FLUID MECHANICS I

ME 2113

Dr. Mohammad Ilias Inam

Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering & Technology

Khulna University of Engineering & Technology

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 Chapter 5
Fluid Dynamics

2
➢ In the previous slide we consider fluid in static condition. Where mainly
significant fluid properties is specific weight.

➢ When fluid is motion, other various fluid properties becomes significant

which makes the problem more complex.

➢ Most of the cases there are no analytical solution exit when real fluid is
flowing and experimental method is required.

➢ In some case with some assumption, analytical solution is possible.

Hydro kinematics: Fluid Kinematics deal with fluid motion

without considering forces and moment that causes motion.

Hydrodynamics: Hydrodynamics deal with fluid motion with

considering forces that causes motion.
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 Continuum hypothesis:

➢ The flow is made of tightly packed fluid

particles that interact with each other.

➢ Each particle consists of numerous

molecules.

Figure: Particle location in terms of its position vector. ➢ We can describe the field variable of these
particle at a given instant of time.
𝒅𝒓𝑨
= 𝑽𝑨
𝒅𝒕
𝑽 = 𝑽(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕))

෡
𝑽 = 𝒖 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒗 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕 𝒋Ƹ + 𝒘(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕)𝒌

4
➢ Different particles in fluid flow, which move at
different velocities and may be subjected to different
accelerations.

➢ The velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle may

change both with respect to time and space.

➢ In the study of fluid flow it is necessary to observed the

motion of the fluid particles at various point in space
and at a successive instant of time

5
 Generally there are two methods by which the motion of fluid may be
described, such as,:

1. Eulerian method
2. Lagrangian method

Lagrangian method: In the Eulerian method: In the Eulerian

Lagrangian method any individual method any point in the space
fluid particle is selected, and occupied by the fluid is selected and
observation is made about the observation is made of whatever
behavior of this particle during its changes of velocity, density and
course of motion through space. pressure which take place at the
point (control volume approach).

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➢ Based on Newtons Law of motion, it is difficult to use Lagrangian
description for practical flow analysis as:

- Fluids are composed of billions of molecules.

- Interaction between molecules hard to describe / model.

➢ However, Lagrangian method is useful for specialized application in:

- Sprays, particles, bubble dynamics, rarefied gases.

➢ In a Eulerian description of fluid flow domain or control volume is

defined by which fluid flows in and out.

➢ Eulerian method is well suited for formulation of initial boundary value

problems (PDE’s).

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❑ In fluid mechanics it is usually easier to
use the Eulerian method to describe a Eulerian
flow— in either experimental or Lagrangian
analytical investigations.

❑ There are, however, certain instances in

which the Lagrangian method is more
convenient. For example, some numerical
fluid mechanics calculations are based on
determining the motion of individual fluid
particles (based on the appropriate
interactions among the particles), thereby
describing the motion in Lagrangian
terms.
Figure: Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions
of temperature of a flowing fluid.

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Types of Fluid Flow:

➢ Idea and Real flow

➢ Incompressible and Compressible flow

➢ Steady and Unsteady flow

➢ Uniform and Non-uniform flow

➢ One dimensional, Two dimensional and Three dimensional flow

➢ Laminar and Turbulent flow

➢ Rotational and Irrotational flow

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 Idea and Real flow Incompressible and Compressible flow

Incompressible fluid flows assumes the fluid

Real fluid flows implies friction
have constant density while in compressible
effects. Ideal fluid flow is
fluid flows density is variable and becomes
hypothetical; it assumes no friction.
function of temperature and pressure.

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Steady and Unsteady flow

Steady flow: The velocity at a given point in space

do not vary with time. Velocity could be different at
different location. 𝝏𝑽
= 𝟎; 𝑽 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
➢ Very often we assumed steady flow conditions 𝝏𝒕
for cases where thee is only a slight time
dependence, since the analysis is easier.

Example: A constant discharge through a pipe.

Unsteady flow: The velocity at a given point in 𝝏𝑽

space do not vary with time. ≠ 𝟎; 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆
𝝏𝒕
➢ Almost all flows have some unsteadiness.

Example: A variable discharge through a pipe

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 Uniform and Non-uniform flow

Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is in the same

magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid
at the given instant of time, it is said to be uniform.

Example: Constant discharge though a constant 𝝏𝑽

diameter pipe = 𝟎; 𝑽 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝏𝒙

Non-uniform flow: If at a given instant, the

velocity is not the same at every point the flow is
non-uniform.

Example: Constant discharge through variable 𝝏𝑽

diameter pipe ≠ 𝟎; 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆
𝝏𝒙
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 Flow combination

Type Example
Flow at constant rate through a duct of
Steady Uniform flow
uniform cross-section
Flow at constant rate through a duct of
Steady non-uniform flow non-uniform cross-section (tapering pipe)

Unsteady Uniform flow Flow at varying rates through a long

straight pipe of uniform cross-section.
Flow at varying rates through a duct of
Unsteady non-uniform flow
non-uniform cross-section.

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One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows
➢ Although in general all fluids flow three-dimensionally, with pressures and
velocities and other flow properties varying in all directions, in many cases
the greatest changes only occur in two directions or even only in one. In
these cases changes in the other direction can be effectively ignored
making analysis much more simple.

➢ Flow is one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity, pressure,

depth etc.) at a given instant in time only vary in the direction of flow and
not across the cross-section.

➢ Flow is two-dimensional if it can be assumed that the flow parameters

vary in the direction of flow and in one direction at right angles to this
direction.

➢ Flow is three-dimensional if the flow parameters vary in all three

directions of flow
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Laminar and Turbulent flow
Laminar Flow: If the flow is smooth and if the layer
in the flow do not mix macroscopically then the flow
is called laminar flow. In laminar flow layers will
glide over each other without mixing.

Turbulent Flow: In turbulent flow, fluid layer mix

macroscopically and the velocity / temperature / mass
concentration at any point is found to vary over a time
period.

➢ Reynolds number used to differentiate between laminar and turbulent flow.

𝝆𝑼∞ 𝑳
➢ Reynolds number define as: 𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
where 𝜌 is density, 𝑈∞ is free stream velocity, 𝜇 is viscosity and 𝐿 is characteristics length which depends
on geometry.

➢ This value of Re is not fixed to transfer laminar to turbulent flow. Depending on different flow conditions it
varies. 15
 Rotational and Irrotational flow

Rotational Flow: A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles while

moving in the direction of flow rotate about their mas center.

➢ The liquid in the rotating tanks illustrates rotational flow where the velocity
of each particle varies directly as the distance from the center of rotation.

Irrotational flow: A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particle while

moving in the direction of flow do not rotate about their mas centers.

➢ It may however be stated that a true irrotational flow exist only in the case
of flow of an ideal fluid for which no tangential or shear stress occur.

➢ But the flow of practical fluids, may also assumed to be irrotational if the
viscosity of the fluid has little significance.
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 FLOW PATTERNS AND FLOW VISUALIZATION
Flow visualization: Flow visualization is the visual
examination of flow field features.
➢ While quantitative study of fluid dynamics requires, much
can be learned from flow visualization.
➢ Flow visualization is useful not only in physical
experiments but in numerical solutions as well
[computational fluid dynamics (CFD)].
➢ In fact, the very first thing an engineer using CFD does
after obtaining a numerical solution is simulate some form
of flow visualization.
Courtesy of Professor Thomas J. Mueller from the Collection of Professor F.N.M. Brown.

Numerous methods:

❑ Streamlines and stream tubes Spinning baseball. The late F. N. M. Brown

❑ Path lines devoted many years to developing and using
smoke visualization in wind tunnels at the
❑ Streak lines
University of Notre Dame. Here the flow
❑ Time lines speed is about 23 m/s and the ball is rotated
❑ Refractive techniques at 630 rpm.
❑ Surface flow techniques
 Streamlines
Streamline: A streamline is an imaginary curved drawn
through the flowing fluid such a way that the tangent to it at
any point gives the direction of the velocity at that point.
➢ Fluid can not cross streamline.
➢ Streamline can not cross each other. If they were to cross this
would indicate two different velocities at the point. This is
not physically possible.
➢ Any fluid particle starting on one streamline will stay on that
same streamline throughout the fluids.
➢ Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous
direction of fluid motion throughout the flow field.
➢ For example, regions of recirculating flow and separation of
a fluid off of a solid wall are easily identified by the
streamline pattern.
➢ Streamlines cannot be directly observed experimentally
except in steady flow fields.
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 Pathlines
Pathline: A pathline is the actual path traveled by an
individual fluid particle over some time period.

➢ A pathline is a Lagrangian concept in that we

simply follow the path of an individual fluid
particle as it moves around in the flow field.

➢ Thus, a pathline is the same as the fluid particle’s

material position vector (xparticle(t), yparticle(t),
zparticle(t)) traced out over some finite time interval.
A pathline is formed by
following the actual path
of a fluid particle. ➢ Particle image velocity meter (PIV) is a modern
experimental technique to measure velocity field
over a plane in the flow field:
𝒕
𝒙 = 𝒙𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 + ‫𝒕׬‬ 𝑽 𝒅𝒕
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕
 Streaklines

Streakline: A streakline is the locus of

fluid particles that have passed
sequentially through a prescribed point
in the flow.
Streaklines are the most common flow
pattern generated in a physical
experiment.
If you insert a small tube into a flow
and introduce a continuous stream of
tracer fluid (dye in a water flow or
smoke in an air flow), the observed
pattern is a streakline.

A streakline is formed by continuous

introduction of dye or smoke from a point in
the flow. Labeled tracer particles (1 through
8) were introduced sequentially.
➢ For steady flow, streaklines, streamlines, and pathlines are identical in steady
flow but they can be quite different in unsteady flow.
➢ For unsteady flow, they can be very different.

❑ The main difference is that a streamline represents an

instantaneous flow pattern at a given instant in time,
while a streakline and a pathline are flow patterns that
have some age and thus a time history associated with
them.
❑ A streakline is an instantaneous snapshot of a time-
integrated flow pattern.
❑ A pathline, on the other hand, is the time-exposed flow
path of an individual particle over some time period.
 Plots of Data
➢ A Profile plot indicates how the value
of a scaler property varies along some
desired direction in the field.

➢ A Vector plot is an array arrows

indicating the magnitude and direction
of a vector property at an instant in
time.

➢ A Contour plot shows curves of

constant values of a scaler property
for magnitude of a vector property at
an instant in time.
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 Acceleration Field
▪ Fluid motion can be describe by either
i. following individual particles (Lagrangian description) or
ii. remaining fixed in space and observing different particles as they pass by (Eulerian description).

▪ To apply Newton’s second law (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎) we must be able to describe the particle acceleration in an appropriate
fashion.

▪ For the infrequently used Lagrangian method, we describe the fluid acceleration just as is done in solid body
dynamics— 𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑡) for each particle.

▪ For the Eulerian description we describe the acceleration field as a function of position and time without actually
following any particular particle. This is analogous to describing the flow in terms of the velocity field, 𝑉 =
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), rather than the velocity for particular particles.

▪ In this section we will discuss how to obtain the acceleration field if the velocity field is known. The acceleration of
a particle is the time rate of change of its velocity. For unsteady flows the velocity at a given point in space
(occupied by different particles) may vary with time, giving rise to a portion of the fluid acceleration. In addition, a
fluid particle may experience an acceleration because its velocity changes as it flows from one point to another in
space. For example, water flowing through a garden hose nozzle under steady conditions (constant number of
gallons per minute from the hose) will experience an acceleration as it changes from its relatively low velocity in the
hose to its relatively high velocity at the tip of the nozzle.
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 Acceleration Field
➢ Consider a fluid particle moving along its pathline as is shown
in Figure.

➢ In general, the particle’s velocity, denoted 𝑉𝐴 (vector) for

particle A, is a function of its location and the time. That is,

𝑽𝑨 = 𝑽𝑨 𝒙𝑨 𝒕 , 𝒚𝑨 𝒕 , 𝒛𝑨 𝒕 , 𝒕

➢ Thus, we use the chain rule of differentiation to obtain the

acceleration of particle A, denoted as 𝒂𝐴 Figure: Velocity and position of particle
A at time t.

𝑑𝑽𝐴 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑦𝐴 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑧𝐴

𝒂𝐴 𝑡 = = + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
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 Acceleration Field
𝑑𝑽𝐴 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑦𝐴 𝜕𝑽𝐴 𝑑𝑧𝐴 Using,
𝒂𝐴 𝑡 = = + + + 𝒅𝒙𝑨
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝒖𝑨 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒚𝑨
𝒗𝑨 =
𝒅𝑽𝑨 𝝏𝑽𝑨 𝝏𝑽𝑨 𝝏𝑽𝑨 𝝏𝑽𝑨 𝒅𝒕
𝒂𝑨 𝒕 = = + 𝒖𝑨 + 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒘𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝒅𝒛𝑨
𝒘𝑨 =
𝒅𝒕

Since the above is valid for any particle, we can drop the
reference to particle A and obtain the acceleration field
from the velocity field as:

𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
𝒂= +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 Here a and V are vector.

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 𝑫𝑽
➢ Writing these results in short hand: 𝒂 =
𝑫𝒕
𝑫()
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 where, is known as material derivative
𝑫𝒕
𝒂= +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝐷() 𝜕() 𝜕() 𝜕() 𝜕()
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This is a vector result whose scalar 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
components can be written as: 𝛻 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝒂𝒙 = +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑽
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝒂= + 𝑽. 𝜵 𝑽
𝒂𝒚 =
𝝏𝒕
+𝒖
𝝏𝒙
+𝒗
𝝏𝒚
+𝒘
𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 𝝏𝒘 ➢ First term, time dependent term, is called local
𝒂𝒛 = +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 acceleration and zero only for steady flow. This is
for the unsteady effect.

➢ The second term, special dependent term, is

know as advective acceleration, which account for
the effect of fluid particle moving from one place
to another place. This is also known convection
acceleration. 26
➢ The material derivative concept is very useful in analysis involving various fluid parameters, not just the acceleration.

➢ The material derivative of any variable is the rate at which that variable changes with time for a given particle
(as seen by one moving along with the fluid—the Lagrangian description).

➢ Applied to the temperature field in a flow

The physical interpretation of the material
derivative is that it provides the time rate of
𝒅𝑻𝑨 𝝏𝑻𝑨 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝑻𝑨 𝝏𝒙𝑨 𝝏𝑻𝑨 𝝏𝒚𝑨 𝝏𝑻𝑨 𝝏𝒛𝑨
= + + + change of a fluid property (temperature,
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕 velocity, etc.) associated with a particular
fluid particle as it flows. The value of that
𝑫𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 parameter for that particle may change
= +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘 because of unsteady effects [the first term]
𝑫𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
or because of effects associated with the
𝑫𝑻 𝝏𝑻 particle’s motion [the second term].
= + 𝑽. 𝜵 𝑻
𝑫𝒕 𝝏𝒕 Important note:
1. Material derivative is equal to derivate
where Lagrangian description is used.
2. First part of material derivative indicates
changes with time.
3. Second part indicate change with position
due to flow. 27
 Control Volume and System Representations
➢ All of the laws governing the motion of a fluid are stated in their basic
form in terms of a system approach.

➢ For example, “the mass of a system remains constant,” or “the time rate of
change of momentum of a system is equal to the sum of all the forces
acting on the system.”

➢ Note the word system, not control volume, in these statements.

➢ To use the governing equations in a control volume approach to problem

solving, we must rephrase the laws in an appropriate manner.

➢ To this end we introduce the Reynolds transport theorem in the following

section.
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 Control Volume and System Representations

❑ The system may interact with its surroundings by

various means (by the transfer of heat or the exertion
System: A system is a of a pressure force, for example).
collection of matter of
fixed identity (always ❑ It may continually change size and shape, but it
always contains the same mass.
the same atoms or
fluid particles), which ❑ It may consist of a relatively large amount of mass
may move, flow, and (such as all of the air in the earth’s atmosphere), or it
interact with its may be an infinitesimal size (such as a single fluid
surroundings. particle).

❑ A mass of air drawn into an air compressor can be

considered as a system.

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 ❑ We may often be more interested in determining the forces put on a fan,
airplane, or automobile by air flowing past the object than we are in the
information obtained by following a given portion of the air (a system) as it
flows along.

❑ For these situations we often use the control volume approach.

Control Volume: A
control volume, on ❑ We identify a specific volume in space (a volume associated with the fan,
the other hand, is a airplane, or automobile, for example) and analyze the fluid flow within,
through, or around that volume.
volume in space (a
geometric entity, ❑ In general, the control volume can be a moving volume, although for most
independent of mass) situations considered here is only fixed, nondeformable control volumes.
through which fluid
may flow. ❑ The matter within a control volume may change with time as the fluid flows
through it.

❑ Similarly, the amount of mass within the volume may change with time.

❑ The control volume itself is a specific geometric entity, independent of the

flowing fluid. 30
Fixed Control Volume:

Fixed or Moving Control

Volume:

DeformingControl Volume:

31
 Selection of a Control Volume
For any problem there is
an infinite variety of
control volumes that can
be used.

• The selection of an appropriate control volume in fluid mechanics is very similar to the
selection of an appropriate free-body diagram in dynamics or statics.
• Fluid mechanics problem is often very dependent on the choice of the control volume used.
• Only by practice can we develop skill at selecting the “best” control volume.
• None are “wrong,” but some are “much better” than others.
• It is usually best to ensure that this point is located on the control surface, not “buried” within
the control volume.
• The unknown will then appear in the convective term (the surface integral) of the Reynolds
transport theorem.
• If possible, the control surface should be normal to the fluid velocity.
• Fig a is better than others two. 32
 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
❑ All the laws of governing the motion of a
fluid are stated in their basic form in ➢ Assume: 𝑩 = 𝒎𝒃
terms of a system approach, and not in ➢ B represents any of the fluid properties, m represent
terms of control volume. the mass and b represents the amount of the properties
per unit volume.
Example

Mass 𝑏=1 𝐵=𝑚

2 2
Kinetic energy 𝑏 = 𝑉 ൗ2 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉 ൗ2
Momentum 𝑏 = 𝑉 (𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) 𝐵 = 𝑚V

➢ B is termed as extensive property.

➢ b is an intensive property.
❑ The Reynolds Transport Theorem ➢ B is directly proportional to mass, and b is
allows us to shift from the system independent of mass.
approach to the control volume
approach. 33
 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
For a system: The amount of an extensive property can be calculated by adding up the amount
associated with each fluid particle.

𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 = න 𝝆𝒃𝒅𝑽 𝑽 = Volume

𝒔𝒚𝒔
𝒅𝑩 = 𝒅𝒎 𝒃 = 𝝆𝒃𝒅𝑽

Now, the time rate of

𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅
= න 𝝆𝒃𝒅𝑽
change of that system: 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒔𝒚𝒔

For the control volume, we only

integrate over the control
𝒅𝑩𝒄𝒗 𝒅 volume, this is different
Now, for control volume: = න 𝝆𝒃𝒅𝑽
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒄𝒗 integrating over the system,
though there are instance when
they could be the same.
34
 ➢ Assume: 𝑩 = 𝒎𝒃, where B represents any of the fluid
properties, m represent the mass and b represents the
amount of the properties per unit volume.

➢ The extensive property B of the system at times t and t

+ Δt is expressed as

𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔,𝒕 = 𝑩𝒄𝒗,𝒕 (the system and CV coincide at time t)

𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔,𝒕+∆𝒕 = 𝑩𝒄𝒗,𝒕+∆𝒕 − 𝑩𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 + 𝑩𝑰𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕

Subtracting the first equation from the second one and dividing by Δt
gives

𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔,𝒕+∆𝒕 − 𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔,𝒕 𝑩𝒄𝒗,𝒕+∆𝒕 − 𝑩𝒄𝒗,𝒕 𝑩𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 𝑩𝑰𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕

= − +
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
35
 At Δt → 0

𝑩𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 = 𝒎𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 𝒃𝟏 = 𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 𝒃𝟏 = 𝝆𝟏 (𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 ∆𝒕)𝒃𝟏

Here, 𝑽𝟏 ∆𝒕 = 𝜹𝒍𝑰

𝑩𝑰𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 = 𝒎𝑰𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 𝒃𝟐 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑽𝑰𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 𝒃𝟐 = 𝝆𝟐 (𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 ∆𝒕)𝒃𝟐

Here, 𝑽𝟐 ∆𝒕 = 𝜹𝒍𝑰𝑰

𝝆𝟏 (𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 ∆𝒕)𝒃𝟏
𝑩ሶ 𝒊𝒏 = 𝑩ሶ 𝑰 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒃𝟏
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

𝝆𝟐 (𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 ∆𝒕)𝒃𝟐
𝑩ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑩ሶ 𝑰𝑰 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝒃𝟐
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

or

36
 𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔,𝒕+∆𝒕 − 𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔,𝒕 𝑩𝒄𝒗,𝒕+∆𝒕 − 𝑩𝒄𝒗,𝒕 𝑩𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕 𝑩𝑰𝑰,𝒕+∆𝒕
= − +
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕

Taking the limit as Δt → 0, and using the definition of derivative, we get

𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅𝑩𝒄𝒗
= − 𝑩ሶ 𝒊𝒏 + 𝑩ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅𝑩𝒄𝒗
= − 𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒃𝟏 + 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Restrictions for the above equation:
➢ Fixed control volume
➢ One inlet and one outlet
or ➢ Uniform properties
➢ Normal velocity to section (1) and (2)

37
𝑩ሶ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑩ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝑩ሶ 𝒊𝒏 = න 𝝆𝒃𝑽. 𝒏𝒅𝑨
𝑪𝑺

The integral of 𝑏𝜌𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 over the

control surface gives the net amount of
the property B flowing out of the control
volume (into the control volume if it is
negative) per unit time.
𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅𝑩𝒄𝒗
= + න 𝝆𝒃𝑽. 𝒏𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑪𝑺

𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅
= න 𝝆𝒃𝒅𝑽 + න 𝝆𝒃𝑽. 𝒏𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒄𝒗 𝑪𝑺

Outflow and inflow of mass

across the differential area of a
control surface.
40
Moving Control Volumes

41
 dBsys dBCV
= − Bin + Bout
dt dt
The time rate of change of the property B of the
system is equal to the time rate of change of B of
the control volume plus the net flux of B out of the
control volume by mass crossing the control
surface.

This equation applies at any instant in time,

where it is assumed that the system and the
control volume occupy the same space at that
particular instant in time.

A moving system (hatched region) and a fixed

control volume (shaded region) in a diverging
portion of a flow field at times t and t+t.
The upper and lower bounds are streamlines
of the flow.
Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT

While the Reynolds transport

theorem deals with finite-size
control volumes and the
material derivative deals with
infinitesimal fluid particles, the
same fundamental physical
interpretation applies to both.
Just as the material derivative
can be applied to any fluid
property, scalar or vector, the
Reynolds transport theorem can
The Reynolds transport theorem for finite be applied to any scalar or
volumes (integral analysis) is analogous to vector property as well.
the material derivative for infinitesimal
volumes (differential analysis). In both cases,
we transform from a Lagrangian or system
viewpoint to an Eulerian or control volume
viewpoint.
 Conservation Laws

➢ You are already familiar with

numerous conservation laws
such as the laws of conservation
of mass, conservation of energy,
and conservation of momentum.
➢ Historically, the conservation
laws are first applied to a fixed
quantity of matter called a closed
system or just a system, and then
extended to regions in space
called control volumes. Courtesy of Hydro Tasmania, www.hydro.com.au. Used by permission.

➢ The conservation relations are Many fluid flow devices such as this Pelton
also called balance equations wheel hydraulic turbine are analyzed by
since any conserved quantity applying the conservation of mass and
must balance during a process. energy principles, along with the linear
momentum equation.
Conservation of Mass We know, 𝑩 = 𝒎𝒃, if b =1
𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅𝑩𝒄𝒗
= − 𝑩ሶ 𝒊𝒏 + 𝑩ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 than B = m.
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a change is

expressed as msys = constant or dmsys/dt = 0, which is the statement that the
mass of the system remains constant during a process.

Mass balance for a control volume (CV) in rate form:

𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
= 𝒎ሶ 𝒊𝒏 − 𝒎ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝑨𝑽
𝒅𝒕
the total rates of mass flow into and
𝒎ሶ 𝒊𝒏 and 𝒎ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 out of the control volume

𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗 the rate of change of mass within the control

volume boundaries.
𝒅𝒕
Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass relation
written for a differential control volume is usually called the continuity
equation.
 𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
= 𝒎ሶ 𝒊𝒏 − 𝒎ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒅𝒕

𝒎ሶ 𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 Since,
𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗
=𝟎
For steady state: 𝒅𝒕

𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐

For steady state and 𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐

incompressible flow:
𝑸ሶ 𝟏 = 𝑸ሶ 𝟐

46
The Reynolds Transport Theorem 𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔
=𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑩𝒔𝒚𝒔 𝒅
= න 𝝆𝒃𝒅𝑽 + න 𝝆𝒃𝑽. 𝒏𝒅𝑨 𝒃 = 𝟏 for continuity equation
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒄𝒗 𝑪𝑺 (Conservation of mass)

𝒅
න 𝝆𝒅𝑽 + න 𝝆𝑽. 𝒏𝒅𝑨 = 𝟎 Continuity equation in integral form.
𝒅𝒕 𝒄𝒗 𝑪𝑺

𝒅 According to the divergence theorem

න 𝝆𝒅𝑽 + න 𝜵. 𝝆𝑽 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒄𝒗 𝒄𝒗
න 𝝆𝑽. 𝒏𝒅𝑨 = න 𝜵. 𝝆𝑽 𝒅𝑽
𝑪𝑺 𝒄𝒗
𝒅𝝆 Divergence theorem states that the surface integral of a vector field
න + 𝜵. 𝝆𝑽 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎 over a closed surface, which is called the flux through the surface, is
𝒄𝒗 𝒅𝒕
equal to the volume integral of the divergence over the region
inside the surface.
Continuity equation 𝝏𝝆
+ 𝜵. 𝝆𝑽 = 𝟎 Here,𝑽 is velocity vector.
in differential 𝝏𝒕
format in 3-D:
𝝏𝝆 𝝏 𝝆𝒖 𝝏 𝝆𝒗 𝝏 𝝆𝒘
+ + + =𝟎
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
47
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes

During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control
volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass
entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.

For steady-flow processes, we are interested in

the amount of mass flowing per unit time, that
is, the mass flow rate.

m = m
in out
(kg/s) Multiple inlets and exits

m1 = m2 → 1V1 A1 = 2 V2 A2 Single
stream
Many engineering devices such as nozzles,
diffusers, turbines, compressors, and pumps
involve a single stream (only one inlet and one
outlet).
Conservation of mass principle for a two-
inlet–one-outlet steady-flow system.
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when the fluid
is incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.

V = V
in out
(m3 /s) Steady,
incompressible flow

Steady,
V1 = V2 → V1 A1 = V2 A2 incompressible flow
(single stream)

There is no such thing as a “conservation of

volume” principle.
However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume
flow rates, as well as the mass flow rates, remain
constant since liquids are essentially
incompressible substances.

During a steady-flow process, volume flow

rates are not necessarily conserved although
mass flow rates are.
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Bernoulli equation: An approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and

elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible.
Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary
layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of
pressure and gravity forces.

The Bernoulli equation is an

approximate equation that is valid
only in inviscid regions of flow where
net viscous forces are negligibly
small compared to inertial,
gravitational, or pressure forces. Such
regions occur outside of boundary
layers and wakes.
 Bernoulli’s Equation ➢ Consider the small fluid particle of size 𝛿𝑠 by 𝛿𝑛.
➢ For steady flow, Newton’s second law along the
streamline:
𝝏𝑽
෍ 𝜹𝑭𝒔 = 𝜹𝒎 𝒂𝒔 = 𝝆(𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚)𝑽
(𝒑 +
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏
)𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒔
𝝏𝒏 𝟐
Where,
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝑽
𝒂𝒔 = = =𝑽
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒔
(𝒑 + )𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒔 𝟐 Net force, 𝛿𝐹𝑠 , on the particle along the streamline direction:
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔 𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔
𝜹𝑭𝒔 = 𝒑 − 𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 − 𝒑 + 𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 − 𝜹𝑾 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝏𝒔 𝟐 𝝏𝒔 𝟐
Where,
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝆𝒈𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
(𝒑 − )𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒔 𝟐 𝝏𝒑
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏 𝜹𝑭𝒔 = − 𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 − 𝝆𝒈𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
(𝒑 −
𝝏𝒏 𝟐
)𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚 𝝏𝒔
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝒑
𝝆(𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚)𝑽 =− 𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 − 𝝆𝒈𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Figure: Free-body diagram of a fluid particle for 𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝒔
which the important forces are those due to pressure
and gravity.
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝒑
𝝆𝑽 =− − 𝝆𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 51
𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝒔
 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝒑
𝝆𝑽 =− − 𝝆𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 Where,
𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝒔 𝜹𝒛
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝜹𝒔

𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒛
(𝒑 +
𝝏𝒔 𝟐
)𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 𝝆𝑽 =− − 𝝆𝒈
𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝒔 𝜹𝒔

𝝏𝒑 Euler Equation of
+ 𝑽𝝏𝑽 + 𝒈𝜹𝒛 = 𝟎 Motion
𝝆
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔
(𝒑 − )𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒔 𝟐

𝝏𝒑 𝑽𝟐
+𝝏 + 𝜹𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
By integration
𝒑 𝑽𝟐
Figure: Free-body diagram of a fluid particle for + + 𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒏𝒂𝒕
which the important forces are those due to pressure
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
52
and gravity.
 𝒑 𝑽𝟐
+ + 𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒏𝒂𝒕
𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

Bernoulli’s equation is an energy

➢ Each term represent energy per unit weight. equation. Bernoulli’s equation state
➢ First term represent, pressure head. that in an ideal, incompressible and
steady fluid flow, the sum of
➢ Second term represent, velocity head. pressure, velocity and elevation
➢ Third term represent potential heat. head is constant along the stream
line.

53
The incompressible Bernoulli equation is
derived assuming incompressible flow, and
thus it should not be used for flows with
significant compressibility effects.
 ➢ The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the
“conservation of mechanical energy principle.”
➢ This is equivalent to the general conservation of
energy principle for systems that do not involve any
conversion of mechanical energy and thermal energy
to each other, and thus the mechanical energy and
thermal energy are conserved separately.
➢ The Bernoulli equation states that during steady,
incompressible flow with negligible friction, the
various forms of mechanical energy are converted to
each other, but their sum remains constant.
The Bernoulli equation states ➢ There is no dissipation of mechanical energy during
that the sum of the kinetic, such flows since there is no friction that converts
potential, and flow energies mechanical energy to sensible thermal (internal)
of a fluid particle is constant energy.
along a streamline during ➢ The Bernoulli equation is commonly used in
steady flow. practice since a variety of practical fluid flow
problems can be analyzed to reasonable accuracy
with it.
 ➢ Consider the small fluid particle of size 𝛿𝑠 by 𝛿n.
Force Balance across Streamlines ➢ For steady flow, Newton’s second law across the
streamline:
𝑽𝟐
෍ 𝜹𝑭𝒏 = 𝜹𝒎 𝒂𝒏 = 𝝆(𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚)
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏 𝑹
(𝒑 + )𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒏 𝟐
𝑽𝟐
Where, 𝒂𝒏 = 𝑹

𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔
(𝒑 +
𝝏𝒔 𝟐
)𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 Net force, 𝛿𝐹𝑛 , on the particle across the streamline direction:

𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏 𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏
𝜹𝑭𝒏 = 𝒑 − 𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚 − 𝒑 + 𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚 − 𝜹𝑾 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝝏𝒏 𝟐 𝝏𝒏 𝟐
Where,
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔 𝜹𝑾 = 𝝆𝒈𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
(𝒑 − )𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒔 𝟐 𝝏𝒑
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏 𝜹𝑭𝒏 = − 𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 − 𝝆𝒈𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
(𝒑 −
𝝏𝒏 𝟐
)𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚 𝝏𝒏
𝑽𝟐 𝝏𝒑
𝝆(𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚) =− 𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 − 𝝆𝒈𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Figure: Free-body diagram of a fluid particle for 𝑹 𝝏𝒏
which the important forces are those due to pressure
and gravity. 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝝏𝒑
=− − 𝝆𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 56
𝑹 𝝏𝒏
 Force Balance across Streamlines
𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝝏𝒑 Where,
=− − 𝝆𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝜹𝒛
𝑹 𝝏𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
𝜹𝒏
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏
(𝒑 + )𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒏 𝟐

𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒛
=− −𝒈
(𝒑 +
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔
)𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
𝑹 𝝏𝒏 𝜹𝒏
𝝏𝒔 𝟐

𝝏𝒑 𝑽𝟐
+ 𝝏𝒏 + 𝒈𝜹𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝆 𝑹

𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒔
(𝒑 − )𝜹𝒏𝜹𝒚
𝝏𝒔 𝟐 𝒑 𝑽𝟐
𝝏𝒑 𝜹𝒏 + න 𝒅𝒏 + 𝒈𝒛 = 𝟎
(𝒑 −
𝝏𝒏 𝟐
)𝜹𝒔𝜹𝒚 𝝆 𝑹

Figure: Free-body diagram of a fluid particle for

which the important forces are those due to pressure
and gravity.
57
Force Balance across Streamlines
Force balance in the direction n normal to the streamline yields the following relation
applicable across the streamlines for steady, incompressible flow:

P V2
+ dn + gz = constant ( across streamlines )
 R
For flow along a straight line, R →  and this
equation reduces to
P/ + gz = constant or
P = − gz + constant, which is an expression for
the variation of hydrostatic pressure with
vertical distance for a stationary fluid body.

Pressure decreases towards the center of

curvature when streamlines are curved (a),
but the variation of pressure with elevation
in steady, incompressible flow along a
straight line (b) is the same as that in
stationary fluid.
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy (and
vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change. Multiply the Bernoulli equation
by the specific weight gives:
𝝆𝑽𝟐
𝒑+ + 𝝆𝒈𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒏𝒂𝒕
𝟐
➢ P is the static pressure: It does not incorporate any dynamic effects; it represents
the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as the pressure used
in thermodynamics and property tables.
➢ V2/2 is the dynamic pressure: It represents the pressure rise when the fluid in
motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
➢ gz is the hydrostatic pressure: It is not pressure in a real sense since its value
depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e.,
fluid weight on pressure. (Be careful of the sign—unlike hydrostatic pressure gh
which increases with fluid depth h, the hydrostatic pressure term gz decreases with
fluid depth.)

Total pressure: The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic

pressures. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the total
pressure along a streamline is constant.
 Stagnation pressure: The sum of the static and dynamic pressures. It
represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is brought to a complete stop
isentropically.

V2
Pstag = p+ (kPa)
2

V=
(
2 Pstag − P )


Photo by Po-Ya Abel Chuang. Used by permission.

Close-up of a Pitot-static probe, showing The static, dynamic, and stagnation

the stagnation pressure hole and two of the pressures measured using
five static circumferential pressure holes. piezometer tubes.
 Careless drilling of the
static pressure
tap may result in an
erroneous reading
of the static pressure
head.

Streaklines produced by
colored fluid introduced
upstream of an airfoil; since
the flow is steady, the
streaklines are the same as
streamlines and pathlines. The
stagnation streamline is
marked.
Courtesy of ONERA. Photo by Werlé.
 Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

1.Steady flow The Bernoulli equation is applicable to steady flow.

2.Frictionless flow Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and frictional effects
may or may not be negligible.
3.No shaft work The Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that involves a pump,
turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such devices destroy the streamlines and carry
out energy interactions with the fluid particles. When these devices exist, the energy equation
should be used instead.
4.Incompressible flow Density is taken constant in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation. The
flow is incompressible for liquids and also by gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3.
5.No heat transfer The density of a gas is inversely proportional to temperature, and thus the
Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow sections that involve significant temperature change
such as heating or cooling sections.
6.Flow along a streamline Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation is applicable along a streamline.
However, when a region of the flow is irrotational and there is negligibly small vorticity in the
flow field, the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable across streamlines as well.
Frictional effects, heat transfer, and components that disturb the
streamlined structure of flow make the Bernoulli equation invalid. It
should not be used in any of the flows shown here.
When the flow is irrotational, the Bernoulli
equation becomes applicable between any two
points along the flow (not just on the same
streamline).
Bernoulli’s Equation for real fluid

𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝒉𝒇
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝒉𝒇 is frictional losses between point 1 and point 2.

65
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically using
heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms of the Bernoulli equation.
Dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g gives
𝒑 𝑽𝟐
+ + 𝒛 = 𝑯 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒏𝒂𝒕 Along stream line
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝒑
➢ is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column that produces the static
𝜸

pressure P.

𝑽𝟐
➢ is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a fluid to reach the
𝟐𝒈

velocity V during frictionless free fall.

➢ 𝒛 is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.

❑The sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads is constant along a streamline.
 𝒑
➢Hydraulic grade line (HGL), + 𝒛 The line that represents the sum of the static
𝜸
pressure and the elevation heads.
𝒑 𝑽𝟐
➢Energy grade line (EGL), + + 𝒛 The line that represents the total head of the fluid.
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝑽𝟐
➢Dynamic head, The difference between the heights of EGL and HGL.
𝟐𝒈

The hydraulic
grade line (HGL)
and the energy
grade line (EGL)
for free discharge
from a reservoir
through a horizontal
pipe with a diffuser.
 Notes on HGL and EGL

➢ For stationary bodies such as reservoirs or lakes, the EGL and HGL coincide with the free surface of
the liquid.
➢ The EGL is always a distance V2/2g above the HGL. These two curves approach each other as the
velocity decreases, and they diverge as the velocity increases.
➢ In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow, EGL is horizontal and its height remains constant.
➢ For open-channel flow, the HGL coincides with the free surface of the liquid, and the EGL is a distance
V2/2g above the free surface.
➢ At a pipe exit, the pressure head is zero (atmospheric pressure) and thus the HGL coincides with the
pipe outlet.
➢ The mechanical energy loss due to frictional effects (conversion to thermal energy) causes the EGL and
HGL to slope downward in the direction of flow. The slope is a measure of the head loss in the pipe. A
component, such as a valve, that generates significant frictional effects causes a sudden drop in both
EGL and HGL at that location.
➢ A steep jump/drop occurs in EGL and HGL whenever mechanical energy is added or removed to or
from the fluid (pump, turbine).
➢ The (gage) pressure of a fluid is zero at locations where the HGL intersects the fluid. The pressure in a
flow section that lies above the HGL is negative, and the pressure in a section that lies below the HGL
is positive.
In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow,
EGL is horizontal and its height
remains constant. But this is not the
case for HGL when the flow velocity
varies along the flow.
The gage pressure of a fluid is zero at
locations where the HGL intersects the
fluid, and the pressure is negative
(vacuum) in a flow section that lies above
the HGL.
 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝒂𝒙 = +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙 𝝏 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙
𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 + 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙 + −𝒃𝒚 +𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒂𝒙 = 𝒃 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙 + −𝒃𝒚 × 𝟎

𝒂𝒙 = 𝒃 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙

𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
𝒂𝒚 = +𝒖 +𝒗 +𝒘
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏 −𝒃𝒚 𝝏 −𝒃𝒚
𝒂𝒚 = 𝟎 + 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙 + −𝒃𝒚 +𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒂𝒚 = −𝒃 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙 × 𝟎 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒚
𝒂𝒚 = 𝒃𝟐 𝒚

𝒂 = 𝒃 𝑼𝟎 + 𝒃𝒙 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒃𝟐 𝒚𝒋Ƹ

71
72
 Given,
Mass Flow rate, 𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝝆𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑨𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝝆𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝑨𝒊𝒏 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
𝒎ሶ =𝝆𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒊𝒏 ሶ
𝒎=?
𝝆𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝒎ሶ =𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 × 𝟑𝟎 𝑨𝒐𝒖𝒕 =?
𝒎ሶ =0.53 kg/s 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

0.53 kg/s = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 × 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟐 × 𝑨𝒐𝒖𝒕 × 𝟏𝟖𝟎

𝑨𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟐
73
 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ +𝟎= + +𝟎
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝒑𝟏 > 𝒑𝟐 Since, 𝑽𝟐 > 𝑽𝟏

From monomer for fig 1

1 2 1 2 𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 + 𝜸𝒉
Since, here 𝒑𝟏 > 𝒑𝟐 , so that Fig (a) is right.

From monomer for fig 1

𝒑𝟏 + 𝜸𝒉 = 𝒑𝟐
Since, here 𝒑𝟏 < 𝒑𝟐 , so that Fig (b) is not right.

If flow direction is change there will be no effect, since square make it positive.

74
𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝑸ሶ =𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑽𝟐

𝒑𝟏 = 𝒑𝟐 + 𝜸𝒉

75
2 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝑸ሶ =𝑨𝟏 𝑽𝟏
1

76
 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝒔 𝑽𝟐𝒔
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝒔
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝒑𝟏 + 𝜸𝒉 = 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝜸𝒉

1 s

77
 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐
+ = + 𝟎 = 𝒉𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟑 𝑽𝟐𝟑
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟑
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈
1 2 3
𝑽𝟐𝟑
𝒉𝟐 + 𝟎 = 𝒉𝟏 + +𝟎
𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟑 = 𝟐𝒈 × 𝟎. 𝟐

𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝑸ሶ =𝑨𝟑 𝑽𝟑 = × 𝟐𝒈 × 𝟎. 𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝑫𝟐
𝟒
78