Introduction to

Drawing
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO DRAWING
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Drawing Equipment and Instruments
1.3 Drawing Sheets and Layout
1.3.1 Sizes of Drawing Sheets
1.3.2 Layout of Drawing Sheets
1.4 Types of Letters and Lettering Standard
1.4.1 Dimensions
1.4.2 Style
1.4.3 Recommended Sizes
1.4.4 Free Hand Lettering
1.5 Types of Line and Their Applications
1.5.1 Types of Line
1.5.2 Thickness and Proportional Dimensions of Lines
1.6 Dimensioning of Drawing
1.6.1 Elements of Dimensioning
1.6.2 Projection Lines, Dimension Lines and Leader Lines
1.6.3 Termination and Origin Indication
1.6.4 Indicating Dimensional Value on Drawings
1.6.5 Arrangement and Indication of Dimension
1.7 Drawing Scale
1.8 Conventional Representation
1.9 Summary
1.10 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of technical knowledge from the dawn of history has been
accompanied and to a larger extent, made possible by a corresponding graphic
language. Today the intimate connection between engineering and its universal
graphic language is more vital than ever before and the engineer, who is ignorant,
or deficient in the principal mode of expression in his technical field, is
professionally illiterate. That this is true is shown by the fact that engineering
drawing is a required subject in virtually every engineering school in the world. A
drawing is a graphic representation of an object, or a part of it. The art of
representation of engineering objects such as buildings, roads, machines, parts,
etc. on paper is called engineering drawing. Modern engineering produces
enormous numbers of articles, each first designed and presented in the form of a
technical drawing, and then manufactured on the basis of this drawing. Designing
an item involves making sketches, technical drawings and appropriate
calculations.
Thus, drawing, known as the language of engineers, is one of the fundamental
subjects of engineering education.
5
Engineering Drawing Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand
• importance of drawing for engineers,
• various drawing instruments and equipment used for drawing,
• how to use various drawing instrument and equipment,
• standard layout of the drawing sheet,
• standard practice for writing letters, drawing lines, and dimensioning,
• various types of scales used in engineering drawing and selection
according to need, and
• various symbols and conventions on the drawing.

1.2 DRAWING EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTS

Engineering drawing is entirely a graphic language wherein information is
recorded with the help of drawing instruments and equipment. A student has to be
conversant with all the drawing instruments, to enable him to select and use
suitable instruments as per the situations. It is also important to follow certain
rules and a code of practice for making a presentable drawing. The following are
the drawing instruments and other drawing materials required for preparing
drawings.
1.2.1 Drawing Board
Drawing-board is rectangular in shape and is made of strips of well-seasoned soft
wood. The wooden strips are cleated at the back by two battens by means of
screws. On the left-hand edge of the board, a straight ebony strip is fitted, against

Figure 1.1 : Drawing Board

which the stock of the T-square moves. Drawing board is made in various sizes.
Its selection depends upon the size of the drawing paper to be used. The
following are the sizes of drawing-boards recommended by the Indian Standards
Institution :
Designation Size (mm)
B0 1000 × 1500
B1 700 × 1000
B2 500 × 700
6
 B3 350 × 500 Introduction to
Drawing
For use in schools and colleges, B2 and B3 boards are more convenient. B0 and
B1 boards are used in the drawing offices of engineering firms. A drawing-board
is placed on the table in front of the student, with its working edge on his left
side.
The drawing sheet may be fastened to the board either by pins or clamps. For
working it is convenient to keep the board tilted at an inclination of 15o to 20o by
a block of wood or a stand as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2
1.2.2 T-Square
T-Square has a shape like the English alphabet T. It is made of good quality
wood. It consists of two parts, namely stock and blade which are attached to each
other at a right angle. It has a straight, hard working edge. Sometimes this edge is
made transparent which permits viewing of the line underneath the edge of the
blade.
Working Edge of Board
(Must be Straight)

Length of T-square

Stock Working Edge of T-square

Stock (Must be Straight)

900

Transparent Hole for

Hardwood Plastic Edge Hanging on Nail

Figure 1.3 : T-Square

The length of the T-square should be such as to suit the length of the board. The
T-square can move up and down along the working edge of the drawing-board
and is used to draw horizontal lines. The stock of T-square is held firmly against
the working edged of the board and then lines can be drawn by a pencil close to
the working edge of the blade. Horizontal parallel lines are drawn by sliding the
T-square up or down, holding the stock firmly against the working edge of the
board.
1.2.3 Set-square
7
Engineering Drawing Set-square is of triangular shape and is usually made of clear plastic. There are
two types of set-square. They are :
(a) A 30o – 60o – 90o triangle
(b) A 45o – 45o – 90o triangle
All straight lines and perpendicular lines in particular, except horizontal lines, can
be drawn with the help of a set-square. In combination with a T-square, lines
inclined at 30o, 60o and 45o can be drawn. Using two set-squares along with a
T-square, lines inclined at 15o, 75o and 105o can also be drawn. Parallel lines not
far apart can be drawn with help of two set-squares.

0
30

450

0 0
90 45
0 600 90

(a) 45o Square (b) 30o-60o Set-square

Figure 1.4 : Set-Square

1.2.4 Protractor
Protractor generally made of transparent plastic is circular or semi-circular in
shape. The circumference is graduated to 10 divisions and is numbered at every
100 interval. The line joining 00 to 1800 is called the base line. The mid-point of
the base line is called the centre of the protractor. It is used for measuring or
drawing angles other than those possible with a set-square. It can also be used for
dividing any given angle.

Figure 1.5 : Protractor

1.2.5 Scale
Scale is actually a measuring stick, available in a variety of shapes and sizes. It is
made of wood, steel, celluloid or plastic. The scale mostly used by students is
30 cm long and is usually flat with bevelled edges. An engineer’s scale is such
that measurements can be obtained to draw full size (i.e. the length being the
same both in the drawing and the object) or half size, one-tenth size, and so on.
The main function of the scale is to transfer true or relative dimensions of any
8 part of the object to the drawing. The scale should not be used as a straight edge
for drawing the lines, as it is basically a measuring device. For various other types Introduction to
Drawing
of scales, refer to Section 1.7.

Figure 1.6 : Scale

1.2.6 Drafting Machine
The uses and advantages of T-square, set-square, scale and protractor are
combined in the drafting machine. The drafting machine is now-a-days
commonly used by college students and draughtsman, because it eliminates the
use of
T-square, set-square, scale and protractor. Its one end is clamped by means of a
screw to the distant longer edge of the drawing-board. At its other end, an
adjustable head (H) having protractor marking is fitted. Two blades (B) of
transparent celluloid accurately set at right angles to each other are attached to the
head. The machine has a device or mechanism (M) which keeps the two blades
always parallel to their original position, whenever they are moved on the board.
The blades have scales marked on them and are used as straight edges. In some
machines, the blades are removable, and hence a variety of scales can be used.
The blades may be set at any desired angle with the help of the protractor
markings. Thus, by means of this machine, horizontal, vertical or inclined parallel
lines of desired lengths can be drawn anywhere on the sheet with considerable
ease and saving of time.

Figure 1.7
1.2.7 Drawing Instruments Box
It consists of different drawing instruments for drawing various drawings on a
sheet of paper. The box contains the following instruments:
(a) Large-sized-compass with interchangeable pencil and pen legs
(b) Large-sized dividers
(c) Small bow pencil compass
(d) Small bow pen compass
(e) Small bow dividers
9
Engineering Drawing (f) Lengthening bar
(g) Inking pen

Figure 1.8 : Compass

Compass
A large compass is used to draw circles or arcs of circle in pencil or ink. It
consists of two legs, one with a detachable needle and the second leg that
may have different attachments. The attachments normally used are
(a) pencil-point, (b) pin-point,
(c) ink-point, and (d) lengthening bar.
Thus, it can perform triple services, as dividers, a pen compass and a pencil
compass. A circle of approximately 12 cm diameter can be drawn with the
pencil or ink-point with the legs of the compass kept straight. To draw
bigger diameter circles, the lengthening bar can be used as shown in
Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9
For drawing small circles and arcs, a small spring bow pencil compass
(Figure 1.10) is used. It is equipped with a centre or side wheel
(Figures 1.10(a) and (b)) to get finer adjustments. A bow pen compass
as shown in Figure 1.10(c), similar to a bow spring pencil compass, is used
to draw circles and arcs in ink.

10
 Introduction to
Drawing
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.10
Dividers
Dividers are used to divide straight lines or curves, to measure the distance
from the scale and transfer it to the drawing, or to transfer the distance from
one part of the drawing to the other part.
Dividers are available in three basic types :
(a) Plain dividers (Figure 1.11(a))
(b) Dividers with hair spring (Figure 1.11(b))
(c) Bow dividers (Figure 1.11(c))

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.11 : Dividers

Plain dividers have two legs hinged at the upper end and are provided with steel
points at both the lower ends. By hair spring dividers it is possible to get minor
adjustments near to a point with the help of an adjusting screw. Small bow
dividers are adjusted by nut and are very convenient for marking minute divisions
and a large number of short equal distances.
Inking Pen
It is used for drawings to be drawn in ink. The distance between the two
nibs is adjusted by a screw and lines of the required thickness can be drawn
and non-circular arcs can be drawn by the inking pen. The ink is to be filled
between the two nibs (Figure 1.12).

11
Engineering Drawing

Figure 1.12 : Inking Pen

French Curves
French curves are used to draw irregular curves. It is desirable to have
several French curves of different curvature. French curves are made of
wood, plastic or celluloid. The edges of a French curve must be absolutely
smooth. Its shape should comprise curves most widely used in drawings and
gradually merging into each other. Some set-squares also have these curves
all cut in their middle (Figure 1.13).

Figure 1.13 : French Curves

1.2.8 Drawing Pencils

A pencil is used for preparing a drawing on a sheet of paper. The accuracy and
appearance of a drawing depends upon the quality of the pencil used. Pencils are
of various grades and they are easily recognized by the letters marked on them.
The description of different grades of pencils, according to BIS, is given in table
below :
Grade of Pencil Hardness
6H, 5H, 4H Extremely hard
3H Very hard
2H Hard
H Moderately hard
F Firm
HB Medium
B Moderately soft & black
2B Soft and black
3B Very soft and black
4B, 5B, 6B Very soft and very black

Usually, hard pencils such as H, 2H, etc. are used for making engineering
drawings, but for the purpose of lettering and sketching soft pencils such as HB
or H, etc. are used. As complicated drawings demand fine lines and minute
details, harder pencils such as 4H, 5H, 6H, should be used for this purpose.
Mending a Pencil
The following are two methods of mending a pencil for good and accurate
work :
12
 (a) Chisel edge pencil (Figure 1.14(a)) Introduction to
Drawing
(b) Conical or round point pencil (Figure 1.14(b))

(a) (b)
Figure 1.14
A chisel pencil has a chisel edge, flat on each side, which remains fine for a long
period and is generally used for drawing straight lines. 2H, 3H, etc. pencils are
generally mended to the chisel edge shape, as shown in Figure 1.14a. A medium
grade pencil such as HB is sharpened to a conical or round point, as shown in
Figure 1.14b and is meant for free hand work. For sharpening a pencil, a small
piece of sand-paper of zero grade, pasted upon a piece of wood, will be very
useful for keeping the point in good condition. Pull and roll the pencil point on a
sand-paper block, as shown in Figure 1.15 to sharpen the pencil point.

Figure 1.15

1.2.9 Eraser
Soft India-rubber is the most suitable kind of eraser for pencil drawing work. It
should be such as not to spoil the surface of the drawing paper. Frequent use of
rubber should be avoided by careful planning.
1.2.10 Drawing-pins
Drawing-pins are used to fix the drawing-paper on the drawing-board. The needle
part of the pin is so inserted that the head sits on the surface of the paper. The
pins may be of plated mild steel or brass. The pins made of brass are quite
convenient as they do not rust.

1.3 DRAWING-SHEET AND LAYOUT

Drawing-sheet or drawing-paper should be of uniform thickness with a good
finish. Drawing-paper is made in a variety of qualities. The paper used for
drawing depends entirely upon the character of the drawing, its purpose, and its
use. For ordinary pencil drawings, the drawing paper should be tough and strong,
have uniform thickness and be as white as possible. When a rubber eraser is used
on it, its fibers should not disintegrate. One side of the drawing-paper is usually
rough and the other smooth. The smooth surface is the proper side for drawing.
For preparing ferro or ammonia prints, drawings are made in ink on tracing-paper
or tracing-cloth. Inking may also be done on ordinary drawing-paper. For the
inking purpose, good quality smooth paper, on which ink does not spread, should
be used.

13
Engineering Drawing 1.3.1 Sizes of Drawing-sheets
Drawing-sheets are sized according to the ISO-A series, where for normal
practical purposes the area of the largest sheet is one square meter and the sides
are in the ratio 1 : 2 (Figure 1.16). Table 1.1 shows the BIS recommended sizes
of drawing sheets.
A4

A3

A2

A1

A0

Figure 1.16
Table 1.1
Trimmed Size in mm
Sl. No. Designation
Width × Length
1 A0 841 × 1189
2 A1 594 × 841
3 A2 420 × 594
4 A3 297 × 420
5 A4 210 × 297
6 A5 148 × 210

1.3.2 Layout of Drawing Sheets

The original drawing should be made on the smallest sheet, permitting the
necessary clarity and resolution. The general features of a drawing-sheet are as
shown in Figure 1.17 as per SP : 46-1998. Drawing-sheets may be used with their
longer sides positioned either horizontally (Figure 1.18) or vertically
(Figure 1.19).
Minimum Width
(20 mm for A0 and A1
10 mm for A2, A3 and A4)
1 2 3 4 5 6

A A

Edge
B B

C C

Frame
Title Block
D D

1 2 3 4 5 6
Grid Reference
Border Title Block shall contain Name,
Date, Projection Symbol Scale,
Title and Drawing Number

14 Figure 1.17
 Introduction to
Drawing

Type x

Figure 1.18

Type y

Figure 1.19

Title Block
The position of the title block should be within the drawing space
(Figure 1.17) such that the portion of the title block containing the
identification of the drawing is situated in the bottom right-hand corner of
the drawing space both for sheets positioned horizontally (Type x, see
Figure 1.18) or vertically (Type y, see Figure 1.19). The title block should
preferably consist of one or more adjoining rectangles. These may be
sub-divided into boxes for the insertion of specific information
(Figures 1.20, 1.21 and 1.22).

c
b
a

170 Max

Figure 1.20

b
c
a

170 Max

Figure 1.21

b
c a

170 Max

Figure 1.22
15
Engineering Drawing Border and Frame
Borders enclosed by the edges of a trimmed sheet and the frame limiting the
drawing space shall be provided with all sizes. It is recommended that these
borders have a minimum width of 20 mm for size A0 and A1 and a
minimum width of 10 mm for size A2, A3 and A4 (Figure 1.17).
Grid Reference
The provision of grid reference system is recommended for all sizes, in
order to permit easy location on the drawing of details, additions,
modifications, etc. The number of divisions should be divisible by two and
be chosen in relation to the complexity of the drawing. It is recommended
that the length of any side of the rectangles comprising the grid shall not be
less than 25 mm and not more than 75 mm. The rectangles of the grid
should be referred to by means of capital letters along one edge and
numerals along the other edge. The numbering direction may start at the
sheet corner opposite to the title block and be repeated on the opposite sides
(Figure 1.17).

1.4 TYPES OF LETTERS AND LETTERING

STANDARD
Here we specify the characteristics of lettering used on technical drawings, and
associated documents. It concerns primarily the letters written with the aid of
stencils but is equally applicable for free hand-lettering.
1.4.1 Dimensions
The height h of the capital letter is taken as the base of dimensioning (Table 1.2
and Table 1.3 and Figure 1.23). The two standard ratios for d/h equal to 1/14 and
1/10 are most economical as they result in a minimum number of line thicknesses,
as is illustrated in Table 1.2 and 1.3. The recommended ratios for the height of
lower case letters (without stem or tail), for the space between characters, for the
minimum space of the base lines and the minimum space of words are given in
Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 (Refer Figure 1.23).

ISO 81 ej AM
h

d a e a

R
b

f
h

Figure 1.23 : Dimensions

Table 1.2
Lettering A (d = h/14) Values in
Millimeters

16
 Introduction to
Characteristics Ratio Dimensions
Drawing
Lettering height h (14/14) h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Height of capitals
Height of lower-case letters c (10/14) h − 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
(Without stem or tail)

Spacing between characters a (2/14) h 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8

Minimum spacing of base (20/14) h 3.5 5.0 7 10 14 20 28

line b
Minimum spacing between (6/14) h 1.05 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4
words e
Thickness of line d (1/14) h 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4

[Note : The spacing a between two characters may be reduced by half if this gives a better visual effect, as
for example LA, TV; it than equals the line thickness d.]

Table 1.3
Lettering A (d = h/10) Values in Millimeters

Characteristics Ratio Dimensions

Lettering height h (10/10) h 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14 20
Height of capitals
Height of lower-case letters c (7/10) h − 2.5 3.5 5 7 10 14
(Without stem of tail)
Spacing between characters a (2/10) h 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2 2.8 4
Minimum spacing of base (14/10) h 3.5 5 7 10 14 28 28
line b
Minimum spacing between (6/10) h 1.5 2.1 3 4.2 6 8.4 12
words e
Thickness of line d (1/10) h 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1 1.4 2
[Note : The spacing a between two characters may be reduced by half if this gives a better visual
effect, as for example LA, TV; it than equals the line thickness d.]

1.4.2 Style
The lettering may be inclined 15o to the right or may be vertical.
1.4.3 Recommended Sizes
(a) Lettering A (d = h/14), Table 1.2, Figure 1.24 lettering A vertical.
(b) Lettering B (d = h/10), Table 1.3, Figure 1.25 lettering B vertical.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
QRSTUVWXYZ
aabcdefghijklmnopq
rstuvwxyz
[(!?:,”-=+×:√%&)]ø
01234567789 IVX 17
Engineering Drawing Figure 1.24

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
QRSTUVWXYZ
aabcdefghijklmnopq
rstuvwxyz
[(!?:,”-=+×:√%&)]ø
01234567789 IVX
Figure 1.25
1.4.4 Free Hand Lettering
The style of writing free hand single stroke vertical and inclined lettering is
illustrated in Figures 1.26 and 1.27.

Figure 1.26

18
 Introduction to
Drawing

Figure 1.27

1.5 TYPES OF LINE AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Here we specify the types of lines, their thickness and application for use in
technical drawings.
1.5.1 Types of Line
The types of line and their applications are as given in Table 1.4. It is
recommended that only line types as given in Table 1.4 shall be used. Typical
applications of different types of line are shown in Figures 1.28, 1.29, 1.30, 1.31,
1.32 and 1.33.
Table 1.4 : Types of Line
Line Description General Application
(See Figures 1.23, 1.24 and other
Relevant Figures)
Continuous thick A1 Visible Outlines
A A2 Visible Edges
B Continuous thin (straight or curved) B1 Imaginary lines of intersection
B2 Dimension lines
B3 Project lines
B4 Leader lines
B5 Hatching
B6 Outlines of revolved sections in place
B7 Short centre lines
2
C Continuous thick freehand C1 Limits of partial or interrupted views
Continuous thin (straight) with zigzags and sections, if the limit is not a chain
D C2 Thin line (see Figures 1.25 and 1.26)
2
E Dashed thick E1 Hidden outlines
Dashed thin E2 Hidden edges
F1 Hidden outlines
F F2 Hidden edges
G Chain thin G1 Centre lines
G2 Lines of Symmetry
G3 Trajectories
Chain thick H1 Cutting planes
H
J Chain thin, thick at ends and changes J1 Indication of lines or surfaces to which
of direction a special requirement applies
K Chain thick double dashed K1 Outlines of adjacent parts
K2 Alternative and extreme positions of
movable parts
K3 Centroidal lines
K4 Initial outlines prior to forming
(see Figures 1.27 and 1.28)

19
Engineering Drawing

Figure 1.28

Figure 1.29

Figure 1.30

Figure 1.31

Figure 1.32

20
 Introduction to
Drawing

A A

Section - AA

Figure 1.33

1.5.2 Thickness and Proportional Dimensions of Lines

Two thicknesses of lines are used. The ratio of the thick to the thin line shall not
be less than 2 : 1. Grading of lines is in two increments. The thickness of lines
should be chosen, according to the size and the type of the drawing, from the
following range : 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.4, 2 mm. For all views of one
piece to the same scale, the thickness of the lines should be the same.

1.6 DIMENSIONING OF DRAWING

Dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement
and indicated graphically on technical drawings with lines, symbols and notes.
All dimensional information necessary to define a part or a component clearly
and completely shall be shown directly on a drawing. Each feature shall be
dimensioned once only on a drawing. Dimension shall be placed on the view or
section that most clearly shows the corresponding features.
1.6.1 Elements of Dimensioning
The elements of dimensioning include projection line, dimension line, leader line,
dimension line termination, origin indication and dimension itself. The various
elements of dimensioning are illustrated in Figures 1.34 and 1.35.

Leader Line
0 Project Line
2 × 45
Value of the Dimension
1500

3500

4500

Origin
Indication Termination
Dimension
Line (Arrowhead)

Figure 1.34

Projection Line
Leader Line
4240
Dimension Value of the Termination
Line Dimension (Oblique Stroke)
21
Figure 1.35
Engineering Drawing 1.6.2 Projection Lines, Dimension Lines and Leader Lines
Projection lines, dimension lines and leader lines are drawn as thin continuous
lines, as shown in Section 1.5.1, Table 1.4 and Figures 1.34 and 1.35.
(a) Projection lines shall extend slightly beyond the respective dimension
line (see Figures 1.34 and 1.35).
(b) Projection lines shall be drawn perpendicular to the feature being
dimensioned. Where necessary, however, they may be drawn
obliquely but parallel to each other (Figure 1.36).

Figure 1.36
(c) Intersecting construction and projection lines shall extend slightly
beyond their point of intersection (Figure 1.37).

Figure 1.37

(d) In general, projection lines and dimension lines should not cross other
lines unless this is unavoidable (Figure 1.38).

Figure 1.38

(e) A dimension line shall be shown unbroken where the feature to which
it refers is shown broken (Figure 1.39).

Figure 1.39
(f) Intersecting projection and dimension lines should be avoided. Where
unavoidable, however, either line shall be shown with a break
(Figure 1.40).
(g) A centre line or the outline of a part shall not be used as a dimension
line but may be used in place of a projection line (Figure 1.40).

22
 16 18 Introduction to
26 Drawing

21
13
6
28 12

Figure 1.40
1.6.3 Termination and Origin Indication
Dimension lines show distinct terminations (that is either arrowheads or oblique
strokes) or, where applicable, an origin indication.
(a) Two dimension line terminations (Figure 1.41) and an origin
indication (Figure 1.42) are specified as below :
(i) The arrowhead is drawn as short lines forming barbs at any
convenient angle between 15o and 90o. The arrowhead may be
open, closed or closed and fitted in (Figure 1.41(a)).
(ii) The oblique stroke shown as a short line inclined at 45o
(Figure 1.41(b)).

(a) Arrowheads

(b) Oblique Stroke

Figure 1.41
(iii) The origin indication drawn as a small open circle of
approximately 3 mm in diameter (Figure 1.42).

Figure 1.42
(b) The size of the terminations shall be proportional to the size of the
drawing on which they are used.
(c) One style of arrowhead termination only shall be used on a single
drawing. However, where space is too small for an arrowhead, the
oblique stroke or a dot may be substituted (Figure 1.45).
(d) Arrowhead termination shall be shown within the limits of the
dimension line where space is available (Figure 1.43). Where space is
limited, the arrowhead termination may be shown outside the
intended limits of the dimension line that is extended for that purpose
(Figure 1.44).

Figure 1.43 Figure 1.44

(e) Only one arrowhead termination with its point on the arc end of the
dimension line shall be used, where a radius is dimensioned as shown
in Figure 1.45. 23
Engineering Drawing

R 6-5

00
R3

R 250
50
R
Figure 1.45
1.6.4 Indicating Dimensional Value on Drawings
Dimensional value shall be shown on the drawings in characters of sufficient size
to ensure complete legibility. They shall be placed in such a way that they are not
crossed or separated by any other line on the drawing. Values shall be indicated
on the drawing according to one of the following two methods. Only one method
should be used on any one drawing.
Method I – Aligned System
(a) Dimensional value shall be placed parallel to their dimension lines
and preferably near the middle above and clear of the dimension line
(Figure 1.46).
70

30
39

Figure 1.46
(b) Values shall be indicated so that they may be read from the bottom or
from the right hand side of the drawing values on oblique dimensions
line shall be oriented as shown in Figure 1.47.

Figure 1.47
(c) Angular dimensional values may be oriented either as in Figure 1.48
or Figure 1.49.

24
 0 0
60 60 Introduction to
0 0 Drawing
30 30
0 0
60 60

600
600
0
30 0
30

600 600
0
60 600

Figure 1.48 Figure 1.49

Method II – Unidirectional System

(a) Dimensional values shall be indicated so that they may be read from
the bottom of the drawing-sheet. Non-horizontal dimension lines are
interrupted, preferably near the middle, so that the value may be
inserted (Figures 1.50 and 1.51).

70
φ50
φ20 φ30

30
39

26 10
75

Figure 1.50 Figure 1.51

(b) Angular dimensional values may be oriented either as in Figure 1.49
or Figure 1.52.
0
60
0
30
600

600
0
30

0 0
60 60

Figure 1.52
(c) The positioning of dimensional values frequently needs adapting to
different situations. Therefore, for example, values may be
(i) Close to a termination to avoid having to follow a long
dimension line where only part of the dimension line needs to
be shown (Figure 1.53).
φ310
φ280

φ250
φ220

φ 400

Figure 1.53
25
Engineering Drawing (ii) Above the extension of the dimension line beyond one of the
terminations, if space is limited (Figure 1.54).

0
30
1-5

18-5 6 24
2-5 2

Figure 1.54

(iii) At the end of a dimension line that is too short for dimensional
value to be indicated in the usual way (Figure 1.54).
(iv) Above a horizontal extension of a leader line which terminates
on a dimension line where space does not allow a placement at
the interruption of a non-horizontal dimension line Figure 1.55.
φ12

φ8

Figure 1.55

(v) The following indications are used with dimensions to show

applicable shape identification and to improve drawing
interpretation. The applicable indication (symbol) shall precede
the value for dimension (Figures 1.56 to 1.60).
f : Diameter
Sf : Spherical diameter
SR : Spherical Radius
R : Radius
n : Square
φ30
φ40

Figure 1.56

Figure 1.57 Figure 1.58

26
 Figure 1.59 Figure 1.60 Introduction to
Drawing
1.6.5 Arrangement and Indication of Dimension
The arrangement of dimensioning on a drawing shall indicate clearly the design
purpose. Generally, the arrangement of dimensions is the result of a combination
of various design requirements.
Chain Dimensioning
Chains of single dimensions (Figure 1.61) should be used only where the
possible accumulation of letters does not impinge on the functional
requirements of the part.

100
150
160 70 200 30

Figure 1.61

Dimensioning from a Common Features

This method of dimensioning is used where a number of dimensions of the
same direction relate to a common origin. Dimensioning from a common
feature may be executed as parallel dimensioning or as superimposed
running dimensioning.
Parallel dimensioning is the placement of a number of single dimension
lines parallel to one another and spaced out so that the dimensional value
can easily be added in (Figures 1.62 and 1.63). Superimposed running
dimensioning is simplified parallel dimensioning and may be used where
there are space limitations and where no legibility problems would occur
(Figures 1.64 and 1.65).

150
420
640

Figure 1.62 Figure 1.63

0

150

640
420

0 150 420 640

Figure 1.64 Figure 1.65

27
Engineering Drawing
1.7 DRAWING SCALE
Engineering drawing is the graphical language of engineers and through this
medium, they convey their conceptual ideas, constructive thoughts and designs. A
drawing of an object, if prepared to actual sizes, gives a clear idea of the object
without leaving anything for the imagination. Such a drawing is called full-sized
drawing. Sometimes, it becomes inconvenient or rather impracticable to prepare
full-sized drawing. For instance, if a drawing of a big building is to be prepared,
we cannot take drawing-paper as big as the building. Or if the map of Madhya
Pradesh is to be drawn, it is beyond our imagination to prepare full-sized
drawing. Thus, it becomes important to select an appropriate scale for proper
representation.
1.7.1 Reduction and Enlargement Scales
When the drawings are prepared to a size smaller than the actual size of the
objects, they are called to have been drawn to a Reduction Scale. Objects such as
buildings, bridges, town plans, maps of countries, large machine parts and their
assemblies etc. are generally drawn to reduction scales. When a drawing made is
of a larger size than the object, such a drawing is called an enlarged drawing or a
drawing made on an Enlargement Scale. For instance, if a profile of the tooth of a
wrist-watch pinion is to be drawn, it will be very difficult, if not impossible, to
draw it to the full size because even the point of a pencil will be thicker than the
tooth itself. Similarly, the integrated circuit of an electronic component cannot be
prepared to its full size. Hundreds of transistors, diodes, and other components
are placed and connected in as small a chip as 1 sq cm. Therefore, in such cases,
drawings are prepared much larger than the actual size of the objects. Such
drawings are known as enlargement drawings or drawings made on enlarged
scales.
1.7.2 Representative Fraction
It is a linear ratio, i.e. the ratio of the length of a drawing to the actual length of an
object. The numerator and the denominator should be in the same units, hence the
Representative Fraction (RF) is a number only.
Length of drawing
RF =
Actual length of object

Example 1.1

If a length of 5 m on the ground is represented by 5 cm line on a drawing,

the RF of the scale
5 cm 1
= =
5 × 100 cm 100
It is always customary to represent RF as a fraction 1 upon something.

Example 1.2

A length of 3 km on the ground is represented by 6 cm length on a map.

Find the RF on the scale on which it has been drawn.

28
 Length of drawing 6 cm Introduction to
RF = = Drawing
Length of object 3 × 1000 × 100 cm
1
=
5 × 104

Example 1.3

An area of 36 sq km on the ground is represented by an area of 144 sq cm

on a map. Determine the RF of the scale for this map.
Here, instead of lengths, area has been given and we will be committing a
mistake if we take the ratio of areas (RF is a ratio between lengths and not
areas). By a simple unitary method we know that 144 sq cm on the map
represents 36 sq km on the ground. Taking square root on both the sides we
get 1 cm will represent ¼ sq km or ½ km the
RF = 1 cm/0.5 × 1000 × 100 cm = 1/0.5 × 105.
1.7.3 Construction Scales
For the construction of an engineering scale, it is necessary to have the following
information :
(a) Representative fraction (RF).
(b) Units in which the scale has to measure, e.g. meters, kms, yards,
inches, miles, feet, etc.
(c) The largest length which is required to be measured (in one placing)
by this scale.
(d) Actual length of the scale to be constructed.
1.7.4 Method of Construction
(a) Determine the representative fraction (RF) as explained earlier in this
unit.
(b) Units are usually given in the problem itself.
(c) The largest length is also indicated in problem.
(d) The actual length of the scale can be calculated by the following
formula :
Actual length of the scale = RF × Maximum length to be measured.
1.7.5 Types of Scale
The following types of scales are commonly used in preparing engineering
drawings :
(a) Plain Scale
(b) Diagonal Scale
(c) Vernier Scale
Plain Scale
Plain scale is made to measure lengths in two units only, i.e. units and sub-
units such as yards and feet or meters and decimeters or centimeters and
millimeters. In other words, we can use a plain scale for reading only up to
the first decimal place, for example, meter and decimeter, centimeter and
29
Engineering Drawing millimeter. The following are the important steps for the construction of a
plain scale :
(a) Calculate RF, if not given.
(b) Calculate the length of the scale (L), using the formula :
L = RF × Maximum length to be measured
(c) If the maximum length to be measured not given in the problem,
adopt L = 15 cm (minimum) or 30 cm (maximum). This is as
per BIS.
(d) Draw a straight line of length L and divide it geometrically into
a number of equal parts as required. These are the main units.
(e) Draw another line parallel to, and just above, this line at a
distance of 3 to 5 mm and of the same length. Drawing vertical
lines at the ends complete the rectangle. Draw vertical lines
from each division to join both horizontal lines.
(f) From the left end write zero (“0”) at the first division, and write
1, 2, 3 etc. main divisions on subsequent divisions on the right
side. Write units at the end.
(g) Divide the first division into equal parts (geometrically) such
that the numbers are equal to sub-divisions. For example, if the
main divisions are meter, then the first division must be divided
into ten equal parts so that each sub-division represents 1/10th of
a meter of a decimeter.
(h) Write RF of the scale just above and at the middle length of the
scale.

Example 1.4

The distance between Bhopal and Indore is 180 km. It is represented on the
map by 9 cm. Construct a plain scale for this map, showing minimum 1 km
distance and long enough to measure 360 km.
Solution
9 cm 1
RF of the scale as = =
180 × 1000 × 100 cm 2 × 10 6
Length of the scale = RF × Maximum length to be measured
1
× 360 × 105 cm = 18 cm
2 × 106

Now, the minimum distance which this scale should be able to read is given
as 1 km and as this is a plain scale, the main divisions will be of 10 km each
and sub-divisions of 1km each.
(a) Draw a line 18 cm long and divide it into 36 equal divisions. Each
division will represent 10 km.
(b) Draw another line parallel to, and 5mm above, this line of the same
length.
30
 1 Introduction to
RF = Drawing
2 × 10 6

km 10 5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

5
10

36

Figure 1.66

(c) Complete the rectangle and draw vertical lines from each division to
join both horizontal lines.
(d) Sub-divide the first division into ten equal parts.
(e) Write zero (“0”) at the first division and 10, 20, 30 … 350 at the
subsequent division on the right-hand side.
(f) Mark 1 2 3 … 10 on sub-divisions but starting from zero and
proceeding on the left-hand side.
(g) Write RF just above the scale.
Diagonal Scale
If a fractional portion of a secondary division is required, which is too small
to be sub-divided, a diagonal scale may be used with ease. This scale can
read meter, decimeter and centimeter or km, hectometer and decameter, etc.
Thus, with the help of a diagonal scale, one can measure up to the second
place of decimal.
Principle of Diagonal Scale
(a) Draw a rectangle ABCD.
(b) Divide it into ten equal parts by horizontal lines.
(c) Draw the diagonal BD, intersecting the above lines.
(d) Draw perpendiculars from the above points to form a series of steps.
D
C

Q
P

A B

Figure 1.67

As one moves along the diagonal BD, when a fresh line is crossed, the
movement is 1/10 AB to the left. 31
Engineering Drawing PQ is 3/5 AB.
In constructing a diagonal scale, it must be remembered that the same
number of equidistant parallel lines must be drawn above AB, as there is a
third dimension in one secondary division.

Example 1.5

Construct a diagonal scale of RF = 1/48, showing yards, feet and inches to

represent a maximum length of 7 yards. Mark a distance of 3 yards and
7 inches on this scale.
Solution
1 × 7 × 36 inches
(a) Obtain the length, L =
48
= 5.25 inches
(b) Draw a line AB, 5.25 inches long, and divide it into seven equal parts
to show yards.
(c) Divide the first part into three equal divisions.
(d) Divide 12 equidistant (about 3 mm apart) parallel lines above AB and
complete the rectangle ABCD. Join D-2 and draw parallel through 0, 1
and 2.
Distance PQ represents the length 3 yards and 7 inches.
D C
12

10

8
P Q
Inches

6 * *
4

A 0 B
Feet 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Yards

Figure 1.68

Example 1.6

Construct a diagonal scale of RF = 1/4000 to show meters and long enough

to measure 600 meters. Mark a distance of 387 meters on this scale.
Solution
1
(a) Length of the scale = × 600 × 100 cm
4000
= 15 cm
(b) Draw a line AB 15 cm long and divide it into six equal parts to
represent hectometers.
32
 (c) Divide the first part into ten equal parts to represent decameters. Introduction to
Drawing
D C
10

8
P Q

* *
Metres

Metres 100 A B Metres

50 0 100 200 300 400 500
1
5 2
3
10
4
5
1 6
R .F . =
4000

Figure 1.69
(d) Draw ten equidistant (3 mm apart) parallel lines above AB and
complete the rectangle ABCD. Join the first sub-division towards the
left from the zero at the line AB, to the second division at the top
(10th) line, thus completing the diagonals. On these diagonals, the
least count is 10/10 = 1 meter.
PQ represents the distance of 387 meters.
Vernier Scale
Vernier scale consists of a primary scale, fully divided into minor divisions,
and a vernier having graduations derived from the primary scale
graduations. It is called either retrograde vernier or direct vernier. In the
first case (n + 1) vernier; whereas, (n – 1) division on primary scale are
divided into n equal divisions in the direct vernier scale. In either case, the
difference between one main scale division and one vernier scale division is
equal to 1/n and is known as the least count of the vernier. The difference
between two main scale divisions and two vernier scale divisions is 2/n, and
so on.

Example 1.7

Construct a retrograde vernier to a scale of 1/5, to show inches and 10th,

and 30 inches and long enough to read to mark distance of 11.3 inches on it.
Solution
Vernier Scale B
A
10 5 0

10 5 0 5 10 15 20 Inches
Primary Scale

Figure 1.70

(a) Length of primary scale = 1/5 × 30 = 6 inches.

(b) Draw a line 6 inches long and divide it into 30 equal parts
representing inches, thus forming a primary scale.
33
Engineering Drawing (c) Set off 11 equal parts to the left and above the primary scale and
divide it into ten equal parts, thus forming a vernier.
(d) Each division of the vernier represents 1.1 inch. AB represents the
required distance.

1.7.6 Scales for Technical Drawings

As per the Indian standard, the complete designation of a scale shall consist of the
word ‘SCALE’ followed by the indication of its ratio as follows :
SCALE 1 : 1 for full size
SCALE X : 1 for enlargement
SCALE 1 : X for reduction
Category Recommended Scales
Enlargement Scales 50 : 1 20: 1 10 : 1
Full Size 1:1
Reduction 1:2 1:5 1 : 10
Scales 1 : 20 1 : 50 1 : 100
1 : 200 1 : 500 1 : 1000
1 : 2000 1 : 5000 1 : 10000

[Note : A scale to be chosen for a drawing will depend upon the complexity of an
object to be depicted and the purpose of representation. In all cases, the
selected scale shall be large enough to permit easy and clear interpretation of
the information depicted.]

1.8 CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION

Representation of Engineering Materials
In engineering practice, there are different types of materials used for
manufacturing the various parts of a machine. It is, therefore, desirable that
different conventions should be adopted to differentiate various materials
for convenience on the drawing. The conventions of materials, thus, save
time and labour of drawing-work. The Indian Standard Institution has
recommended the conventions for various types of materials, as shown in
Figure 1.71, when these are sectioned.
Sl. No. Materials Convention
1. Steel, Cast Iron, Copper, Aluminium and its
allowys, etc.
2. Lead, Zinc, Tin, White, Metal etc.

3. Brass, Bronze, Gun Metal, etc.

4. Glass

5. Porcelain, Stone Ware, Marble and Slate, etc.

6. Asbestos Felt, Paper, Mica, Cork Rubber, Leather,

Wax and Insulating Materials
34
 7. Wood, Plywood etc. Introduction to
Drawing

8. Earth

9. Brick Work, Masonry Fire Bricks etc.

10. Concrete

11. Water, Oil, Petrol, Kerosene etc.

Figure 1.71

SAQ 1

(a) Draw a line perpendicular to a given line with the help of two
set-square.
(b) Draw parallel lines at an angle of 20o to the edge of the drawing board
using a T-square.
(c) How is a slant of 75o obtained by means of two set-square.
(d) What determines the line thickness of letters and figures.
(e) Draw in 100 mm height, giving correct spacing “DRAWING IS THE
LANGUAGE OF ENGINEERS.
(f) Draw in 5 mm height the alphabets, free hand single stroke vertical
and inclined style.
(g) Draw the various lines as per Section 1.5.1 shown in Table 1.4.
(h) Explain the following with a neat sketch
(i) Aligned system of dimensioning
(ii) Unidirectional system of dimensioning
(iii) Chain dimensioning
(iv) Dimensioning from a common feature
(i) Draw a 10 mm dia circle, 100 mm side square, 100 mm side hexagon
and give dimensions on all side.
(j) Construct a plain scale of 2 cm to 1 meter to read meters and
decimeters. Indicate on this scale a length of 6 m and 3 decimeters.
(k) A map 500 cm × 50 cm wide represent an area of 6250 square
kilometers. Construct a diagonal scale to measure on this a length of
5 km, 5 hectometer and 5 decameters. What is the RF of this scale.

35
Engineering Drawing
1.9 SUMMARY
An engineer may frequently have to prepare drawing and to direct the making of
the working drawings. In this unit, various drawing equipment and instruments
commonly used are explained along with their proper handling, care and method
of using them. As per the BIS recommendation, various sizes of drawing sheets
and their use along with standard practice of layout of drawing sheets is
described. Method of writing letters, various types of lines and dimensioning as
per standard practice is explained.
For making drawing on drawing sheet, selection and use of various scale is
explained and you are introduced with the conventional representation of various
features on drawing.

1.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in the ‘Further Reading’ given at the end to get the answers of SAQs.

36