3. Adding Manure and Fertilisers:-

(i) For the healthy growth of plants substances which are added to the soil in the form of
nutrients are called manure and fertilisers.
(ii) Nutrients are essential for the growth of plants. Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the
crop. In certain areas, farmers grow crop after crop in the same field. The field is never
left uncultivated or fallow.
(iii) Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poorer in certain nutrients. Therefore,
farmers have to add manure to the fields to replenish the soil with nutrients. This process
is called manuring.
(iv) Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of plant wastes or
animal excreta. Farmers dump plant and animal waste in pits at open places and allow it
to decompose. The decomposition is caused by some microorganisms. The decomposed
matter is used as organic manure.
(v) Fertilisers are chemicals manufactured in factories. They are chemicals highly rich in
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Difference between Fertilisers and Manure:

S.no. Manure Fertiliser

1. Easily made using animal Made in factories in well defined way

and plant waste

2. No harmful effect as fully Side effects as it is a chemicals

natural

3. Provides mainly organic Provides mainly nutrients

matter

4. Good for long term soil Not good for long term soil fertility, If
fertility uses in excessive amount

5. Not effect as fertilisers Very effective in obtaining fast result.

6. It is very cheap It is very costly

Advantage of Manure:
(i) It provides lots of organic matter which makes soil porous.
(ii) It increases soil fertility in general.
(iii) It provide some nutrients in small amounts
(iv) As it made from waste products, so environment is cleaned.
(v) It increases the water holding capacity.

4. Irrigation:
(i) Water is important for proper growth and development of plants.
(ii) Water is essential because germination of seeds does not take place under dry
conditions. Nutrients dissolved in water get transported to each part of the plant.
(iii) Water also protects the crop from both frost and hot air currents. The supply of water
to crops at different intervals is called irrigation.
(iv) It’s not a good to depend on rain for water as it is not fully reliable. A proper
irrigation system will ensure timely and adequate water to crops. This will lead to more
yield.
Sources of Irrigation: Wells, Tube wells, Ponds, Lakes, Rivers, Dams and Canals are the
sources of Irrigation.
1. Traditional Methods of Irrigation:
The water available in wells, lakes and canals is lifted up by different methods in
different regions, for taking it to the fields. Here various traditional methods are:

2. Modern Methods of Irrigation:

(i) Sprinkler System:
In this system, perpendicular pipes, having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to the main
pipeline at regular intervals. When water is allowed to flow through the main pipe under
pressure with the help of a pump, it sprinkles from the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled
on the crop as if it is raining.

(ii) Drip system:

In this system, the water falls drop by drop just at the position of the roots. So it is called
drip system.

5. Protection from Weeds:

(i) Weeds are the undesirable plants which may grow naturally along with the crop in the
field.
(ii) The removal of weeds is called weeding. Weeding is necessary because they affect
the growth of the crop by compete with the crop plants for water, nutrients, space and
light.

Weed Control:
Farmers use many ways to remove weeds and control their growth. Tilling before sowing
of crops helps in uprooting and killing of weeds, which may then dry up and get mixed
with the soil. The best time for the removal of weeds is before they produce flowers and
seeds. The manual removal includes physical removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting
them close to the ground, from time to time with the help of a khurpi. Weeds are also
controlled by spraying certain chemicals called weedicides, in the fields to kill the weeds.
They do not damage the crops.

6. Harvesting:
(i) The cutting of crop after it is mature is called harvesting. In harvesting, crops are
pulled out or cut close to the ground. Harvesting is also done manually by sickle or by a
machine.
(ii) In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff with the
help of machine called ‘combined’. It is in fact a combined harvester and thresher. This
process is called threshing.
7. Storage:
If the crop grains are to be kept for longer time, they should be safe from moisture,
insects, rats and microorganisms. The fresh crop has more moisture. If freshly harvested
grains (seeds) are stored without drying, they may get spoilt or attacked by organisms,
losing their germination capacity.
 Chapter _ Microorganisms- Friend or Foe

Microorganisms:
(i) Organisms which are too small to be seen by the naked eye, especially a single celled
organism is called microorganisms or microbes.
(ii) Microorganisms are classified into four major groups- bacteria, fungi, protozoa and
some algae.

(iii) Viruses are also microscopic. They reproduce only inside the cells of the host
organism, which may be a bacterium, plant or animal.

Where do Microorganisms Live:

(i) Microorganisms may be single celled (bacteria, some algae and protozoa) or multi
cellular (algae and fungi) can survive under all types of environment, ranging from ice
cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands.
(ii) They are also found inside the bodies of other organisms including humans.
(iii) Growth of some microorganisms depends on other organisms while other organisms
exist freely.
(iv) Microorganisms like amoeba can live alone, while fungi and bacteria may live in
colonies.

Microorganisms and Us:

Some of Microorganisms are beneficial in many ways while some others are harmful and
cause diseases.

Friendly Microorganisms:
Microorganisms are used for various purposes.
(i) Some microorganisms are used in the production of curd, bread and cake.
(ii) Some microorganisms have been used for the production of alcohol since ages.
(iii) They are also used in cleaning up of the environment as composers. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels, remains of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken down into
harmless and usable substances by bacteria.
(iv) In agriculture fields, microorganisms are used to increase soil fertility by fixing
nitrogen.

Commercial Use of Microorganisms:

(i) For large scale production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid (Vinegar) Microorganisms
are used
(ii) For commercial production of alcohol and wine yeast is grown on natural sugars
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice and crushed fruit juices, etc.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms:

(i) Whenever we fall ill the doctor may give us some antibiotic tablets, capsules or
injections like peenicillin which are made up of microorganism.
(ii) These days the medicines produced from Bactria and fungi kill or stop the growth of
the disease-causing microorganisms. Such medicines are called antibiotics.
(iii) Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin medicines which are made from fungi
and bacteria are some of the commonly known antibiotics.
(iv) The antibiotics are made by growing specific microorganisms and are used to cure a
variety of diseases. Antibiotics should be taken only on the advice of a qualified doctor.
(v) Antibiotics are even added with the feed of livestock and poultry for checking
microbial infection in animals.
(vi) Microorganisms are also used to control many plant diseases.

Vaccine:
(i) When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the antibodies produced by our
body fight with the invader. If microbes enter again, the body also remembers that how to
fight with the microbes.
(ii) If dead or weakened microbes are injected in a healthy body, the body fights and kills
them by producing suitable antibodies.
(iii) The antibodies remain in the body for protecting from the disease causing microbes.
This is how a vaccine works.
(iv) Several diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented
by vaccination.

Increasing Soil Fertility:

(i) Some bacteria and blue green algae are able increase the fertility of soil by fix nitrogen
from the atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen. These microbes are commonly called
biological nitrogen fixers.

Cleaning the Environment:

At the time of making manure, we collect wastes of plants, vegetables and fruits from
nearby houses and gardens. They put them in a pit meant for waste disposal. After some
time, it decomposed by microorganisms and gets converted to manure. By this method
environment is cleaned.
Harmful Microorganisms:
(i) Some of microorganisms are harmful in many ways.
(ii) In human beings, plants and animals, some of the microorganisms cause diseases.
Such disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens.
(iii) Food, clothing and leather are spoiled due to some harmful microorganisms.

Disease— causing Microorganisms in Humans:

(i) Pathogens enter our body through the different way like air when we breathe, the
water when we drink or the food when we eat. They can also get transmitted by direct
contact with an infected person or carried through an animal.
(ii) Microbial diseases such as cholera, common cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis that
can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or
physical contact are called communicable diseases.
(iii) There are some insects and animals which act as carriers of disease causing
microbes. For example housefly is one such carrier that flies sit on the garbage and
animal excreta etc. Pathogens stick to their bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered
food they transfer the pathogens. Whoever eats the contaminated food is likely to get
sick. Some more examples of carrier microbes are the female Anopheles mosquito, which
carries the parasite of malaria. Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
(iv) All mosquitoes breed in water. So, one should not let water collect anywhere like in
coolers, tyres, flower pot etc. By keeping the surroundings clean and dry we can prevent
mosquitoes from breeding.

Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms:

Human Disease Causative Mode of Preventive

Microorganism Transmission measures (General)

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in

complete isolation.
Keep the personal
Measles Virus Air
belongings of the
patient away from
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact those of the others.
Vaccination to be
given at suitable
Polio Virus Air/Water
age
 Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal
hygiene and good
sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water
Consume properly
cooked food and
boiled drinking
water. Vaccination

Hepatitis B Virus Water Drink boiled

drinking water.
Vaccination.

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito Use mosquito net

and repellents.
Spray insecticides
and control
breeding of
mosquitoes by not
allowing water to
collect in the
surroundings

Disease— causing Microorganisms in Animals:

Some of microorganisms not only cause diseases in humans and plants, but also in other
animals. For example: anthrax is an example of dangerous human and cattle disease
caused by a bacterium. Foot and mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus.

Disease— causing Microorganisms in Plants:

Some of microorganisms cause diseases in plants such as wheat, rice, potato, sugarcane,
orange, apple and others. These diseases reduce the yield of crops. They can be
controlled by the use of certain chemicals or pesticides which kill the microbes, which
affect the yield the crops.
 Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Microorganisms

Food Poisoning:
Food poisoning in humans could be due to the consumption spoiled food by some
microorganisms.
isms. Microorganisms that grow on our food produce toxic substances and
make the food poisonous causing serious diseases. So, it is very important that we
preserve food to prevent it from being spoilt by the microorganisms.

Food Preservation:
Microorganismss spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad smell and has a bad taste and
changed colour. Here some common methods to preserve food in our homes.

a. Chemical Method:
(i) Preservatives like Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to
check the growth of microorganisms.
(ii) We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium meta bisulphite are common preservatives which are used in the
jams and squashes to check their spoilage.

b. Preservation
ervation by Common Salt:
(i) To preserve meat and fish for ages, common salt is used. Meat and fish are covered
with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria.
(ii) Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.
c. Preservation by Sugar:
(i) Sugar is used for preserving jams, jellies and squashes are preserved.
(ii) It reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil
food.

d. Preservation by Oil and Vinegar:

(i) Oil and vinegar are used to prevent spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in
such an environment.
(ii) Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.

e. Heat and Cold Treatments:

(i) Boiling of milk kills many microorganisms, after that it is stored or used.
(ii) We keep our food in the refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits the growth of
microbes.
(iii) Pasteurized milk can be taken without boiling as it is free from harmful
microbes. The milk is heated to about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly
chilled and stored. By doing so, this process prevents the growth of microbes. This
process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.

f. Storage and Packing:

Dry fruits and even vegetables are sold in sealed air tight packets to prevent the attack of
microbes.

Nitrogen Fixation:
(i) Rhizobium is involved in the fixation of nitrogen in leguminous plants (pulses).
(ii) Nitrogen also gets fixed through the action of lightning. But the amount of nitrogen
remains constant in the atmosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle:
(i) Nitrogen is one of the essential constituents of all living organisms as part of proteins,
chlorophyll, nucleic acids and vitamins, available 78% in our environment. Bacteria and
blue green algae present in the soil for fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere and then
convert into compounds of nitrogen.
(ii) After this, usable compounds can be utilised by plants from the soil through their root
system. These compounds are then used for the synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds. Animals feeding on plants get these proteins and other nitrogen compounds.
(iii) When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil convert the
nitrogenous wastes into nitrogenous compounds to be used by plants again. Certain other
bacteria convert some part of them to nitrogen gas which goes back into the atmosphere.
As a result, the percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains more or less constant.

Nitrogen cycle
 Chapter_ Metals and Non Metals

1. Metals:
Those materials which possess the characteristic of being hard, shiny, malleable, fusible,
ductile, etc. are termed as metal. Few examples of metals are iron, gold, silver,
aluminium, copper, etc.

Physical Properties of Metals:

(a) Malleability:
It is that property of metals which allows them to be beaten into the thin sheets.

Due to presence of this property, the shape of iron nail and aluminium wire can be
changed on beating. The silver foils used for decorating sweets and the aluminium foil
used for wrapping food are possible because of malleability property of metals.

(b) Conductivity:
It is that property of metals which allows the current and heat to pass through them
easily.
Example- Metals like iron rod, nail, copper wire, etc. are good conductors of electricity.

(c) Ductility:
It is that property of metals which allows them to be drawn into the wires.Example:
Metals like aluminium and copper wires are used in electric connection.

(d) Sonorous:
It is that property of metals which produces ringing sounds on hitting.

(e) Lustrous:
It is that property of metals which makes them shine and their structures are capable of
reflecting incident light.

Notes: Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife. Mercury is
the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature. These are exceptions

2. Non -Metals:
Those materials which do not possess the characteristics of metals are termed as non-
metal. Materials like coal and sulphur are soft and dull in appearance. They break down
into powdery mass on tapping with hammer. They are non-sonorous and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity. Few examples of non metals are sulphur, carbon,
oxygen etc.

Chemical Properties of Metals & Non-Metals:

1. Reaction with Oxygen

(a) For Metals:
Generally, when metals are reacted with oxygen they will form metallic oxides.
And these metallic oxides are basic in nature.

Example-1: Rusting of Iron. Following is the reaction to express it.

Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2) + Water (H2O) → Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)

Example-2: If a copper vessel is left open in presence of the moist air, then, a dull
green coating will be observed on it. The green material is a mixture of copper
hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) and copper carbonate (CuCO3). Following is the reaction to
express it:
2Cu + H2O + CO2 + O2→Cu (OH)2 + CuCO3

Testing of nature of Rusting:

(i) Collect a spoonful of rust and dissolve it in a very little amount of water.
(ii) The rust remains suspended in water. Shake the suspension well.
(iii) Test the solution with red and blue litmus papers. The red litmus turns blue.
So, generally metallic oxides are basic in nature.

(b) For Non-metals:

Generally, non-metals also produce oxides when reacted with oxygen. But, in contrast to
metals, these oxides are acidic in nature.

Testing the nature of non metal:

(i) Take a small amount of powdered sulphur in a deflagrating spoon and then heat it.
(ii) As soon as sulphur starts burning, introduce the spoon into a gas jar/ glass tumbler.
(iii) Cover the tumbler with a lid to ensure that the gas produced does not escape.
 (iv) After some time remove the spoon. Add a small quantity of water into the tumbler
and quickly replace the lid. Shake the tumbler well. Check the solution with red and blue
litmus papers.

(v) The name of the product formed in the reaction of sulphur and oxygen is sulphur
dioxide gas. When sulphur dioxide is dissolved in water sulphurous acid is
formed. Following is the reaction to express it:
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + Water (H2O) → Sulphurous acid (H2SO3)
(vi) The sulphurous acid turns blue litmus paper red.
Generally, oxides of non-metals are acidic in nature.

2. Reaction with Water:

(a) For Metals:
Some metals react vigorously with water like in case of sodium. It is stored in kerosene..
While, some metals reacts very slowly with water like in case of iron.

(b) For Non-metals:

Generally, most non-metals do not react with water but there are some non-metals which
are quite reactive in air like phosphorous, which is very reactive and is kept in water to
prevent explosion.

3. Reaction with Acids:

(a) For Metals:
Generally, a metal reacts with acids and releases hydrogen gas with a ‘pop’ sound.
The presence of hydrogen gas is confirmed by bringing a burning matchstick or candle
near the gas. And when the burning matchstick or candle produces pop sound then it
means that hydrogen gas has evoloved.
It is found that, copper does not reacts with hydrochloric acid while it reacts with a
sulphuric acid.

(b) For Non-metals:

Generally, non-metals do not react with acids.

4. Reaction with Bases:

(a) For Metals:
Generally, reactions of metals with bases releases hydrogen gas, like in case of many
metals they react with sodium hydroxide to produce hydrogen gas.
(b) For Non-metals:
Generally, reactions of non-metals
metals with bases are complex.

5. Displacement Reaction:
During reaction if a metal replaces another metal from its compound then such reactions
are called displacement reaction.
Metals can actually be arranged as per their reactivity ord
order,
er, thus, a more reactive metal
will always displace a less reactive metal from its compound but a less reactive one
cannot replace a more reactive metal.

Example : When zinc is reacted with copper sulphate solution, then copper will be
displaced by zinc
nc as zinc is more reactive than copper. The blue colour of copper
sulphate disappears and a powdery red mass of copper is deposited at the bottom of the
beaker. The reaction-
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc (Zn) → Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper (Cu)
Applications of Metals:
(i) Metals are generally used in making of machines, automobiles, airplanes, cars,
satellites, etc.
(ii) Some metals are used in making wires like copper, etc.
(iii) Some metals are used for making ornaments like gold, silver, etc.

Applications of Non - Metals:

(i) The oxygen necessary for all living beings to survive is a non-metal.
(ii) Some non-metals are used as fertilizers to enhance the growth of plants.
(iii) Some non-metals are used for water-purification.
(iv) Some non-metals are used as antiseptic.
(v) Non-metals used in crackers.
 Chapter_ Cell- Structure and Functions

Cell:
(i) In the living organisms, Cells are basic structural units.
(ii) Cells may be compared to bricks. Bricks are assembled to make a building. Similarly,
cells are assembled to make the body of every organism.
(iii) It is the basic structural and functional unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells
(iv) Sub cellular structures of cell include organelles, the plasma membrane, and, if
present, the nucleus.
(v) Size of the cell is 1 to 100 micrometer.
(vi) Cells are produced by the division of pre existing cell. Each cell contains genetic
material that is passed down during reproduction process.
(v) Cells in the living organisms are complex living structures unlike non-living bricks.
(vi) All basic chemical and physiological functions like repairing, growth, excretion
movement, immunity, communication, and digestion - are happen inside of cells.

Discovery of the Cell:

(i) In 1665, the English scientist Robert Hooke observed slices of cork which is part of
bark of the tress, under a simple magnifying device. He noticed partitioned boxes or
compartments in the cork slice.

(ii) These boxes looked like a honeycomb. He also noticed that these boxes were
separated from the other by a wall or partition. Hooke named them ‘cell’ for each box.
Hooke observed as boxes or cells in the cork were actually dead cells. These boxes
appeared like a honeycomb.

Over the next 170 years, research led to the formation of the cell theory, first proposed by
the German botanist Matthias Jacob Schleiden and the German physiologist Theodore
Schwann in 1838 and formalized by the German researcher Rudolf Virchow in 1858.

Types of cell:
1. Prokaryotic Cells:
The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic
cells. The organisms with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes (pro: primitive;
karyon: nucleus). Examples: bacteria and blue green algae.

2. Eukaryotic cells:
The cells having well organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as
eukaryotic cells. All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called
Eukaryotes. (Eu : true; karyon: nucleus).
Organisms Show Variety in Cell Number, Shape and Size:
Millions of living organisms have cells with different shapes and sizes. Their organs also
vary in shape, size and number of cells.
(i) Human body has trillions of cells which vary in different size and shapes. Different
groups of cells perform a variety of functions. Organisms made of more than one cell are
called multicellular organisms. An organism with billions of cells Starts life as a single
fertilized egg cell. The fertilised egg cell multiplies by dividing process and the number
of cells increases for development.
(ii) The single-celled organisms are made up of single cell called unicellular organisms.
A single celled organism performs all the necessary functions that multicellular
organisms perform.

(iii) A single-celled organism, like amoeba, captures and digests food, respires, excretes,
grows and reproduces. Similar functions in multi-cellular organisms are carried out by
groups of specialised cells forming different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form organs.

1. Shape of Cells:
(i) Generally, cell’s shapes are rounding, spherical or elongated. Some types of cells are
long and pointed at both ends. They exhibit spindle shape. Some types of cells are
branched like the nerve cell or a neuron, which receives and transfers messages for
helping to control and coordinate the working of different parts of the body.

(ii) Components of the cell are enclosed in a membrane. This membrane provides shape
to the cells of plants and animals. Cell wall is an additional covering over the cell
membrane in plant cells. It gives shape and rigidity to these cells.

2. Size of Cells:
(i) The cell’s size in living organisms may be as small as a millionth of a metre
(micrometre or micron) or may be as large as a few centimetres.
(ii) Most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the naked eye. They
need to be enlarged or magnified by a microscope for seeing.
(iii) The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170
mm ×130 mm, which is the egg of an ostrich.
(iv) The size of the cells has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant.

Cell Structure and Function:

(i) Each organ in the living organisms performs different functions such as digestion,
assimilation and absorption. Similarly, different organs of a plant perform particular/
specialized functions. Example: roots help in the absorption of water and minerals.
(ii) Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is a group of
similar type cells performing a particular function.

Parts of the Cell:

The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.

1. Cell Membrane:
(i) The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane, also called the
plasma membrane.
(ii) It is living part of the cell, thin, delicate and elastic.
(iii) This membrane separates cells from one another and also the cell from the
surrounding medium.
(iv) It is selectively permeable. It allows the flow of limited substances in and out of the
cell.
(v) This gives shape to the cell.
(vi) In addition to the cell membrane, an outer thick layer in cells of plants, called cell
wall.
(vii) This additional cell wall surrounding the cell membrane is required by the plants for
protection against variations in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric moisture, etc.
They are exposed to these variations because they cannot move.
(viii) Cells can be observed in the leaf peel of Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo.

2. Cytoplasm:
(i) Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the
nucleus.
(ii) Various other components or organelles of cells are present in the cytoplasm. Like
mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc.

3. Nucleus:
(i) It is very important component of the living cell. It is generally dense and spherical
organelle and located in the centre of the cell. It can be seen easily with the help of a
microscope. Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear
membrane. This membrane is also porous and allows the movement of materials between
the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus.
(ii) It is consist of nucleolus, thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry
genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring.
The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
(iii) Genes contains genetic codes which are responsible for the unique physical character
of an animal or a plant.
(iv) Nucleus acts as control centre of the activities of the cell. The entire content of a
living cell is known as protoplasm. It includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus. It controls
all the metabolic activities of cell.
(v) Nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Without nucleus, cell can neither survive nor
shows specialized activities.

Comparison of Plant and Animal Cells:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Plant cells have a cell wall surrounding the 1. Animal cells only have a membrane.
cell membrane

2. Plant cells contain chloroplasts which are 2. Absent in animal cell.

used for photosynthesis.

3. Plant cells have a large vacuole (it's like a 3. Animal cells have a small vacuole,
fluid sack), compared to an animal cell. compared to a plant cell.

4. Cells in plants are more structured due to the 4.Animal cells are 'blobby'
cell wall, and form a lattice like structure which
helps with rigidness.
 Chapter_ Reproductions in Animals

Reproduction:
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce more living organisms of
its own kind.

Mode of Reproduction:
There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms.

1. Asexual Reduction: The process of reproduction in which new individuals are

produced from a single parent. E.g. microorganisms.
Asexual reproduction is found in the single-celled organism such as the archabacteria,
eubacteria etc. Many plants and fungi reproduce asexually as well.

2. Sexual Reproduction: The process of reproduction in which two individuals are

involved to produce a new individual. E.g. Human, tiger

Sexual Reproduction:
In animals, males and females have different reproductive parts or organs. The
reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote
which develops into a new individual. This type of reproduction beginning from the
fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.

Reproductive Organs in Humans:

1. Male Reproductive Organs:

A pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm ducts and a penis, these are the male
reproductive organs. The testes produce the male gametes called sperms. Millions of
male gametes (sperms) are produced by the testes. Though sperms are very small in size,
each has a head, a middle piece and a tail. Sperm is a single cell with all the usual cell
components.
Female Reproductive Organs:
A pair of ovaries, oviducts (Fallopian tubes) and the uterus, these are the female
reproductive organs. Ovary produces female gamgametes
etes called ova (eggs). In human beings,
a single matured egg is released by one of the ovaries, into the oviduct every month.
Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place. An egg is also a single cell.
Fertilization:
The process of fertilization
tilization is fusion of a male gamete (Sperm) with a female gamete
(Ovum) is called fertilization. Zygote is formed after fertilization.

Types of Fertilization:There
There are two types of fertilization in animals, external
fertilization and internal fertiliza
fertilization.
1. Internal Fertilisation: When fertilization takes place inside the animal’s body, it is
called internal fertilization. Internal fertilization occurs in many animals including
humans, cows, dogs and hens.
2. External Fertilisation: In this type of ffertilization,
ertilization, the fusion of a male and a female
gamete takes place outside the body of the animal’s body is called external fertilization. It
is very common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish, etc.
Example: During spring or rainy season, frogs and ttoadsoads move to ponds and river. When
the male and female come together in water, the female lays the eggs, the male deposits
sperms over them. Each sperm swims randomly in water with the help of its long tail.
The sperms then come in contact with the eggs.

Eggs of frog

Development of Embryo:Development
Development of embryo takes place in the female reproductive
system through following steps:
1. Every month, a single egg comes out of the ovary and reaches the fallopian tube of
female reproductive system.
2. During copulation,
pulation, sperms reach the Fallopian tube where a sperm fertilizes the egg.
This results in formation of zygote.
3.The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The cells then begin to form
groups that develop into different tissues and organs of the body. This developing
structure is termed an embryo.

4. The embryo gets implanted in the wall of the uterus for further gradually developed the
body parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, ears, etc.
5. The stage of the embryo in which all tthe
he body parts can be identified is called a foetus.
When the development of the foetus is complete, the mother gives birth to the baby.
Formation of Egg Shell in Hens:
Internal fertilization takes place in hens. After fertilization, the zygote divides
continuously
ntinuously and moves to the oviduct. As it travels down, many protective layers are
formed around it. The hard shell in a hen’s egg is one such protective layer. After the
hard shell is formed, the hen finally lays the egg. The embryo takes about 3 weeks tot
develop into a chick. The hen sits on the eggs to provide sufficient warmth. After the
chick is completely developed it bursts open the egg shell.

Viviparous and Oviparous Animals:

1. The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous ani
animals.
mals. Examples-
Human being, dog, cows.
2. Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals. Examples – hen, frog etc.

IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation):

1. A biological process carried out in laboratory is called in
in-vitro.
vitro. Thus, fertilization
carried
ed out in laboratory is called in
in-vitro fertilization.
2. Some women are unable to bear babies because of oviducts are blocked in result
sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilization. Doctors collect freshly released egg and
sperms and keep them together ffor or a few hours for IVF or in vitro fertilization
(fertilization outside the body).
3. If fertilization occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week and then it is
transferred in the mother’s uterus. Whole development takes place in the uterus and the
baby is born like any other baby. Babies born through this technique are called test-tube
test
babies.

Young Ones to Adults:

1. Direct Development: When the young ones of an animal resemble the adult, then
direct development takes place, e.g. hen, man
man, monkey, etc.

2. Indirect Development: When the young ones of an animal do not resemble the adult,
then indirect development takes place, e.g. frog, butterfly, silk moth, etc.

3. Metamorphosis: In case of indirect development, transformation of young ones

o into
adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis. Larva of butterfly undergoes
metamorphosis to become a butterfly. A tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to become a
frog.

Asexual Reproduction Methods: The process of reproduction in which new individuals

are produced from single parent. Example - Microorganisms.
1. Budding: This reproduction method is seen in those multi cellular animals which are
highly simple in structure. A small bud or bulge develops on the body. After developing
the bud, itt gets detached from the parent’s body to begin life as a new individual. Since
new individuals develop from the buds, this type of asexual reproduction is called
budding Examples: Hydra and sponges.

2. Binary Fission:This
This method of reproduction is seen iin n unicellular animals, example-
example
amoeba. In this method, an organism divides and forms two daughter cells. First the
nucleus divides and forms two daughter nuclei. Then the cytoplasm in the mother cell
divides into two daughter cells. This leads to the form
formation
ation of the two daughter cells each
having a nucleus and its own cell organelles which then develop into a fully formed adult.
Example- paramaecium, leishmania etc.
Cloning:
1. Cloning is process of production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living
livin part, or a
complete organism. Cloning process of an animal was successfully performed for the first
time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly.

2.
During the process of cloning sheep named Dolly, a cell was collected from the
mammary gland of a female Finn Dorsett sheep. Simultaneously, an egg was collected
from a Scottish blackface ewe. The nucleus was removed from the egg. After that, the
nucleus of the mammary gland d cell from the Finn Dorsett sheep was inserted into the egg
of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had been removed. Then this egg was
implanted into the Scottish blackface ewe. Development of this egg followed normally
and then finally Dolly was bor
born.
n. It was found to be absolutely identical to the Finn
Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken.
 Chapter_Reaching the age of Adolescence

Adolescence: Adolescence is that period of life when many changes start taking place in
the body; which results in reproductive maturity. It usually begins at around age of 10
years and is seen till 18 or 19 years of age.
Adolescents are also called as teenagers as teen age period is also covered up in
adolescence.

Teenage: The number of years during adolescence span is counted as ‘teen’, .e.g.
thirteen, fourteen and fifteen. Hence, this duration is also termed as teenage.

Puberty: The process of transformations taking place during adolescence period is

known as puberty. The onset of puberty points out the starting of adolescence. And the
end of adolescence or puberty informs about the completion of reproductive maturity.

The Various Changes taking place during puberty

1. Increase in Height:
(i) It is the most visible change noticed during the puberty.
(ii) In the beginning, it is observed that the girls grow faster than boys, but, on reaching
18 years of age, both gain their maximum height. Also, the rate of growth in height
differs individually.
(iii) During these years, it is really significant to eat nutritious food for better
development of bones, muscles and other parts of the body.

2. Change in Body Shape:

(i) During puberty, boys will start having broad shoulders and wider chests while in case
of girls the region below the waist becomes broader.
(ii) Moreover, the muscles of boys will grow more prominently than in the girls.

3. Change in Voice
(i) During puberty, it is being noticed that voice of boys starts cracking and their voice
box or larynx starts to grow.
(ii) Adam’s apple: The increase in the size of voice box in boys is seen as a prominent
protrusion in the neck. This protrusion is called Adam’s apple.

Moreover, girls will usually have a high pitched voice while the boys will have deeper
voice.
4. Increased Activity of Sweat and Sebaceous Glands:
The Sweat glands present starts operating and produces more sweat. And the Sebaceous
glands or oil glands increased function results in pimples or acne.

5. Development of Sex Organs:

(i) Growth of sex organs takes place and are found to be more active. In males, the testes
start to produce male gametes, called sperms. And in females, the ovaries start
developing and releases one mature ovum once in 28 days.
(ii) In males, the size of the penis increases with respect to ages. On the other hand,
development of breasts is observed in females.

6. Reaching Mental, Intellectual and Emotional Maturity:

(i) Brain becomes more active and so more learning take place.
(ii) Mental and intellectual maturity is seen.

Secondary Sexual Characters: These are the characters that distinguish a male from a
female.
1. In males, growth of hair is seen on face and body. And hair growth is seen in the under
the arms and in the region above the thighs or pubic region in females.
2. Shoulders get broad and chest gets widened in males. The waist gets wide and hips get
narrow in females.
3. The development of breasts takes place in females.
4. Mood swings are seen in males as well as females. Mental and emotional maturity is
attained by both sexes. Brain gets more active and has capability of learning more.

Hormones:
Hormones are the chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands for proper
functioning taking place during adolescence in the human body
In males, at the beginning of puberty, the hormone or testosterone begins to get released
by the testes. And this results in some changes in boys like the growth of facial hair, deep
voice and hair on chest.
In females, ovaries start to produce the female hormone or estrogen which results in
breasts development on reaching puberty. Also, milk secreting glands or mammary
glands development takes place inside the breasts.
The production of these hormones is under the control of another hormone secreted from
an endocrine gland called pituitary gland. The testes and ovaries secrete sex hormones.
These sex hormones are controlled
ntrolled by the hormones secreted from the pituitary gland.
The pituitary secretes many hormones, one of which makes ova mature in the ovaries and
sperms form in the testes.

The onset of puberty is controlled by hormones

Humans Reproductive Phase:

The reproductive
eproductive stage starts with the beginning of puberty and it is observed in boys and
girls at near about same age. But, reproductive phase in males remain much longer in
comparison with females. In women, the reproductive phase starts at puberty (10 to 12
years of age) and lasts till about 50 years of age. While in males, the reproductive phase
lasts even above 60 years of age.

Menstruation:
In females, each month one egg is set free by either of the ovaries. The uterus forms a
thickening to support a foetus
us to keep it ready in case of pregnancy. If fertilization of egg
does not take place, then egg and thickening in uterus are removed in small parts. As a
result, bleeding in the vagina takes place for some days. This bleeding through vagina at
the end of menstrual
enstrual cycle, is known as menstruation.
The sequence of events starting from the release of an egg and till egg gets removed is
called menstrual cycle. A menstrual cycle normally comprise of 28 to 30 days.

Menarche: It is the first menstrual bleeding in a girl’s life. And it indicates the beginning
of puberty in a girl.

Menopause: It is the ending of menstrual cycle. And it is observed at around 45 – 50

years of age. Menopause indicates the end of reproductive phase.

Hormones Other Than Sex Hormones: Sex hormones are not the only hormones
responsible for changes during adolescence. There are few other hormones that act in the
background.

Position of Endocrine Glands in the Human body

1. Thyroxine: It is released by the thyroid glands and is present inn the front part of the
neck. In case of improper secretion of thyroxine, it leads to swelling of the throat, a
disease called goitre.
2. Insulin: It is hormone, which is responsible for controlling the sugar level in our
body. And this hormone is secrete
secreted
d by the pancreas. If insulin is not secreted properly,
then blood sugar level might increase and can result into a condition called diabetes.

3. Adrenaline: It is released from a pair of adrenal glands at the top of kidneys.

Adrenaline is called as "fight-flight
flight hormone". It is the hormone of emergency. It also
helps in balancing the salt level in the blood.

Sex Determination

Will it be a Boy or Girl?

Gender of a child is dependent on the combination of chromosomes taking place in the
zygote. In human beings,
eings, normally a cell has 46 chromosomes, i.e. 23 pairs of
chromosomes. Out of these 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs are identical. But chromosomes in
the 23rd pair may be same or different.
There are two kinds of chromosomes in 23rd pair. They are known as X and an Y
chromosomes. The last pair (i.e. 23rd) in a male has XY combination, while in case of
female it has XX combination.
1. Birth of girl will take place when a sperm with X chromosome fertilizes the egg.
2. Birth of boy will take place when a sperm with Y chromosome fertilizes the egg.

Sex Determination

Role of Hormones in Completing the Life History of Insects and Frogs:

The life span of insects can be categorized into four stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa and Adult.
Metamorphosis: It is the change of insect fr
from larva to an adult.
Hormones in insects control the metamorphosis under the action of thyroxine hormone
produced by thyroid.

Reproductive Health:
1. Balanced Diet: During adolescence there is need of proper balanced diet. Proper
amount of carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals must be included in food.

2. Personal Hygiene: Many physical and psychological changes are observed during
adolescence. If good hygiene is not undertaken, it may result into skin diseases. And
Girls need special attention during menstrual period.

3. Physical Exercise: Physical exercise not only helps in making a strong body but also
helps in proper energy utilization.

4. Say ‘NO’ to Drugs: During teen age, anyone might get affected by the negative
energies surrounding him. At such times, falling for drugs can ruin your life.

5. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency

Disease) is caused due to this virus. It is incurable disease as yet no medicine can cure it.
It might spread due to sexual contact, because of infected needles and from an infected
mother to her unborn child. . Hence, prevention is the only way to keep away from this
dangerous disease.
 Chapter_Force & Pressure

Force:
(i) Force is a push or a pull.
(ii) Living and non- living things can apply force.
(iii) To apply a force over an object interaction between object and source of force is
necessary.
(iv) Whenever force act two object are involved. One which applied force, the other
which receive force.
Examples: To kick ball we need to push it, to pick the book we need to pull it, to hit the
ball we need to push it and to lift the box we need to push it.

Direction and Magnitude of Force:

(i) The measurement of strength and amount of force is called magnitude of force.
(ii) Two or more forces on the same object can be applied in the same direction and
opposite direction.

1. When two or more forces are applied over an object in the same direction:
When two or more forces are applied in the same direction, then the total or net force is
the addition of magnitude of both the forces.
Example: When two persons push the box in the same direction with the magnitude of
forces of each 2 N, then resultant force will be-
Net force:- 2N + 2N= 4N (In the direction of applied force)

2. When two forces are applied over an object in the opposite direction:
When two forces are applied over an object in the opposite directions, the total effective
or net force is the difference of magnitude of two forces.
Example:
(i) When two persons push the box in the opposite direction with the magnitude of forces
of each 2 N, then resultant force will be-
Net force:- 2N - 2N= 0N (Box will not move)
(ii) If one person is applying a force of 6 unit in one direction and another person is
applying a force of 8 unit in opposite direction,
Then the resultant force: 8N - 6N= 2N (In the direction of higher magnitude force)
In this case, force will act in the direction of higher magnitude of force.
Effect of Forces:-
1. Force can change the state of motion: An Object can be in two states.
(a) Rest State: When an object is not moving. This means a stationary object is called in
the state of rest. For example –A ball and book kept over the ground and not moving.
(b) Motion State: A moving object is called in the state of motion. For example – a
moving car, a moving ball, etc.
A Force can move a stationary object. A force can speed up, decrease the speed and
change the direction of a moving object. Force can stop a moving object. Finally we can
say that force can change the state of motion

Some examples:
(i) A boy want to move a tyre faster it has to be pushed repeatedly.

(ii) Change in the direction of moving ball after it strikes the ruler placed in its path.
(iii) In the Football game, a goalkeeper stops the football going towards the goal post
by applying a force by his hand.
(iv) In the cricket game, a batsman can push a fast moving ball in the same direction or
opposite direction or change the direction of the movement of ball. Because of force
being applied from his bat.

2. Force can change the shape of an object:

(i) When you apply force on an inflated balloon by pressing it using your hand from both
sides, then the force of pressure changes the shape of balloon.

(ii) You can change the shape of rubber band and spring by stretching it in opposite
direction.

(iii)You can change the shape of dough into bread by applying force with a rolling pin.
So we can say that forces can change the shape of an object.

Types of Force:
1. Contact Force:
(a) For contact force, interaction between objects is necessary. Force that comes into
action after the interaction between objects is called contact force. Contact force works
on the point of contact. Example; pushing a car, hitting the ball, kicking a ball, etc.
(b) Muscular force, friction force are types of contact force.
 (a) Muscular force:
(i) Force due to the action of muscles is called muscular force. We can say force
resulting because of action of muscle is called muscular force.
(ii) Muscular force is applied only after interaction with the object.
Examples:
(a) When we push the object like school bag or lift the bucket of water we use the
muscular force.
(b) Animals also use of muscular force to carry out their task.

(b) Friction Force:

(i) The forces of friction arises between the surfaces of two objects
(ii) The force of friction always acts on all moving object and its direction is always
opposite to the direction of motion.
(iii)Force of friction comes into action only after interaction between two objects, thus, it
is a type of contact force.
(a) Due to force of friction between the surface of the ball and the ground that brings the
moving ball to rest.
(b) When we stop pedalling a bicycle, it gradually slow down and finally comes to s stop
due to force of friction.

2. Non- Contacting Force:

(i) Force due to without interaction between two objects is called non-contact force. For
example; a magnet can pull an iron nail from a distance.
(ii) Magnetic force, Electrostatic force and Gravitational force are examples of non-
contact force.

(a) Magnetic Force:

(i) A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact with it.
(ii) The force exerted by a magnet is an example of a non-contact force.
Example: Opposite pole of two magnets attract each other and same pole repel each
other.

(b) Electrostatic Force:

(i)When a charged body exert a force on another charged or uncharged body is called
electrostatic force.
A charged body attracts an uncharged body.
(ii) A positively charged body attracts a negatively charged body and repels a positively
charged body without coming in contact, thus it is a non-contact force.
(c) Gravitational Force:
(i) Gravitation force is exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets to others.
(ii) Earth and other planets attract all objects towards them. Since, earth attracts all
objects even without coming in contact, thus gravitational force is a non-contact force.
Example: When we release an object from a height, it falls over the ground because of
gravitational attraction of earth.

Pressure:
The force acting on per unit area of a surface is called pressure. We can say force per unit
area is called pressure.
Pressure = Force / Area
From above formula, we can say that with same applied force, Pressure is indirectly
proportional to the area, thus pressure decreases with increase in area and increases with
decrease in area.
Example:
(i) When we cut an apple, we need to use the sharp edge of the knife instead of blunt
knife because the sharp edge of knife has small surface area and we need to exert less
force with high pressure to cut the apple.
(ii) When we put a nail into a wooden board, the pointed end of the nail is kept at the
front. The pointed end of the nail has very small surface area and this enables us to apply
a greater pressure with the applied force.

Pressure exerted by Liquid and Gas:

(i) Liquid and gas can also exert pressure on inner walls of the container in which they
are kept.
(ii) When air is filled, a rubber balloon gets inflated from all sides. This happens due to
air or gas exerts pressure over inner walls of the balloon.
(iii) Water starts leaking if there is a pore in the bottle. This happens due to water exerts
pressure over the walls of the bottle.

Atmospheric Pressure:
(i) Our atmosphere is made of different types of gases. Since gases exert pressure, thus
Pressure exerted by air (present in atmosphere) is called atmospheric pressure.
(ii) The weight of air in a column of the height of the atmosphere and area 10 cm × 10 cm
is as large as 1000 kg. The reason we are not crushed under this weight is that the
pressure inside our bodies is also equal to the atmospheric pressure and cancels the
pressure from outside.
(iii) A pressed rubber sucker on a plane surface does not come off because of
atmospheric pressure.