DRAWING INSTRUMENTS

Chapter - 1A
AND THEIR USES

Drawing Instruments are used to prepare neat and accurate Drawings. To a greater extent, the ac-
curacy of the Drawings depend on the quality of instruments used to prepare them. The following is the list
of Drawing Instruments and other materials required.
a) Drawing Board
b) T-square or Drafter (Drafting machine)
c) Set Squares
d) Protractor
e) Drawing Instrument Box
f) Drawing Sheet
g) Drawing Pencils
h) Drawing Pins/Clips
a) Drawing Board :
Drawing board is made from strips of well seasoned soft wood generally 25 mm thick. It is cleated
at the back by two battens to prevent warping. One of the shorter edges of the rectangular board is pro-
vided with perfectly straight ebony edge which is used as working edge on which the T-square is moved
while making Drawings.
Battens

Working edge
(ebony)

Fig. 1A.1

Note: When Minidrafter (Drafting machine) is used to prepare Drawings, the working edge is not
used.
 2 Computer Aided Engineering Drawing

Drawing board size:

Drawing boards are made in various sizes. The selection of Drawing board depends on the size of
drawing paper used. The sizes of Drawing board recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards (B.I.S) is given
below

Standard size of Drawing boards

Designation Size (mm) Designation Size (mm)
B0 1500 × 1000 B3 500 × 350
B1 1000 × 700 B4 250 × 350
B2 700 × 500

b) T-square :
T-squares are made from hard wood. A T-square consists of two parts namely the stock and the
blade joined together at right angles to each other by means of screws and Pins as shown in figure 1A.2. The
stock is made to slide along the working edge and the Blade moves on the Drawing board.

Working edge

Stock

Blade
Screws

Fig. 1A.2

The working edge of T-square is used to draw parallel lines, vertical lines or inclined lines at 30°, 60o
to the horizontal using set squares.

Drafting machine (or Drafter):

In a Drafting machine, the uses and advantages of T-square, set square, scales, protractors are
combined. One end of the Drafter is clamped at the left top end of the Drawing board by a screw provided
in the drafter.
An adjustable head with a Protractor is fitted at the other end of the Drafter. Two blades made of
transparent celluloid material are fitted to the adjustable head and are perfectly perpendicular to each other.
These blades are used to draw parallel, horizontal, vertical and inclined lines. The blades always move parallel
to the edges of the board. Use of Drafting machine helps in reducing the time required to prepare Drawing.
 Drawing Instruments and their Uses 3

Parallel bar arm

Scale

Angle

Parallel bar arm

Scale
Potractor

Drawing board Drawing sheet

Fig. 1A.3

c) Set Squares :
Set squares are generally made from Plastic or celluloid material. They are triangular in shape with
one corner, a right angle triangle. A pair of set squares (30°–60°) and 45° (45° set square are generally pro-
vided with Protractor) facilitate marking of angles as shown in figures 1A.4 and 1A.5.
They are used to draw lines at 30°, 60° and 45° to the vertical and horizontal.

mm
mm
11

11
10

10
9

9
8

8
7

7
6

6
5

5
4

4
3

3
2

2
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6
mm

mm

Fig. 1A.5. 30 −60 Set Square

0 0 0
Fig. 1A.4. 45 Set Square
4 Computer Aided Engineering Drawing

1
1

2
2

3
3
4

5
5
6

6
80 10 0 11
70 90 0 12

7
7
60 80 7
0
13
100
50 0 110
0 60 0
2

8
8
01 50

14
13

40

0
40

15
40
30

9
9

01

0 16
30
0 15
20

20

10
10

180 17 0 1 6

170 180
10

10 0

11
11

m
m

m
m
Fig. 1A.6. 450 Set Square with Protractor

d) Protractor:
Protractors are used to mark or measure angles between 0 and 180°. They are semicircular in shape
(of diameter 100mm) and are made of Plastic or celluloid which has more life. Protractors with circular shape
capable of marking and measuring 0 to 360° are also available in the market.

80 100
70 90 11 0
10 0 80 12 0
60 11 0 70
60 13
50 12 0 0
0 50
13

14
40

0
0

40
14

15
30

0
0

30
15

1 60
20
16 0

20

1 70
10
17 0

10

180
180

0
0

Fig. 1A.7

e) Drawing Instrument Box :

It consists of the following
a) Large size compasses,
b) Large size divider,
c) Small size bow pen, bow divider, and
d) Lengthening bar

f) Drawing sheet:
They are available in many varieties and good quality paper with smooth surface should be selected
for Drawings which are to be preserved for longer time. Sizes of Drawing Sheets recommended by Bureau
of Indian Standards (B.I.S) is given below,
 Drawing Instruments and their Uses 5

Standard size of Drawing sheet

Designation Size (mm) Designation Size (mm)
A0 1189 × 841 A3 420 × 297
A1 841 × 594 A4 297 × 210
A2 594 × 420 A5 210 × 148

g) Drawing Pencils:
The accuracy and appearance of a Drawing depends on the quality of Pencil used to make Draw-
ing. The grade of a Pencil lead is marked on the Pencil. HB denotes medium grade. Increase in hardness
is shown by value put in front of H such as 2H, 3H etc., Softer pencils are marked as 2B, 3B, 4B etc. A
Pencil marked 3B is softer than 2B and Pencil marked 4B is softer than 3B and so on. Beginning of a Draw-
ing may be made with H or 2H. For lettering and dimensioning, H and HB Pencils are used.

h) Drawing Pins and clips:

These are used to fix the Drawing sheet on the Drawing board.

Compass:
Compass is used for drawing circles and arcs of circles. The compass has two legs hinged at one
end. One of the legs has a pointed needle fitted at the lower end where as the other end has provision for
inserting pencil lead. Circles upto 120mm diameters are drawn by keeping the legs of compass straight. For
drawing circles more than 150 mm radius, a lengthening bar is used. It is advisable to keep the needle end
about 1mm long compared to that of pencil end so that while drawing circles, when the needle end is pressed
it goes inside the drawing sheet by a small distance (approximately 1mm). Refer fig. 1A.8.

Fig. 1A.8 Compass

BASIC DRAWING / OFFICE EQUIPMENT - 1

Drawing Pencils are a basic requirement of any graphics course. You need a num-
ber ranging from 2B to 2H. These letters refer to the hardness of the pencil lead.
When sketching a soft lead such as 2B is can be used to produce quick drawings
and shading. On the other hand , when drawing precisely a 2H or even a harder
pencil such as a 4H is ideal. This type of pencil keeps its sharp edge for longer and
produces very fine lines.

SOFTER LEAD HARDER LEAD

4B 3B 2B 2H 3H 4H

A refillable pencil is very useful especially if you are constructing a drawing that
needs a constant thickness of line. The refills for the pencil are available in a
range of thicknesses and they are either hard or soft leads. Disadvantages are that
the refillable pencils are relatively expensive and so are the refills. Also the lead
tends to beak easily.

Ink fountain pens can be used for producing ‘fancy’ styles of writing. Often the
pens can be bought with a variety of ‘nibs’ as a set. These can be used to draw /
write in a vast range of styles. This type of writing is called ‘Calligraphy’. Ink
pens are rarely used now as word processing software can be used to produce
accurate styles of writing in a range of fonts.

A protractor is used to measure angles. A typical protractor is a semi-circular

piece of plastic with 180 degrees printed around its curve. This piece of equip-
ment is not only used in graphics for constructing accurate drawings but is also
used in subjects like Mathematics

A compass is an absolute essential piece of equipment. It is well worth buying

a good set which includes at least two compasses allowing the drawing of
small and large circles. The drawing opposite is a ‘bow’ compass, this is used
for drawing small circles very accurately. Cheap compasses tend to slip on the
paper and break quite easily. A good, quality compass set will last a life time.
 BASIC DRAWING / OFFICE EQUIPMENT - 2

When drawing, sketching or attempting basic graphics work the equipment shown below is very
useful and sometimes essential

A fine pen (colour - normally black) is used to draw permanent, accurate

lines. Fine pens are available with various thicknesses of 'tips'. They are
especially useful for printing and placing notes alongside designs and
sketches. They are also used for producing the final outline of a design.
Fine pens are relatively cheap and come in a range of colours.

T-Squares are use to draw horizontal lines. They are especially useful
when constructing accurate orthographic drawings or architectural draw-
ings. A T-Square is normally used with a drawing board, set squares and
clips. It must be pushed firmly against the edge of the drawing board
when it is being used.

Set Squares are used to draw accurate angles. The most common are 45
and 60/30 degrees. When using set squares they should always used along
with a T-Square. The Set-square rest on the straight edge of the T-Square
and this ensures when the angle is drawn that it is accurate.

A ruler is possibly one of the most important pieces of drawing equipment. Rulers should only to
used to measure distances with lines being drawn with T-Squares and Set Squares. However, most
people use rulers to draw straight lines. But it must be remembered that the edge of a ruler is not
guaranteed to have a perfectly straight edge unlike a good T-Square or Set Square.
BASIC DRAWING / OFFICE EQUIPMENT - 3

Circle templates are very useful. They are plastic with a number of
accurate circles cut out. They are used to draw circles of set diameters/
sizes and are particularly useful if the circle is small. Small circles are
difficult to draw using a traditional compass because the compass can
easily slip on the paper. With a template the circle diameter is selected
and a sharp pencil is used to draw round the cutout circle.

Ellipse templates are similar to circle templates and these are useful
for drawing ellipse / oval shapes accurately.

A craft knife is used to cut out card shapes It is important that a steel
ruler is used as the sharp blade of the craft knife is less likely to slip. a
cutting mat should be placed below the card being cut. Also, if a plas-
tic ruler is used the knife can easily cut into its straight edge, damag-
ing it. Great care must be taken when using a craft knife as they are
very sharp, if they slip they can cut hands and fingers very badly.

Pencil sharpeners are essential for sharpening pencils. Accurate drawings

cannot be produced unless they are sharp. However, when shading a blunt
pencil is sometimes useful.

A craft knife can also be used to sharpen pencils. Normal pencil sharpen-
ers tend to shorten the lead as the sharpener is turned. This means that the
pencil needs sharpening often. On the other hand when using a craft knife,
the lead can be left quite long. Also, a small piece of glass paper can be
used to give a precise edge to the lead. A ‘chisel’ shaped point is ideal for
drawing accurate lines.
BASIC DRAWING / OFFICE EQUIPMENT - 4

A Flexi-curve is used to draw curves. It can be formed into almost

any curve as it is flexible. Flex-curves are useful as they are simply
shaped to form the desired curve. However, a flex-curve is delicate
and if forced into a tight curve it will break.

French Curves are purchased in sets of three or four. They are used
to draw curves by finding the section of curve that matches the de-
sired shape on the profile of the curve.
Some French Curves also have either circles or ellipses of various
sizes cut out. These can be used in the same way as circle or ellipse
templates.

A Parallel Rule is used to draw parallel lines. It is basically two

rulers held together by two linkages. The linkages provide the par-
allel motion. The rulers have scales either metric, imperial or both.

An Adjustable Square is a set square which can be adjusted to al-

most any angle. When adjusted a small screw is hand tightened,
locking the set square in position. This means that there is no need
to have both 45 and 30/60 degree set squares. They are much
more expensive than normal set squares.

A compass cutter is extremely useful if you are attempting to cut

circles in card or paper. using scissors often produces poor results
but a compass cutter usually cuts accurately. The compass cutter
can be adjusted to cut circles of varying sizes. The cutting point is
a craft knife blade. care should still be taken when using this type
of cutter.
 SCALES

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE

ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION CREATES A SCALE FOR FULL SIZE SCALE
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION.. R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE MEANS DRAWING
AND & OBJECT ARE OF
SAME SIZE.
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR.
Other RFs are described
as
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED
1:10, 1:100,
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE.
1:1000, 1:1,00,000
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.

USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
=
ACTUAL LENGTH
AREA OF DRAWING
=
V ACTUAL AREA
VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
=3
V ACTUAL VOLUME

B LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

 BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 HECTOMETRE= 10 DECAMETRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 METRES
1 METRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE= 10 MILIMETRES

TYPES OF SCALES:
1. PLAIN SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)
2. DIAGONAL SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
3. VERNIER SCALES ( FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS)
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES ( FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS ( FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
 PLAIN SCALE:- This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division.
PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.
Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

CONSTRUCTION:- DIMENSION OF DRAWING

PLAIN SCALE
a) Calculate R.F.=
DIMENSION OF OBJECT

R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10 0 1 2 3 4 5 METERS
DECIMETERS
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000
PLAIN SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM 3HM

10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
KILOMETERS
HECTOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.

CONSTRUCTION:-
PLAIN SCALE
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)

Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour

= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one minute.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM

KM 5 2.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KM

MIN 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions, such
as a unit and it’s subunit or it’s fraction.
DIAGONAL
SCALE
The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions
that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit.

The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.

Let the XY in figure be a subunit. X Y
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height. 10
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts. 9
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions 8
and number them as shown.
7
From geometry we know that similar triangles have
their like sides proportional. 6
5
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z, 4
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
3
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
:. 2
Similarly 1
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY Z
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES will

make the principles of diagonal scales clear.
 PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
DIAGONAL
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km SCALE
SOLUTION STEPS: RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 10 5 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown. Join 9 th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km
222 km
10
9
8
7
6
KM

5
4
3
2
1
0
KM
100 50 100
0 200 300 400 500KM
R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

 PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION : DIAGONAL
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters SCALE
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal parts.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 cm
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9 th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000 Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters

10
9
8
7
6
5
M

4
3
2
1
0
100 50 100
M 0 200 300 400 500M
R.F. = 1 / 4000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters
and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.

SOLUTION STEPS: DIAGONAL

R.F. = 1 / 2.5 SCALE
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1.Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts.
(Each part will represent a length of 5 cm.)
2.Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3.At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and
on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length.
4.Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it.

13 .4 CM

10
9
8
7
6
MM

5
4
3
2
1
0
CM 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 CENTIMETRES

R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.
 CONIC SECTIONS
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA ARE CALLED CONIC SECTIONS
BECAUSE
THESE CURVES APPEAR ON THE SURFACE OF A CONE
WHEN IT IS CUT BY SOME TYPICAL CUTTING PLANES.
OBSERVE
ILLUSTRATIONS
GIVEN BELOW..

Ellipse

Section Plane Section Plane

Through Generators Hyperbola
Parallel to Axis.

Section Plane Parallel

to end generator.
 COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA & HYPERBOLA:
These are the loci of points moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances
from a fixed point And a fixed line always remains constant.
The Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY. (E)
A) For Ellipse E<1
B) For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1

Refer Problem nos. 6. 9 & 12

SECOND DEFINATION OF AN ELLIPSE:-
It is a locus of a point moving in a plane
such that the SUM of it’s distances from TWO fixed points
always remains constant.
{And this sum equals to the length of major axis.}
These TWO fixed points are FOCUS 1 & FOCUS 2
Refer Problem no.4
Ellipse by Arcs of Circles Method.
 ELLIPSE
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD
Problem 1 :-
Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.
3
Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm 2 4
Steps: long.
1. Draw both axes as perpendicular bisectors C
of each other & name their ends as shown.
2. Taking their intersecting point as a center, 1 5
3
2 4
draw two concentric circles considering both
as respective diameters.
1 5
3. Divide both circles in 12 equal parts &
name as shown.
A B
4. From all points of outer circle draw vertical
lines downwards and upwards respectively.
5.From all points of inner circle draw 10 6
horizontal lines to intersect those vertical
lines. 10 9 7 6
6. Mark all intersecting points properly as 8
those are the points on ellipse. D
7. Join all these points along with the ends of
both axes in smooth possible curve. It is 9 7
required ellipse.
8
Steps:
ELLIPSE
BY RECTANGLE METHOD
1 Draw a rectangle taking major
and minor axes as sides.
2. In this rectangle draw both
Problem 2
axes as perpendicular bisectors of
each other.. Draw ellipse by Rectangle method.
3. For construction, select upper Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70
left part of rectangle. Divide mm long.
vertical small side and horizontal
long side into same number of D 4
4
equal parts.( here divided in four
parts) 3 3
4. Name those as shown..
5. Now join all vertical points 2 2
1,2,3,4, to the upper end of minor
1 1
axis. And all horizontal points
i.e.1,2,3,4 to the lower end of
minor axis. A B
6. Then extend C-1 line upto D-1
and mark that point. Similarly
extend C-2, C-3, C-4 lines up to
D-2, D-3, & D-4 lines.
7. Mark all these points properly
and join all along with ends A
and D in smooth possible curve.
Do similar construction in right C
side part.along with lower half of
the rectangle.Join all points in
smooth curve.
It is required ellipse.
 ELLIPSE
Problem 3:- BY OBLONG METHOD
Draw ellipse by Oblong method.
Draw a parallelogram of 100 mm and 70 mm
long sides with included angle of 750.Inscribe
STEPSEllipse in it. TO
ARE SIMILAR
THE PREVIOUS CASE
(RECTANGLE METHOD)
ONLY IN PLACE OF RECTANGLE,
HERE IS A PARALLELOGRAM.

4 4

3 3

2 2

1
1

A B
PROBLEM 4. ELLIPSE
MAJOR AXIS AB & MINOR AXIS CD ARE
BY ARCS OF CIRCLE METHOD
100 AMD 70MM LONG RESPECTIVELY
.DRAW ELLIPSE BY ARCS OF CIRLES
METHOD.
As per the definition Ellipse is locus of point P moving in
a plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from two fixed
STEPS:
points (F1 & F2) remains constant and equals to the length
1.Draw both axes as usual.Name the
of major axis AB.(Note A .1+ B .1=A . 2 + B. 2 = AB)
ends & intersecting point
2.Taking AO distance I.e.half major
axis, from C, mark F1 & F2 On AB . p4 C
( focus 1 and 2.) p3
3.On line F1- O taking any distance, p2
mark points 1,2,3, & 4
p1
4.Taking F1 center, with distance A-1
draw an arc above AB and taking F2
center, with B-1 distance cut this arc.
Name the point p1
5.Repeat this step with same centers but A B
1 2 3 4 O
taking now A-2 & B-2 distances for F1 F2
drawing arcs. Name the point p2
6.Similarly get all other P points.
With same steps positions of P can be
located below AB.
7.Join all points by smooth curve to get
an ellipse/
D
 PROBLEM 5.
ELLIPSE
BY RHOMBUS METHOD
DRAW RHOMBUS OF 100 MM & 70 MM LONG
DIAGONALS AND INSCRIBE AN ELLIPSE IN IT.

STEPS: 2
1. Draw rhombus of given
dimensions.
2. Mark mid points of all sides &
name Those A,B,C,& D
3. Join these points to the ends of A B
smaller diagonals.
4. Mark points 1,2,3,4 as four
centers.
5. Taking 1 as center and 1-A 3 4
radius draw an arc AB.
6. Take 2 as center draw an arc
CD.
7. Similarly taking 3 & 4 as centers
D C
and 3-D radius draw arcs DA &
BC.

1
PROBLEM 6:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE ELLIPSE
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 }

ELLIPSE
A
STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 45mm
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex) V
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from F ( focus)
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.

B
PROBLEM 7: A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT
PARABOLA
AND COVERS HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON GROUND. RECTANGLE METHOD
Draw the path of the ball (projectile)-

STEPS: 6
6
1.Draw rectangle of above size and
divide it in two equal vertical parts
2.Consider left part for construction. 5 5
Divide height and length in equal
number of parts and name those
1,2,3,4,5& 6 4
3.Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the
4
top center of rectangle
4.Similarly draw upward vertical
lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5 3 3
And wherever these lines intersect
previously drawn inclined lines in
sequence Mark those points and 2 2
further join in smooth possible curve.
5.Repeat the construction on right side
rectangle also.Join all in sequence. 1 1
This locus is Parabola.
.

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Problem no.8: Draw an isosceles triangle of 100 mm long base and PARABOLA
110 mm long altitude.Inscribe a parabola in it by method of tangents. METHOD OF TANGENTS

Solution Steps: C
1. Construct triangle as per the given
dimensions.
2. Divide it’s both sides in to same no.of
equal parts.
3. Name the parts in ascending and
descending manner, as shown.
4. Join 1-1, 2-2,3-3 and so on.
5. Draw the curve as shown i.e.tangent to
all these lines. The above all lines being
tangents to the curve, it is called method
of tangents.

A B
 PROBLEM 9: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB.
PARABOLA
DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

PARABOLA
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to A
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P and also the vertex.
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from P1
those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and (VERTEX)V
name it 1. F
4.Take O-1 distance as radius and F as
O 1 2 3 4
center draw an arc ( focus)
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2.
P2
(FP1=O1)

5.Similarly repeat this process by taking

again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3P4.
B
6.Join all these points in smooth curve.

It will be the locus of P equidistance

from line AB and fixed point F.
 HYPERBOLA
PROBLEM 12:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE DIRECTRIX
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT
AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 }
FOCUS METHOD

STEPS: A
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 30mm
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex)
V
F ( focus)
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.

B
 LOCUS
It is a path traced out by a point moving in a plane,
in a particular manner, for one cycle of operation.

The cases are classified in THREE categories for easy understanding.

A} Basic Locus Cases.
B} Oscillating Link……
C} Rotating Link………
Basic Locus Cases:
Here some geometrical objects like point, line, circle will be described with there relative
Positions. Then one point will be allowed to move in a plane maintaining specific relation
with above objects. And studying situation carefully you will be asked to draw it’s locus.
Oscillating & Rotating Link:
Here a link oscillating from one end or rotating around it’s center will be described.
Then a point will be allowed to slide along the link in specific manner. And now studying
the situation carefully you will be asked to draw it’s locus.

STUDY TEN CASES GIVEN ON NEXT PAGES

 Basic Locus Cases:
PROBLEM 1.: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB.
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

P7
A P5
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to P3
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P.
P1
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and p
name it 1. 1 2 3 4
F
4 3 2 1
4.Take F-1 distance as radius and F as
center draw an arc
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2. P2
5.Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate
P4
P3P4.
6.Join all these points in smooth curve. P6
B P8
It will be the locus of P equidistance
from line AB and fixed point F.
 Basic Locus Cases:
PROBLEM 2 :
A circle of 50 mm diameter has it’s center 75 mm from a vertical
line AB.. Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that
it always remains equidistant from given circle and line AB. P7
P5
A
SOLUTION STEPS: P3
1.Locate center of line, perpendicular to 50 D
AB from the periphery of circle. This
will be initial point P. P1
2.Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3.Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and p
name it 1,2,3,4.
4 3 2 1
C
1 2 3 4
4.Take C-1 distance as radius and C as
center draw an arc cutting first parallel
line to AB. Name upper point P1 and
lower point P2.
P2
5.Similarly repeat this process by taking
again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3P4. P4
6.Join all these points in smooth curve.
B P6
It will be the locus of P equidistance
P8
from line AB and given circle.

75 mm
 Drawings
(Some Types)

Portraits
Botanical Drawings ( human faces,
Nature Drawings ( plants, flowers etc.) expressions etc.)
( landscape, Geographical
scenery etc.) Zoological Drawings
Drawings Engineering Drawings,
(creatures, animals etc.)
( maps etc.) (projections.)

Building Related Drawings. Machine component Drawings

Orthographic Projections Isometric ( Mech.Engg.Term.)

(Fv,Tv & Sv.-Mech.Engg terms) or Perspective(Civil Engg.Term)
(Plan, Elevation- Civil Engg.terms)
(Working Drawings 2-D type) (Actual Object Drawing 3-D)
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
IT IS A TECHNICAL DRAWING IN WHICH DIFFERENT VIEWS OF AN OBJECT
ARE PROJECTED ON DIFFERENT REFERENCE PLANES
OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESPECTIVE REFERENCE PLANE
Different Reference planes are
Horizontal Plane (HP),
Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )
Side Or Profile Plane ( PP)
And
Different Views are Front View (FV), Top View (TV) and Side View (SV)
FV is a view projected on VP.
TV is a view projected on HP.
SV is a view projected on PP.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
1 Planes.
2 Pattern of planes & Pattern of views
3 Methods of drawing Orthographic Projections
 PLANES
1
PRINCIPAL PLANES
HP AND VP

AUXILIARY PLANES

Auxiliary Vertical Plane Auxiliary Inclined Plane Profile Plane

(A.V.P.) (A.I.P.) ( P.P.)

A.V.P.
 to Hp &  to Vp
 PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS (First Angle Method)
2
THIS IS A PICTORIAL SET-UP OF ALL THREE PLANES.
ARROW DIRECTION IS A NORMAL WAY OF OBSERVING THE OBJECT.
BUT IN THIS DIRECTION ONLY VP AND A VIEW ON IT (FV) CAN BE SEEN.
THE OTHER PLANES AND VIEWS ON THOSE CAN NOT BE SEEN.

PROCEDURE TO SOLVE ABOVE PROBLEM:-

TO MAKE THOSE PLANES ALSO VISIBLE FROM THE ARROW DIRECTION,
A) HP IS ROTATED 900 DOUNWARD
B) PP, 900 IN RIGHT SIDE DIRECTION.
THIS WAY BOTH PLANES ARE BROUGHT IN THE SAME PLANE CONTAINING VP.

Click to view Animation On clicking the button if a warning comes please click YES to continue, this program is
safe for your pc.

VP PP
Y
FV LSV
X Y
X TV

HP
ACTUAL PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS
HP IS ROTATED DOWNWARD 900 PP IS ROTATED IN RIGHT SIDE 900 OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
AND AND DRAWN IN
BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP. BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP. FIRST ANGLE METHOD OF PROJECTIONS
 3 Methods of Drawing Orthographic Projections

First Angle Projections Method Third Angle Projections Method

Here views are drawn Here views are drawn
by placing object by placing object
in 1st Quadrant in 3rd Quadrant.
( Fv above X-y, Tv below X-y ) SYMBOLIC ( Tv above X-y, Fv below X-y )
PRESENTATION
OF BOTH METHODS
WITH AN OBJECT
STANDING ON HP ( GROUND) TV
FV ON IT’S BASE.
X Y NOTE:- X Y
HP term is used in 1st Angle method
& FV
TV
For the same G L
Ground term is used
in 3rd Angle method of projections
 FIRST ANGLE
FOR T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE
SITUATED IN FIRST QUADRANT
MEANS
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP.

OBJECT IS INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & PLANE.

VP PP
FV LSV
X Y
TV
HP

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE METHOD
OF PROJECTIONS
 THIRD ANGLE FOR T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE
SITUATED IN THIRD QUADRANT
( BELOW HP & BEHIND OF VP. )

PLANES BEING TRANSPERENT

AND INBETWEEN
OBSERVER & OBJECT.

TV
X Y
LSV FV

ACTUAL PATTERN OF
PLANES & VIEWS
OF
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTIONS
 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.
INFORMATION REGARDING A LINE means
IT’S LENGTH,
POSITION OF IT’S ENDS WITH HP & VP
IT’S INCLINATIONS WITH HP & VP WILL BE GIVEN.
AIM:- TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS - MEANS FV & TV.

SIMPLE CASES OF THE LINE

1. A VERTICAL LINE ( LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP & // TO VP)

2. LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

3. LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

4. LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

5. LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON NEXT PAGE
SHOWING CLEARLY THE NATURE OF FV & TV
OF LINES LISTED ABOVE AND NOTE RESULTS.
 For Tv Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation) V.P.
a’
Note: a’
Fv is a vertical line
A Showing True Length Fv
1.
FV &
Tv is a point. b’
A Line b’
perpendicular Y
X Y
to Hp B

& TV a b
Tv a b
// to Vp X

H.P.
Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation) For Tv Note: V.P.
Fv & Tv both are
2. // to xy a’ Fv b’
b’ &
A Line B both show T. L.
// to Hp a’
& A Y X Y
// to Vp
b a b
Tv
X
a
H.P.
 Fv inclined to xy V.P.
3. b’
Tv parallel to xy. b’

A Line inclined to Hp B
a’ 
and  Y
parallel to Vp a’ X Y

(Pictorial presentation) A b
a
T.V. b
X
a

H.P.
Orthographic Projections

Tv inclined to xy V.P.
4. Fv parallel to xy.
a’ Fv b’
A Line inclined to Vp b’
and a’
parallel to Hp Ø
A B X Y
(Pictorial presentation) a Ø

Ø Tv
a b
b
H.P.
 For Tv For Tv
5. A Line inclined to both
b’ Hp and Vp b’
(Pictorial presentation)
B
B

 Y
Y
On removal of object a’
a’ i.e. Line AB
Fv as a image on Vp.
Tv as a image on Hp, A
A 
 X
X a T.V. b
a T.V. b
V.P.
b’
FV
a’ 

X Y
Orthographic Projections Note These Facts:-
Fv is seen on Vp clearly. Both Fv & Tv are inclined to xy.
To see Tv clearly, HP is a  (No view is parallel to xy)
rotated 900 downwards, Both Fv & Tv are reduced lengths.
Hence it comes below xy. TV (No view shows True Length)

H.P. b
 Orthographic Projections Note the procedure Note the procedure
Means Fv & Tv of Line AB When Fv & Tv known, When True Length is known,
are shown below, How to find True Length. How to locate Fv & Tv.
(Views are rotated to determine (Component a-1 of TL is drawn
with their apparent Inclinations
True Length & it’s inclinations which is further rotated
&
with Hp & Vp). to determine Fv)
V.P. V.P. V.P.
b’ b’ b 1’ b’ b1’

FV FV
TL 
a’  a’  a’  1’

X Y X Y X Y

1
a  b2 a
a  TV
Ø


TV TV

H.P. b H.P. b H.P. b b1

Here TV (ab) is not // to XY line In this sketch, TV is rotated Here a -1 is component

Hence it’s corresponding FV and made // to XY line. of TL ab1 gives length of Fv.
a’ b’ is not showing Hence it’s corresponding Hence it is brought Up to
True Length & FV a’ b1’ Is showing Locus of a’ and further rotated
True Length to get point b’. a’ b’ will be Fv.
True Inclination with Hp. Similarly drawing component
&
True Inclination with Hp. of other TL(a’ b1‘) Tv can be drawn.
The most important diagram showing graphical relations 1) True Length ( TL) – a’ b1’ & a b
among all important parameters of this topic. 2) Angle of TL with Hp -  Important
TEN parameters
Study and memorize it as a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 3) Angle of TL with Vp – Ø to be remembered
And use in solving various problems.
4) Angle of FV with xy –  with Notations

V.P. 5) Angle of TV with xy –  used here onward

Distance between
End Projectors. 6) LTV (length of FV) – Component (a-1)
b’ b1’
7) LFV (length of TV) – Component (a’-1’)
8) Position of A- Distances of a & a’ from xy
9) Position of B- Distances of b & b’ from xy
 10) Distance between End Projectors
 1’
a’
LTV
NOTE this
X Y &  Construct with a’
a LFV 1 Ø& Construct with a
Ø
b’ & b1’ on same locus.

b & b1 on same locus.

Also Remember
b b1
H.P. True Length is never rotated. It’s horizontal component is
drawn & it is further rotated to locate view.

Views are always rotated, made horizontal & further

extended to locate TL,  & Ø
 GROUP (A)
GENERAL CASES OF THE LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP
( based on 10 parameters).
PROBLEM 1)
Line AB is 75 mm long and it is 300 &
400 Inclined to Hp & Vp respectively.
End A is 12mm above Hp and 10 mm b’ b’1
in front of Vp.
Draw projections. Line is in 1st quadrant.
FV
SOLUTION STEPS: TL
1) Draw xy line and one projector.
2) Locate a’ 12mm above xy line
& a 10mm below xy line. 
3) Take 300 angle from a’ & 400 from
a and mark TL I.e. 75mm on both
a’
lines. Name those points b1’ and b1 X Y
respectively.
4) Join both points with a’ and a resp. a LFV
5) Draw horizontal lines (Locus) from Ø 1
both points.
6) Draw horizontal component of TL
a b1 from point b1 and name it 1.
( the length a-1 gives length of Fv as
we have seen already.) TV TL
7) Extend it up to locus of a’ and rotating
a’ as center locate b’ as shown.
Join a’ b’ as Fv.
8) From b’ drop a projector down ward
& get point b. Join a & b I.e. Tv.
b b1
PROBLEM 2:
Line AB 75mm long makes 450 inclination with Vp while it’s Fv makes 550.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp.If line is in 1st quadrant
draw it’s projections and find it’s inclination with Hp. b’ b’1 LOCUS OF
Solution Steps:-
1.Draw x-y line.
2.Draw one projector for a’ & a
3.Locate a’ 10mm above x-y &
Tv a 15 mm below xy.
4.Draw a line 450 inclined to xy 550
from point a and cut TL 75 mm
on it and name that point b1
Draw locus from point b1
a’
5.Take 550 angle from a’ for Fv
above xy line. X y
6.Draw a vertical line from b1
up to locus of a and name it 1.
It is horizontal component of a LFV
TL & is LFV.
1
7.Continue it to locus of a’ and
rotate upward up to the line
of Fv and name it b’.This a’ b’
line is Fv.
8. Drop a projector from b’ on
locus from point b1 and
name intersecting point b.
Line a b is Tv of line AB.
9.Draw locus from b’ and from
a’ with TL distance cut point b1‘
10.Join a’ b1’ as TL and measure
it’s angle at a’. LOCUS OF b
It will be true angle of line with HP. b b1
 PROBLEM 3:
Fv of line AB is 500 inclined to xy and
measures 55 mm long while it’s Tv is 600
inclined to xy line. If end A is 10 mm
above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp, draw it’s b’ b’1
projections,find TL, inclinations of line with
Hp & Vp.
SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and 500
a 15 mm below xy line. 
3.Draw locus from these points. a’
4.Draw Fv 500 to xy from a’ and X
mark b’ Cutting 55mm on it.
y
5.Similarly draw Tv 600 to xy
from a & drawing projector from b’ a
Locate point b and join a b. 
600
6.Then rotating views as shown,
locate True Lengths ab1 & a’b1’
and their angles with Hp and Vp.

b1
b
 PROBLEM 4 :-
Line AB is 75 mm long .It’s Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm long respectively.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections of line AB
if end B is in first quadrant.Find angle with Hp and Vp.
b’ b’1

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate a’ 10 mm above xy and
a 15 mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Cut 60mm distance on locus of a’  LTV 1’
& mark 1’ on it as it is LTV. a’
5.Similarly Similarly cut 50mm on X Y
locus of a and mark point 1 as it is LFV.
6.From 1’ draw a vertical line upward
a LFV
and from a’ taking TL ( 75mm ) in 1
compass, mark b’1 point on it. 
Join a’ b’1 points.
7. Draw locus from b’1
8. With same steps below get b1 point
and draw also locus from it.
9. Now rotating one of the components
I.e. a-1 locate b’ and join a’ with it
to get Fv.
10. Locate tv similarly and measure
Angles  & 
b1
b
 PROBLEM 5 :-
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
End C is in Hp and 50 mm in front of Vp.
End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above Hp.
Draw projections of CD and find angles with Hp andd’Vp. d’1 LOCUS OF d’ & d’1

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one projector.
2.Locate c’ on xy and
c 50mm below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these points.
4.Draw locus of d 15 mm below xy
5.Cut 50mm & 75 mm distances on c’ 
locus of d from c and mark points X Y
d & d1 as these are Tv and line CD
d d1 LOCUS OF d & d1
lengths resp.& join both with c.
6.From d1 draw a vertical line upward
up to xy I.e. up to locus of c’ and
draw an arc as shown.
7 Then draw one projector from d to
meet this arc in d’ point & join c’ d’
8. Draw locus of d’ and cut 75 mm
on it from c’ as TL
9.Measure Angles  &  c 
 LECTURE#10

Projection:

Definition: The figure or view fined by joining, in correct sequence, the points at
which these lines meet the plane is called the projection of the object.
The lines or rays drawn from the object to the plane are called projectors. The
transparent plane on which the projections are drawn is known as plane of
projection.
Concept of projection:
As per the optical physics, an object is seen when the light rays called visual rays
coming from the object strike the observer's eye. The size of the image formed in
the retina depends on the distance of the observer from the object.
If an imaginary transparent plane is introduced such that the object is in between
the observer and the plane, the image obtained on the screen is as shown in Fig.
below

This is called perspective view of the object. Here, straight lines (rays) are drawn
from various points on the contour of the object to meet the transparent plane, thus
the object is said to be projected on that plane.
Types of Projections
1. Pictorial projections
(i) Perspective projection
(ii) Isometric projection
(iii) Oblique projection
2. Orthographic Projections
1. Pictorial Projections
The Projections in which the description of the object is completely understood in
one view is known as pictorial projection. They have the advantage of conveying
an immediate impression of the general shape and details of the object, but not its
true dimensions or sizes.
2. Orthographic Projection
'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. When
the projectors are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it
is known as orthographic projection.
Terms Used
VP and H.P are called as Principal planes of projection or reference planes. They
are always transparent and at right angles to each other. The projection on VP is
designated as Front view and the projection on H.P as Top view.
Four Quadrants
When the planes of projections are extended beyond their line of intersection, they
form Four Quadrants. These quadrants are numbered as I, II, ill and IV in
clockwise direction when rotated about reference line xy as shown in Fig.10.1 and
10.2

FIG 01
 FIG 10.2

In the Figure 10.3 the object is in the first quadrant and the projections obtained are
"First angle projections" i.e. the object lies in between the observer and the planes
of projection. Front view shows the length(L) and height(H) of the object, and Top
view shows the length(L) and the breadth(B) of it.

FIG 10.3
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF FRONT, TOP AND SIDE VIEWS
 LECTURE#11

First Angle Projection:

When the object is situated in First Quadrant, that is, in front of V.P and above
H.P, the projections obtained on these planes is called First angle projection.
(i) The object lies in between the observer and the plane of projection.
(ii) The front view is drawn above the xy line and the top view below xy. (above
xy line is v.p and below xy line is H.P).
(iii) In the front view, H.P coincides with xy line and in top view v.p coincides
with xy line.
(iv) Front view shows the length(L) and height(H) of the object and Top view
shows the length(L) and breadth(B) or width(W) or thickness (T) of it.
Example On 1st Angle Projection
Problem: Point A is 40 mm above HP and 60 mm in front of v.P as shown in the
figure. Draw its front and top view.
Solution:

FIG: 11.a, 11.1b, 11.1c

1. The point A lies in the I Quadrant

2. Looking from the front, the point lies 40 mm above H.P. A-al is the projector
perpendicular to V.P. Hence al is the front view .of the point A and it is 40 mm
above the xy line.
3. To obtain the top view of A, look from the top. Point A is 60mm in front of V.P.
Aa is the projector perpendicular to H.P Hence, a is the top view of the point A and
it is 60 mm in front of xy.
4. To convert the projections al and a obtained in the pictorial view into
orthographic projections the following steps are needed.
(a) Rotate the H.P about the xy line through 90° in the clock wise direction as
shown.
(b) After rotation, the first quadrant is opened out and the H.P occupies the
position vertically below the V.P line. Also, the point a on H.P will trace a
quadrant of a circle with 0 as centre and o-a as radius. Now a occupies the position
just below o. The line joining al and a, called the projector, is perpendicular to xy
(Fig.11.1b).
5. To draw the orthographic projections.
Note:
(a) Front view: Draw the xy line an? draw sector at any point on it. Mark al 40mm
_" above xy on the projector.- .
(b) Top view: on the same projector, mark a 60 mm below xy. (Fig.11.1c)
PROBLEM 02: Draw the projections of a point A lying on HP and 25mm in front
of v.P.
Solution: (Fig.11.2)

FIG 11.02

1. Point A is lying on H.P and so its front view allies on xy line in Fig.5.1 Oa.
Therefore, mark a line xy in the orthographic projeciton and mark on it al (Fig.5.1
Ob).
2. Point A is 25mm in front of V.P and its top view a lies on H.P itself and in front
of xy.
3. Rotate the H.P through 90° in clock wise direction, the top view of the point a
now comes vertically below al .
4. In the orthographic projection “a” is 25 mm below xy on the projector drawn
from al.
Third Angle Projection

In this, the object is situated in Third Quadrant. The Planes of projection lie
between the object and the observer. The front view comes below the xy line and
the top view about it.
EXAMPLES:
Problem : A point C is 40 mm below HP and 30 mm behind v.P. Draw its
projection.
Solution : (Fig.5.03) The point C is in the3rd Quadrant
1. C is 40 mm below H.P Hence cl is 40 mm below xy.
2. Draw xy and draw projector at any point on it. Mark cl 40 mm below xy on the
projector.

FIG 5.03
3. C is 30 mm behind V.P. So c′ is 30 mm behind xy. Hence in the orthographic
projections mark c 30 mm above xy on the above projector.
Problem: A point D is 30 mm below HP and 40 mm in front of v.P. Draw its
projeciton.
Solution: (F ig.5.04) The point D is in the IV Quadrant.
1. D is 30 mm below H.P. Hence, d′ , is 30 mm below xy. Draw xy line and draw a
projector perpendicular to it. Mark d′ 30 mm below xy on the projector.
 LECTURE#12

5.5 Projecton of Points

A solid consists of a' number of planes, a plane consists of a number of lines and a
line in turn consists of number of points:-'From this, it is obvious that a solid may
be generated by a plane in space, a plane may be generated by a straight line
moving in space and a straight line in turn, may be generated by a point.
A point may lie in space in anyone of the four quadrants. The positions of a point
are:
1. First quadrant, when it lies above H.P and in front of V.P.
2. Second quadrant, when it lies above HP and behind V.P.
3. Third quadrant, when it lies below H.P and behind V.P.
4. Fourth quadrant, when it lies below H.P and in front of V.P.
Knowing the distances of a point from H.P and V.P, projections on H.P and Y.P
are found by extending the projections perpendicular to both the planes. Projection
on H.P is called Top view and projection on Y.P is called Front view.

Problem: Point A is 40 mm above HP and 60 mm in front of V.P. Draw its front

and top view.
Solution:

FIG 12.01
1. The point A lies in the I Quadrant
2. Looking from the front, the point lies 40 mm above H.P. A-al is the projector
perpendicular to V.P. Hence al is the front view .of the point A and it is 40 mm
above the xy line.
3. To obtain the top view of A, look from the top. Point A is 60mm in front of V.P.
Aa is the projector perpendicular to H.P Hence, a is the top view of the point A and
it is 60 mm in front of xy.
4. To convert the projections al and a obtained in the pictorial view into
orthographic projections the following steps are needed.
(a) Rotate the H.P about the xy line through 90° in the clock wise direction as
shown.
(b) After rotation, the first quadrant is opened out and the H.P occupies the
position vertically below the V.P line. Also, the point a on H.P will trace a
quadrant of a circle with 0 as centre and o-a as radius. Now a occupies the position
just below o. The line joining al and a, called the projector, is perpendicular to xy
(Fig.12.01b).
5. To draw the orthographic projections.
Note:
(a) Front view : Draw the xy line and draw projector at any point on it. Mark a′
40mm above xy on the projector.- .
(b) Top view: on the same projector, mark a 60 mm below xy. (Fig.12.1c)
Problem : Draw the projections of a point A lying on HP and 25mm in front of
V.P.
Solution: (Fig.12.2)
 FIG 12.2
1. Point A is lying on H.P and so its front view a′ lies on xy line in Fig.12.2 Oa.
Therefore, mark a line xy in the orthographic projeciton and mark on it a′ (Fig.12.2
b).
2. Point A is 25mm in front of V.P and its top view a lies on H.P itself and in front
of xy.
3. Rotate the H.P through 90° in clock wise direction, the top view of the point a
now comes vertically below a′ .
4. In the orthographic projection “a” is 25 mm below xy on the projector drawn
from a′.
Projection of Lines:

The shortest distance between two points is called a straight line. The projectors of
a straight line are drawn therefore by joining the projections of its end points. The
possible projections of straight. lines with respect to V.P and H.P in the first
quadrant are as follows:
I. Perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other.
2. Parallel to both the planes.
3. Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other.
4. Inclined to both the planes.
1. Line perpendicular to H.P and parallel to V.P
The pictorial view of a straight line AB in the First Quadrant is shown in Fig.12.3a.
1. Looking from the front; the front view of AB, which is parallel to v.p and
marked, albl, is obtained. True length of AB = a′ b′
2. Looking from the top; the top view of AB, which is perpendicular to H.P is
obtained a and b coincide.
3. The Position of the line AB and its projections on H.P. and V.P are shown in
Fig.12.3b.
4. The H.P is rotated through 90° in clock wise direction as shown in Fig.12.3b.
5. The projection of the line on V.P which is the front view and the projection on
H.P, the top
view are shown in Fig 12.3c.

FIG 12.3
1. Line perpendicular to v.p and parallel to H.P.
Problem: A line AB 50 mm long is perpendicular to v.p and parallel to HP. Its end
A is 20 mm in front of v.p and the line is 40 mm above HP. Draw the projections of
the line.
Solution

The line is parallel to H.P. Therefore the true length of the line is seen in the
top view. So, top view is drawn first.
 FIG 12.4
1. Draw xy line and draw a projector at any point on it.
2. Point A is 20 mm in front ofY.P. Mark a which is the top view of A at a distance
of 20 mm below xy on the projector.
3. Mark the point b on the same projector at a distance of 50 mm below a. ab is the
top view which is true length of AB.
4. To obtain the front view; mark bl at a distance 40mm above xy line on the same
projector.
5. The line AB is perpendicular to Y.P. So, the front view of the line will be a
point. Point A is hidden by B. Hence the front view is marked as b′ (a′). b′
coincides with a′ .
6. The final projections are shown in Fig.12.4c.

2. Line parallel to both the planes

Problem : A line CD 30 mm long is parallel to both the planes. The line is 40 mm
above HP and 20 mm in front of V.P. Draw its projection.
Solution: (Fig.12.5)
 FIG 12.5
1. Draw the xy line and draw a projector at any point on it.
2. To obtain the front view mark c' at a distance of 40mm above xy (H.P.). The line
CD is parallel to both the planes. Front view is true lenght and is parallel to xy.
Draw c' d' parallel to xy such that c' d' = CD = 30 mm, which is the true length.
3. To obtain the top view; the line is also parallel to V.P and 20 mm in front ofV.P.
Therefore on the projector from c', mark c at distance 20 mm below xy line.
4. Top view is also true length and parallel to xy. Hence, cd parallel to xy such that
cd=CD=30mm is the true length.(Fig.12.5).
3. Line parallel to V.P and inclined to RP.
Problem: A line AB 40 mm long is parallel to v.p and inclined at an angle of 300 to
HP. The end A is 15 mm above HP and 20 mm in front of v.P. Draw the
projections of the line.
Solution: (Fig.5.19)
1. A is 15 mm above H.P mark a', 15 mm above xy.

FIG 12.6
2. A is 20 mm in front of Y.P. Hence mark a 20 mm below xy.
3. To obtain the front view al bl; as AB is parallel to V.P and inclined at an angle a
to H.P, a′b′ will be equal to its true length and inclined at an angle of 300 to H.P.
Therefore draw a line from a1 at an angle 30° to xy and mark b′ such that a′b′ =
40mm = true length.
4. To obtain the top view ab; since the line is inclined to H.P its projection on H.P
(its top veiw) is reduced in length. From bl draw a projector to intersect the
horizontal line drawn from a at b. ab is the top view of AB.
Problem : Draw the projections of straight line AB 60 mm long parallel to HP and
inclined at an angle of 400 to v.P. The end A is 30 mm above HP. and 20 mm in
front of V.P.
Solution: (Fig.12.7)

FIG 12.7

A is 30 mm above H.P, mark aI, 30 mm above xy.

2. A is 20 mm in front of V.P, mark a 20 mm below xy.

3. To obtain the top view; as AB is parallel to H.P and inclined at an angle ~ to
Y.P, ab will be
equal to the true length of AB, and inclined at angle ɸ to xy. Therefore, draw a line
from a at 40° to xy and mark b such that ab=60 mm true length.
4. To obtain the front view a′b′, since the line is inclined to V.P its projection on
Y.P i.e., the front view will be reduced in length. Draw from b a projector to
intersect the horizontal line drawn from a at b′. a′b′ is the front view of AB.
 LECTURE #14
Sectional view:

 A section view is a view used on a drawing to show an area or hidden part of

an object by cutting away or removing some of that object.
 The cut line is called a “cutting plane”, and can be done in several ways.
Cut sections:

These are the cut-away portion of the object and another way to show hidden
components in a device.

Imagine a plane that cuts vertically through the center of the pillow block as shown in
figure below. Then imagine removing the material from the front of this plane, as
shown in figure below on right.

This is how the remaining rear section would look. Diagonal lines (cross-hatches)
show regions where materials have been cut by the cutting plane.
KIND OF Cut SECTIONS
1. Full section
2. Offset section
3. Half section
4. Broken-out section
5. Revolved section (aligned section)
1. Full section
 In a full section, the cutting plane line passes fully through the part.
 Normally a view is replaced with the full section view.
  The section-lined areas are those portions that have been in actual contact
with the cutting-plane.

Offset sections:
 Used to show parts and features that do not line up with each other.
 Cutting-plane line does not travel in a straight line.
 The offsets or bends in the cutting-plane line do not show in the section.
 The versatility of this section makes it very useful.
Half sections:
 Half Section is used to the exterior and interior of the part in the same view.
 The cutting-plane line cuts halfway through the part and removes one
quarter of the material.
 The line that separates the different types (interior and exterior) may be a
centerline or a visible line.

Broken sections:
 Used to generate a section for a small area without using a cutting-plane
line.
 Removes a small amount of material to show the interior details.
 Always used in an orthographic view.
 Used to enhance the orthographic view by giving the viewer a better look at
key interior details.
 Parts of transmission tower

A power transmission tower consists of the following parts,

1. Peak of transmission tower
2. Cross arm of transmission tower
3. Boom of transmission tower
4. Cage of transmission tower
5. Transmission Tower Body
6. Leg of transmission tower
7. Stub/Anchor Bolt and Base plate assembly of transmission tower.
 34 Engineering Drawing leh. 3

TABLE 3-3

Initial
Outlines,
lines,
Centre
work
dotted
arrowheads
lines,
and

sehion
construction
lines,
lines
section-plane

lines
-
lines, dimension
--=l
3H or 4H

,
.•
lint: Desuirlion General ••pplirations

A Continuous thick or Visible outlines, visible edges; crests

Continuous wide of screw threads; limits of length of
full.deph thread, lines of cuts and
section arrows; parting lines of
moulds in views; main representations
in diagrams, maps, flow.charts:
system lineststructural metal engg.)

B Continuous thin (narrow) Imaginary lines of intersection; grid,

(straight or curved) dimension, extension, projection,
short centre, leader, reference lines;
hatching; outlines of revolved sections;
root of screw threads; interpretation
lines of tapered features; framing of
details; indication of repetitiv details;
-
C ~ - ~ -- Continuous
freehand
thin (narrow) Limits of partial or interrupted views
and sections, if the limit is not a
chain thin line

D A A A Continuous thin (narrow) Long-break line

• • with zigzags (straight)

E
- -- - -- - Dashed thick _(wide) Line showing permissi~
surface treatment .-

F -- -- -- -- -- -- Dashed thin (narrow) Hidden outlines; hidden edges

G _. ___ . ___________
Chain thin Centre line; lines of symmetry;
Long-dashed dotted trajectories; pitch circle of gears,
(narrow) pitch circle of holes,

H Chain thin (narrow) with Cutting planes

-.-.-----.~.-
THICK THIN THICK
thick (wide) at the ends
and at changing of
position

J _. '- Chain thick or . Indication of lines or surfaces to

Long-dashed dotted (wide) which a special requirement applies

I
K _ __ ..'----__ -_--. __
.. .. .. ..- Chain thin double-dashed
or long-dashed
Outlines of adjacent parts
Alternative and extreme positions of
double-dotted (narrow) movable parts
Centroidal lines.
Initial outlines prior to forming
.' Parts situated in front of the cutting plane

FIG. 3-1
 ,,~"'tit~' ,'{l~ t ,~,' 'N ,1,'.' >I ~' I, ."I'i I ',,,

3·
\f
'It.
~'LEnER
.~.,. t
Q, ~(1-,::1':' 9609-2001'J
'J I '" ,., t
, ,11" .' ,~)" .• ~
f :1 ~(\r~ ' ~ I 'filii

Writing of titles, dimensions, notes and other Important particulars on a drawln.

Is called lettering. It Is an Important part of a drawing. However accurate and neat
a drawing may be drawn. Its appearance is spoiled and sometimes, its usefulness
is impaired by poor lettering. lettering should, therefore, be done properly in
clear, legible and uniform style. It should be in plain and simple style so that it
could be done freehand and speedily.
Note: Use of drawing instruments in lettering takes considerable time and
hence, it should be avoided. Efficiency in the art of lettering can be achieved by
'careful and 'continuous practice.
(1) Single-stroke letters: The Bureauof Indian Standards (IS : 9609-2001) recommends
single-stroke lettering for use in engineering drawing. These are the simplest forms of
letters and are usually employed in most of the engineering drawings.
The word single-stroke should not be taken to mea'; that the letter should be
..
made in one stroke without lifting the pencil. ',
It actually means that the thickness of the line of the letter should be such as
is obtained in one stroke, of the pencil. The horizontal, lines of letters should be
drawn from left to right and vertical or inclined lines, from top to bottom.
Single-stroke letters are of two types:
(i) vertical and
(ii) inclined.
Inclined letters lean to the right, the slope being 75° with the horizontal. The
size of a letter is described by its height. According to the height of letters, they
;
/' are classified as:
(i) lettering 'A' (refer to table,3-4 and fig. 3-8)
(jj), lettering 'B' (refer to table 3-5 and fig. 3-8).
TABLE 3-4

,~ETTERING A (d = 1h~

, '" ••

h c:) h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20

Height of lower-case letters c c~) h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14

Spacing between characters • a (,~) h .35 0.5 0.7 1.4 2 2,8

Minimum spacing of base lines

~
b (~~)h 3.5 5 7 10 14 20 28

Minimum spacing between words e

(1
6
J h 1.05 1,5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4

Thickness of lines d (,~) h .18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4

 jlj El1glli nlHR tHawl11 Ich :J

TABLE 3-5

LETTERING B :<1 h
10

J '" ' "

Lettering height
Height of capitals h C6) h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 2'0

Height of lower-case letters c (;0) h ~ 2,5 ·3,5 5 7 10 14

Spacing between characters a (,~) h 0.5 0.7 1.4 2 2',8 4

Minimum spacing of base lines b

C~6
h 3,5 5 7 "'10 14 20 28

Mi'nimum spacirfg between words e 1.5

(1 0) h 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4 12

Thicknessof lines d (,~) h 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2

In lettering 'A' type, the height of the capital letter is divided into 14 parts,
while in lettering 'B' type it is divided into 10 parts. The height of the letters and
numerals for engineering drawing can be selected from 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 10, 14 and
20 mm according to the size of drawing. The ratio of height to width varies but
in case of most of the letters it is 6: 5.
Lettering is generally done in capital letters. Different sizes of letters are used for
different purposes.
The main titles are generally written in 6 mm to 8 mm size, sub-titles in 3 mm to
6 mm size, while notes, dimension figures etc. in 3 mm to 5 mm size. The drawing
number in the title block is written in numerals of 10 mm to 12 mm size.
Fig. 3-4 shows single-stroke vertical capital letters and figures with approximate
proportions.

7
516
FIG. 3-4
Single-stroke inclined capital letters' and figures are shown in fig. 3-5. The
lower-case letters are usually used in architectural drawings.
Verlical and inclined lower-case alphabets are shown in fig. 3-6 and fig. 3-7
respr-cuvelv, The, width of the majority of letters is equal to the height.