Based on this concept, we will now develop the principle of virtual work so that it can be used to

determine the displacement of a point on a structure. To do this, we will consider the structure (or
body) to be of arbitrary shape as shown in Fig.5-1-(b).Suppose it is necessary to determine the
displacement Δ of point A on the body caused by the "real loads" P1, P2, and P3. It is to be understood
that these loads cause no movement of the supports; in general, however, they can strain the material
beyond the elastic limit. Since no external load acts on the body at A and in the direction of Δ, the
displacement Δ can be determined by first placing on the body a “virtual” load such that this force P'
acts in the same direction as Δ, Fig.5-1 -(a). For convenience, which will be apparent later, we will
choose P' to have a “unit” magnitude, that is P' = 1. The term “virtual” is used to describe the load,
since it is imaginary and does not actually exist as part of the real loading. The unit load (P' ) does,
however, create a n internal virtual load u in a representative element or fiber of the body, as shown in
Fig.5-1-(a). Here it is required that P' and u be related by the equation of equilibrium. As a result of
these loadings, the body and the element will each undergo a virtual displacement due to the load P',
although we will not be concerned with its magnitude. Once the virtual loadings are applied and then
the body is subjected to the real loads P1, P2, and P3, Fig.5-1-(b), point A is displaced an amount ?,
causing the element to deform dL. As a result, the external virtual force P' and internal virtual load u
"ride along" by A and dL, respectively, and therefore perform external virtual work of 1·A on the body
and internal virtual work of u • dL on the element. Realizing that the external virtual work is equal to
the internal virtual work done on all the elements of the body, we can write the virtual-work equation
as
1·Δ=Σ u·dL
where P'=1=external virtual unit load acting in the direction of Δ
u= internal virtual load acting on the element in the direction of dL
Δ=external displacement caused by the real loads
dL=internal deformation of the element caused by the real loads

By choosing P'= 1, it can be seen that the solution for ? follows directly, since Δ=Σ u·dL.

In a similar manner, if the rotational displacement or slope of the tangent at a point on a structure is to
be determined, a virtual couple moment M' having a “unit” magnitude is applied d at the point. As a
consequence, this couple moment cause a virtual load in one of the elements of the body. Assuming
that the real loads deform the element at amount dL, the rotation ?θ can be found from the virtual-
work equation 1·θ = Σ uθ·dL . This method for applying the principle of virtual work is often referred
to as the method of virtual forces, since a virtual force is applied resulting in the calculation of a real
displacement. The equation of virtual work in this case represents a compatibility requirement for the
structure. Although not important here, realize that we can also apply the principle of virtual work as a
method of virtual displacements. In this case virtual displacements are imposed on the structure, while
the structure is subjected to real loadings. This method can be used to determine a force on or in a
structure, so that the equation of virtual work is then expressed as an equilibrium requirement.

In 1879 Alberto Castigliano, an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which he outlined a
method for determining the deflection or slope at a point in a structure, be it a truss, beam, or frame.
This method, which is referred to as Castigliano's second theorem, or the method of least work,
applies only to structures that have constant temperature, unyielding supports, and linear elastic
material response. If the displacement of a point is to be determined, the theorem states that it is equal
to the first partial derivative of the strain energy in the structure with respect to a force acting at a
point and in the direction of displacement. In a similar manner, the slope at a point in a structure is
equal to the first partial derivative of the strain energy in the structure with respect to a couple moment
acting at the point and in the direction of rotation. The derivation of the theorem requires that only
conservative forces be considered f or the analysis. These forces do work that is independent of the
path and therefore create no energy loss. Since forces causing a linear elastic response are
conservative, the theorem is restricted to linear elastic behavior of the material. This is unlike the
method of virtual force, which applies to both elastic and inelastic behavior.
When analyzing any indeterminate structure, it is necessary to satisfy equilibrium, compatibility, and
force-displacement requirements for the structure. Equilibrium is satisfied when the reactive forces
hold the structure at rest, and compatibility is satisfied when the various segments of the structure fit
together without intentional breaks or overlaps. The force displacement requirements depend upon the
way the material responds, which in this chapter we have assumed linear-elastic response. In general,
there are two different ways to satisfy these requirements when analyzing a statically indeterminate
structure: the force or flexibility method, and the stiffness or displacement method.

The force method was originally developed by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 and later refined by Otto
Mohr and Heinrich Muller-Breslau. This method was one of the first available for the analysis of
statically indeterminate structures. As suggested by the name, the force method consists of writing
equations that satisfy the compatibility and force-displacement requirements for the structure and
involve redundant forces as the unknowns. The coefficients of these unknowns are called flexibility
coefficients. Since compatibility forms the basis for this method, it has sometimes been referred to as
the compatibility method or the method of consistent displacements. The redundant forces are
determined by satisfying the equilibrium requirement s for the structure. The fundamental principles
involved in applying this method are easy to understand and develop.

When Marxwell developed the force method of analysis, he also published a theorem that relates the
flexibility coefficients of any two points on an elastic structure–be it a truss, a beam, or a frame. This
theorem is referred to as the theorem of reciprocal displacements and may be stated as follows: The
displacement of a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to the
displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B, that is, f BA = fAB. The theorem also
applies for reciprocal rotations. Furthermore, using a unit force and unit couple moment, applied at
separate points on the structure, we may also state: The rotation in radians at point B on a structure
due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to the dis placement at point A when a unit couple moment
is acting at point B.

The displacement / stiffness method of analysis is based on first writing force-displacement relations
for the members and then satisfying the equilibrium requirements for the structure. In this case the
unknowns in the equations are displacements and their coefficients are called stiffness coefficient s.
Once the displacements are obtained, the forces are determined from the compatibility and force-
displacement equations.

Early in the 20th century slope deflection was the most popular method in use for analyzing statically
indeterminate frames. It was developed by Professor G.A. Maney and began its reign of popularity
almost immediately after its publication in 1915. Fifteen years later the moment distribution method
was introduced and there began a period of spirited professional competition over the merits of the
two methods, with moment distribution eventually emerging as the “winner”, primarily because of its
speed and simplicity. But the competition has not ended. Today, although moment distribution
continues as the more popular method, there remain many contemporary engineers who prefer slope
deflection. They contend that in performing a slope deflection analysis the engineer can acquire a
better “intuitive feel”for the structure than the use of any other method. More significant, though,
slope deflection has gained renewed importance with the advent of the computer, serving as the
central method used for structural analysis software. Slope deflection focuses on individual members,
their loads, and certain conditions at their ends. In using this method, simultaneous equations are
written and solved that have displacements, rather than forces or moments, as unknowns. It employs a
simple sign convention: all variables related to a member are positive if they are clockwise. The
complete slope deflection equations for MAB and MBA are the superpositions of four parts: θ A, θB, Δ,
and loads. Thus
4 EI 2 EI 6 EI
M AB= θA + θB − 2 Δ+ FE M AB
L L L
 4 EI 2 EI 6 EI
M BA = θA+ θ B− 2 Δ+ FE M BA
L L L
Where MAB and MBA are clockwise end moments
θA and θB are clockwise end rotations
Δ is a relative linear displacement of ends A and B that matches a clockwise rotation of AB.
FEM is referred to as fixed end moment.

Analysis by slope deflection begins with use of above equations to write separate expressions for the
end moments at each end of each member. Equilibrium is then imposed using moment equilibrium at
joints rotated an unknown ? and transverse force equilibrium on members with an unknown Δ. A
system of equations is produced that has the end displacements as unknowns. When solved
simultaneously, the resulting displacements are substituted in the slope deflection equations, giving the
end moments.

The method of analyzing beams and frames using moment distribution was developed by Hardy
Cross, a professor of civil engineering at the University of Illinois. At the time this method was first
published in 1932, it attracted immediate attention, and it has been recognized as one of the most
notable advances in structural analysis during the twentieth century. Moment distribution is a method
of successive approximations that may be carried out any desired degree of accuracy. Essentially, the
method begins by assuming each joint of structure is fixed. Then, by unlocking and locking each joint
in succession, the internal moments at the joint s are “distributed”and balanced until the joints have
rotated to their final or nearly final positions. It will be found that this process of calculation is both
repetitive and easy to apply. Before explaining the techniques of moment distribution, however,
certain definitions and concepts must be presented. Clockwise moments that act on the member are
considered positive, whereas counterclockwise moments are negative. The moments at the “walls”or
fixed joints of a loaded member are called fixed-end moments. The member stiffness factor at A can
be defined as the amount of moment M required to rotate the end A of the beam θ A=1 rad. If several
members are fixed-connected to a joint, then by the principle of superposition, the total stiffness factor
at the joint is the sum of the member stiff ness factors at the joint, that is, K T= Σ K. This value
represents the amount of moment needed to rotate the joint through an angle of 1 rad. If a moment M
is applied to a fixed-connected joint, the connecting members will each supply a portion of the
resisting moment necessary to satisfy moment equilibrium at the joint. That fraction of the tot al
resisting moment supplied by the member is called the distribution factor (DF). The carry-over factor
represents the fraction of M that is “carried over”from the pin to the far end.