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1.0 FLUID KINEMATICS

Fluid kinematics is that branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the study of velocity and acceleration of
particles of a fluid in motion without considering the forces or energy causing the motion.

The motion of a fluid which is described by the location of fluid particles in space at different times, enables
the determination of magnitude and direction of velocity and acceleration in the flow field at any instant of
time.

1.1 DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION

The motion of a fluid may be described using the Lagrangian or the Eulerian method.

a) Lagrangian Method
In this method, the observer is interested in the movement of a single fluid particle as it occupies various
positions in the flow field. In this method, the path taken by the fluid particle and the changes in its velocity
and acceleration are studied.

In the Cartesian system, the position of a fluid particle in space (x, y, z) at any time t from the original
position (a, b, c) at time t = 0 is given as:-

x = f1 (a, b, c, t), y = f2 (a, b, c, t), z = f3 (a, b, c, t)

The velocity and acceleration components are evaluated by taking derivatives with respect to time (t) as
illustrated below:
x y z
Velocity components u= v= w=
t t t

2 x 2 y 2z
Acceleration components ax = ay = az =
t 2 t 2 t 2

At any given point, the resultant velocity or acceleration is the resultant of the three components of the
respective quantity of interest at that point.

Resultant velocity:- V = u2 + v 2 + w 2 Resultant acceleration:- a= a x 2 + a y 2 + az 2

This method has shortcomings in that it is cumbersome and complex and the resulting equations of motion
are difficult to solve.

b) Eulerian Method
In this frame of reference, the observer concentrates on a particular point in the flow field where velocity
and acceleration of the fluid are studied. The velocity components at any given point (x, y, z) are expressed
as follows:-

u = f1 (x, y, z, t), v = f2 (x, y, z, t), w = f3 (x, y, z, t)

The components of acceleration of the fluid particle are worked out by partial differentiation as shown
below:

u u u u u  u u u  u
du = dx + dy + dz + dt ax = = u +v +w  +
x y z t t  x y z  t

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v v v v v  v v v  v
dv = dx + dy + dz + dt ay = = u +v +w  +
x y z t t  x y z  t

w w w w w  w w w  w
dw = dx + dy + dz + dt az = = u +v +w +
x y z t t  x y z  t

It is notable that each component of acceleration is composed of two parts as shown in the equations above;
(i) Convective acceleration due to change of velocity of the particle from one point to another.
(ii) Local or temporal acceleration due to the change of velocity at a particular point with time.

Resultant velocities or accelerations at any particular point are evaluated using the two equations illustrated
earlier.
Resultant velocity:- V = u2 + v 2 + w 2 Resultant acceleration:- a= a x 2 + a y 2 + az 2

This is the most widely used method in fluid mechanics because of its mathematical simplicity and the fact
that one is not concerned with the motion of each particle, but rather the fluid motion at various points in the
flow field.

1.2 MOTION OF A FLUID PARTICLE

Any particle or element of fluid will obey the usual laws of mechanics in the same way a solid body will do.
This means that when a force is applied on a particle or element of fluid, its behaviour can be predicted from
Newton's laws of motion outlined below:

(i) A body will remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line until acted upon by
an external force.
(ii) The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied and takes
place in the direction of action of that force.
(iii) Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

The relationships between acceleration (a), initial velocity (v1), final velocity (v2) and the distance moved (s)
in time (t) are given by the equations of motion shown below.

(i) v2 = v1 + at

(ii) s = v1t + 0.5 at2

(iii) v22 = v12 + 2as

1.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

The flow of any fluid may be classified under the following broad categories:
1. Steady or Unsteady flow
2. Uniform or Non-uniform flow
3. One, Two or Three dimensional flow
4. Rotational or Irrotational flow
5. Laminar or Turbulent flow
6. Compressible or Incompressible

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Note: Variations or non-variations of flow variables help in the description of the type of flow in question.
Flow variables mostly considered include:- velocity, pressure, density, cross-section of flow, etc.

1. Steady flow: This is the type of flow in which the flow variables such as velocity, pressure, cross-
section of flow, at a particular point do not change with time. However, these variables may vary from
point to point in the flow field.
 v 
Mathematically, using velocity as the flow variable, we have:-  t  = 0 where (x, y, z)
  x , y,z
is a fixed point in the flow field where the flow variables are measured with respect to time.

2. Unsteady flow: Type of flow in which the flow variables such as velocity, pressure, cross-section of
flow, at a particular point change with respect to time.

 v 
Mathematically, using velocity as the flow variable, we have:-  t   0
  x , y,z

3. Uniform flow: Type of flow, in which the velocity at any given time does not change from point to
point in the flow field.
 v 
Mathematically, we can write:-  s  = 0
  t = constant

4. Non-uniform flow: Type of flow in which the velocity at any given time changes from point to point in
the flow field.
 v 
Mathematically, we can write:-  s   0
  t = constant

From these four (4) definitions, four possible types of flow can be defined as follows:-

 v   v 
 Steady-Uniform flow:  t  = 0 and  s  = 0
  x , y,z   t = constant

 v   v 
 Steady-Non-uniform flow:  t  = 0 and  s   0
  x , y,z   t = constant

 v   v 
 Unsteady-Uniform flow:  t   0 and  s  = 0
  x , y,z   t = constant

 v   v 
 Unsteady-Non-uniform flow:  t   0 and  s   0
  x , y,z   t = constant

5. One dimensional flow: Type of flow in which the flow variable (such as velocity) is a function of time
and one co-ordinate only.

Mathematically, u = f (x , t), v = 0, w=0

where u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

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6. Two dimensional flow: Type of flow in which the flow variable (such as velocity) is a function of time
and two rectangular coordinates.

Mathematically, u = f1 (x , y, t), v = f2 (x , y, t), w=0

7. Three dimensional flow: Type of flow in which the flow variable (such as velocity) is a function of
time and three mutually perpendicular coordinates.

Mathematically, u = f1 (x , y , z , t), v = f2 (x , y , z , t), w = f3 (x , y , z , t)

8. Rotational flow: A type of flow in which the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate
(have angular velocities) about their mass centres.

9. Irrotational flow: A type of flow in which the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow do
not rotate (have no angular velocities) about their mass centres. Note: A flow which is irrotational as
well as steady is known as potential flow.

10. Laminar flow: A type of flow in which fluid particles move in an orderly manner, and retain the same
relative position in successive sections. This type of flow is also known as streamline or viscous flow.

11. Turbulent flow: A type of flow in which fluid particles move in a disorderly (zigzag) manner,
occupying different relative position in successive sections. Note: Most of fluid flow problems
encountered in engineering practice are turbulent in nature. Laminar and turbulent flows are
characterized on the basis of Reynolds number as will be discussed later.

12. Compressible flow: Type of flow in which the density (ρ) of the flowing fluid changes from point to
point in the flow field. Mathematically, ρfluid ≠ constant

13. Incompressible flow: Type of flow in which density (ρ) of the flowing fluid does not change from point
to point in the flow field. Mathematically, ρfluid = constant

1.4 TYPES OF FLOW LINES

Whenever a fluid is in motion, its particles move along certain lines (flow lines) depending upon the
conditions of flow. Though flow lines are of several types, some of the important ones are given below:

a) Path line
This is the path followed by a single fluid particle over a length of time. It is a curve in three-dimensional or
two-dimensional space.

b) Stream line
A stream line is defined as an imaginary line within the flow field such that the tangent at any point on it
indicates the velocity vector of the particle at that point.

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Important points about stream lines

 A streamline cannot intersect itself nor can two streamlines cross
 There cannot be any movement of fluid mass across the streamlines
 Converging streamlines indicate accelerated flow while diverging streamlines indicate decelerated flow
 A series of streamlines represent the flow pattern at a particular instant of time

Stream line

Vel. vector

Important points about stream lines and path lines

 Whereas a path line gives the path of one particular particle at successive instants of time, a streamline
indicates the direction of a number of particles at the same instant.
 In steady flow, the pattern of streamlines does not change with time, causing the path lines and
streamlines to be identical.

c) Stream tube
A stream tube is a mass of fluid bounded by a group of streamlines.

Stream lines

Important points about stream tube

 Since there is no flow across the streamlines, there is no flow across the surface of the stream tube. The
stream tube surface then functions as if it were a solid surface.
 The shape of a stream tube may change from one instant to another depending on the change in the
position of streamlines.

d) Streak line
A streak line is a curve which gives an instantaneous representation of the location of fluid particles which
have passed through a given point.

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1.5 ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

Since in any fluid flow system we are dealing with an endless stream of fluid, an approach is required to
decide what part of this stream should constitute the element or system to be studied and what should be
considered as the boundaries acting upon this element or system. Two main approaches exist for doing this:-
(i) We can study a specific element of the fluid of fixed mass. Such an element constitutes a closed system
whose boundaries are a closed surface which always contains the same fixed mass of fluid. At any instant, a
free body diagram can be drawn showing the forces exerted on this element by the surrounding fluid and any
solid boundaries.

(ii) We can study a fixed region in space (control volume) in relation to some frame of reference. The
control volume constitutes an open system whose boundaries form its control surface whose shape does not
change with time. The control volume is usually chosen arbitrarily, but the control surface will usually
follow solid boundaries where these exist, and where it cuts the flow direction it does so at right angles.
Where there are no solid boundaries, the control volume may be in form of a stream tube.

1.6 DISCHARGE AND MEAN VELOCITY

The quantity of fluid flowing in unit time past any particular cross-section of a stream is called the discharge
at that section. It can be measured either in terms of mass (referred to as the mass flow rate, m ) measured in
units such as kg/s, or it can be measured in terms of volume, (known as the volume flow rate, Q), measured
in units such as m3/s.

In an ideal fluid where the velocity u of the fluid is the same at every point of the cross-section, a prism of
fluid would pass a given cross-section. If the cross-section area normal to the direction of flow is A, the
volume passing would be equal to the product of A and u. Thus Q = Au

In a real fluid, the velocity adjacent to a solid boundary will be zero. For a pipe, a typical velocity profile
would be as shown in the figure below.

If u is the velocity at any radius r, the flow δQ through an annular element of radius r and thickness δr will
be :-


R
δQ = Area of element x Velocity = 2πrδr.u, thence, Total discharge Q = 2 ur dr
0

r R
δr r

If the relation between u and r can be established, this integral can be evaluated.

In many problems, the variation of velocity over the cross-section can be ignored, the velocity being
assumed to be constant and equal to the mean velocity u , defined as volume flow rate Q divided by the area
of cross-section A normal to the stream.

Mean velocity, u = Q A

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1.7 CONTINUITY EQUATION

Except in the exceptional case of nuclear process, matter is neither created nor destroyed. This principle of
conservation of mass can be applied to a flowing fluid. Considering any fixed region in the flow field to
constitute a control volume, then;

Mass of fluid entering control = Mass of fluid leaving control + Increase of mass in control
volume per unit time volume per unit time volume per unit time

For steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume remains constant and the relation reduces to;

Mass of fluid entering control = Mass of fluid leaving control

volume per unit time volume per unit time

1.8 STEADY FLOW IN A STREAM TUBE

Consider the stream tube shown below having a cross-sectional area small enough for the velocity to be
considered as constant over any given cross-section. For the region between sections 1 and 2,

Mass entering per unit = Mass leaving per unit [Mathematically, ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 ]
time at section 1 time at section 2

Then for steady flow, ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 = constant.

This is the continuity equation for the flow of a compressible fluid through a steam tube.

For a full pipe or other conduit,

(i) steady flow for compressible fluid ρ1A1 u 1 = ρ2A2 u 2 = constant = m

(ii) steady flow for an incompressible fluid A1 u 1 = A2 u 2 = constant = Q

The continuity equation is one of the major tools for providing a means of calculating velocities at different
points in a fluid flow system.

1.9 APPLICATION OF CONTINUITY EQUATION

The Continuity equation can be used to determine:-

(i) the flow in pipes connected in series (two types)

(ii) relation between flows in branching pipes (two types)

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(i) Flow in pipes connected in series (two types)

   

Compressible m1 = m2 m1 = m2

Incompressible Q1 = Q2 Q1 = Q2

(ii) Flows in Y branching pipes (two types)

 

 

 

Compressible m1 = m2 + m3 m1 + m2 = m3

Incompressible Q1 = Q2 + Q3 Q1 + Q2 = Q3

1.10 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES

The general continuity equation in the Cartesian coordinates takes the form shown below:-

(ρu) + (ρν) + (ρw) + = 0

For steady flow of incompressible fluids, where 0 i.e. (ρ=constant) the equation above becomes;

One dimensional flow: 0

Two dimensional flow: 0

Three dimensional flow: 0

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1.11 TYPES OF FLUID PARTICLE MOTION

A fluid particle may undergo one or a combination of the following four types of displacements while in
motion:-
(i) Linear translation; which is the movement of a fluid element from one position to another
without change of shape or dimensions.

Linear translation

(ii) Linear deformation; which is the movement of a fluid element where its linear dimensions are
changed but the angles between the adjacent sides remain the same.

Linear translation & deformation

(iii)Angular/Shear deformation; which is the movement of a fluid element where the angle
between adjacent sides of the particle are changed.

Linear translation & angular deformation

Consider the element shown in the figure, where the change in angle is small such that (tan ∆α ≈ ∆α) and
(tan ∆β ≈ ∆β), then;

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Angular deformation or shear strain rate is defined as the average change in the angle contained by two
adjacent sides.

[ ]
AD or SS = = [ ]

(iv) Rotation; which is the movement of a fluid element where both its horizontal and vertical axes
rotate in the same direction but retain its shape and dimensions. For a two dimensional flow
along the x-y plane, rotation is defined with respect to z-axis. For flow along y-z plane and z-x
planes, rotation is defined with respect to x-axis and y-axis respectively.

CI

D C
DI
Linear translation & rotation
BI

ωz
A B A I

Thus [ ] , [ ] , [ ]

1.12 CIRCULATION AND VORTICITY

(a) Circulation
Considering a closed path in a flow field as shown in the figure below, circulation is defined as the flow
along the closed path of length (L).

Point P V Cos β

Mathematically, circulation (г) is obtained when the product of the velocity component (uβ) along the
curved path at any point, and the length (dL) of the small element containing the point (P) is integrated
around the curve.

Г = ∮ ∮ s

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Where (V) is the main stream velocity, (dL) the component of V along the tangent at point P and (β) the
angle between the velocity component (uβ) and the direction of flow (streamline direction). The ∮ sign
indicates integration along the complete closed path/curve.

The integration (summation) can be performed over an element shown in figure (b) as follows. In the
Cartesian coordinate, if an element with dimensions dx and dy is considered, then circulation can be
calculated as follows:

Considering the element 1234 and starting at 1 and proceeding anti-clockwise,

dг = u dx + [ ] -[ ] – v dy = [ ]

(b) Vorticity
Vorticity is defined as circulation per unit area. Considering the element whose area is dx.dy, then:-

Vorticity =

Comparison of this equation with that of rotation about the Z-axis (ωz), shows that vorticity is twice the
rotation.

Note : For irrotational flow, circulation and vorticity are both equal to zero.

1.13 VELOCITY POTENTIAL & STREAM FUNCTION

(a) Velocity Potential Function (ф)
This is a scalar function of x, y, z and t such that it’s negative partial derivative with respect to any of x, y, z,
gives the velocity component in that direction. Mathematically, the velocity potential ф = f (x, y, z, t), and for
steady and incompressible flow, u, v and w which are the components of velocity in the x, y, z directions
respectively are given as:-

The continuity equation for an incompressible steady flow is

Substituting the values of u, v, and w from the equation (i) to equation (ii), we get :-

( ) ( ) ( )

This is the Laplace equation.

Properties of velocity potential function

 If velocity potential (ф) exists, the flow should be irrotational.
 If velocity potential (ф) satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents incompressible irrotational
flow.

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Equipotential Line
This is a line along which the velocity potential (ф) is constant.
For flow in the x-y plane where ф = f (x , y)

…… fr m eq (i)

Equating dф equal to zero we have

This is the slope of the equipotential line.

(b) Stream Function (ѱ)

Steam function is a mathematical expression that describes a flow field. It provides a means of plotting and
interpreting fields. It is a scalar function of x, y, and t defined in two dimensions such that the partial
derivative with respect to any of the direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction.
Mathematically, the stream function ѱ = f (x, y, t).

Considering the figure below showing a 2-D flow field and two streamlines A and B we have :-

Letting the flow between the streamlines A and B, be dѱ, the flow across any line between A and B will also
be dѱ as no flow can cross the streamlines A and B. Now taking components in the x and y direction we
have:-
dѱ = u dy - v dx (iv)

When the stream function is expressed as ѱ = f (x, y) as it has a value at every point, then;

Comparing equations (iv) and (v) gives the equation that defines the stream function as follows:-

(vi)

The continuity equation for two dimensional flow for an incompressible steady flow is:-

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Substituting the values of u and v from the equation (vi) above, we get:-

( ) ( )

Existence of stream function (ѱ) means a possible case of fluid flow which may be rotational or irrotational.

For rotational component ωz is given by:-

[ ] [ ( ) ( )] [ ]

For irrotational flow, ωz = 0 and hence the above equation becomes:-

This is the Laplace equation for (ѱ)

Properties of stream function

 If the stream function (ѱ) exists, it is a possible case of rotational or irrotational flow.
 If stream function (ѱ) satisfies the Laplace equation, it is a case of irrotational flow.

Constant Stream Function

For a line of constant stream function, where (dѱ = 0)

This is the slope of the stream line.

From equations (iii) and (vii) above, it is clear that the product of the slope of the equipotential line and the
slope of the streamline at the point of intersection is equal to -1. This means that the equipotential lines are
orthogonal to the stream lines at all points of intersection.

Relationship between (ф) and (ѱ)

From the equations derived above, it is clear that the following relationships are true between velocity
potential and stream functions.

1.14 INTRODUCTION TO FLOW NETS

A flow net is a two dimensional grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines (φ = constant) and
streamlines (ѱ = constant). Where possible the distance between streamlines (∆ѱ) should be equal to that
between equipotential lines (∆φ).

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An example of a flow net for a flow through a two dimensional sharp bend is shown in Fig. 7, below.

(Source: R. J. Garde, 2011)

Techniques of drawing Flow Nets

(i) Graphical Techniques
(ii) Analytical Mathematical Techniques (Calculus)
(iii) Numerical Mathematical Techniques (Computers)

Graphical Technique
When drawing of a flow net using the graphical technique, the following points should be kept in mind:-
(i) The boundaries containing the flow act as limiting streamlines.
(ii) In regions of uniform flow, streamlines will be parallel and equidistant.
(iii) The difference in the values of stream function between two successive streamlines (ѱ 2 – ѱ1) represent
discharge passing between the two successive streamline (dѱ).
(iv) In regions of non-uniform flow, streamlines are sketched approximately.
(v) Where ∆ф = ∆ѱ, then ∆s = ∆n, where ∆n is the spacing between successive streamlines and ∆s the
spacing between successive equipotential lines at a given point.
(vi) Equipotential lines will intersect streamlines at right angles (the lines are orthogonal at intersection).
(vii) For small values of ∆s and ∆n, the flow-net will consist of small squares with equal diagonals.
(viii) For boundary curving sharply towards the flow and away from flow (see figure), a five cornered shape
is formed.
(ix) Since no flow can go out through streamlines, then [∆n0.U0 = ∆n.U] or [U/U0 = ∆n0/ ∆n], indicating
that the spacing between streamlines is inversely proportional to velocity.

Analytical and Numerical Techniques

These techniques provide solution to the Laplace Equations for both the velocity potential function and the
stream function, which are solved as two (2) dimensional, steady state, boundary value problems.

In order to solve the Laplace equations, one needs to (i) have knowledge of the region of flow, (ii) know
boundary conditions along the perimeter of the region (iii) know spatial distribution of hydraulic head in
region.

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Uses of Flow Nets

(i) To determine the amount of seepage losses from reservoirs.
(ii) To determine the upward lift pressure below hydraulic structures.
(iii) If the velocity at any point in the flow region is known, the flow net can give velocity at any point by
use of continuity equation.
(iv) Analysis of a flow net can assist in the design of efficient boundary shapes which help in avoiding
separation and stagnation points in the flow.

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