Unit I:

Kinematics of fluid
Introduction

• Fluid kinematics deals with describing the motion of fluid (velocity, acceleration)
without necessarily considering the forces and moments that cause the motion.
Fluid Motion
The fluid motion is described by two methods

a) LaGrangian Approach: In this approach, we concentrate on an individual fluid particle

and its velocity, acceleration is described.
But this approach has following shortcomings
i. It is difficult of keep track of a single particle.
ii. Fluid particles continue deforms and does not maintain their identity.
iii. Interaction between particles is difficult to describe.

b) Eulerian Approach:
In this approach, we concentrate at a particular point in a flow space (control volume) and
describe the motion of any fluid particle occupying that location.
The field variable at a particular location, at a particular time, is the value of variable for
whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that time.
For example:
Refer figure, any particle at point A at time ‘t’ will have P, 𝑉 and 𝑎Ԧ as defined by
equations below,

Pressure variable, 𝑃= P(x, y, z, t)

Velocity variable, 𝑉 = 𝑉 x, y, z, t
Acceleration variable, 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎(x,
Ԧ y, z, t)
Type of fluid flow
1) Stead and Unsteady flow: If flow and fluid properties at any given location does not
change with time, flow is called steady, other wise, unsteady.
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
For steady : = 0, = 0, = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

2) Uniform and Non-uniform flow: When the flow properties do not change over a
specified region at a particular instant of time, flow is a called uniform, otherwise, non-
uniform.
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑎
For uniform : = 0, = 0
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

3) One-, Two- and Three-dimensional flow: If flow parameter varies in one-dimension

with respect to space [V = V(x, t)], flow is one-dimensional flow.
Similarly,
V = V(x, y, t) for two-dimensional flow, and,
V = V(x, y, z, t) for three-dimensional flow.
4) Laminar and Turbulent flow:
Laminar
i. A fluid motion is such that one layer of fluid slides past the other layer.
ii. Fluid particles of one layer doesn’t go into the other layer i.e., there is no momentum
transfer between different layers.
iii. Generally, laminar flow occurs a low velocity.
iv. Flow near the solid boundary is laminar because the effect of viscosity is small at the
boundary.
v. Highly viscous flow is generally laminar flow.

Turbulent
i. When fluid particles flow in highly disorganized manner in such a way that particles of
one layer penetrate other layer, i.e., there is momentum transfer continuously occurring
between different layer.
ii. This flow occurs at large velocity.
iii. In turbulent flow velocity fluctuates with time and hence flow is reality is unsteady.
However, we take time averaged mean velocity i.e., temporal mean velocity, hence the
flow can be considered as steady flow.
 5) Rotational and irrotational flow:
• When fluid particles rotate about their centre of mass during movement, flow is said to be
rotational, otherwise, irrotational.
• Rotation of fluid particle in a flow field is caused by viscosity. Hence in the viscous region
flow will be rotational. If effect of viscosity is negligible, flow can be considered as
irrotational. (refer figure)
• A fluid may be rotational in the absence of viscosity in a flow field due to some rotational
motion given to it before entering the flow field.

6) Compressible and incompressible flow:

A compressible flow is one in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point, and
in incompressible flow, the density of fluid remains constant throughout the flow.
 Type of flow line
For visualization of flow, certain lines are drawn in the flow space. These lines are

a) Stream Line:
A stream line is a curve such that at every point of its tangent direction gives the direction of
instantaneous local velocity vector.
Here in figure, u = x component of velocity, and v = y component of velocity.
From similar triangles,
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= ,⇒ = ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢
Hence, general equation of stream line is given by,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = (eqn of stream line 3D)
𝑣 𝑣 𝑤

• Integration of this equation gives a constant. For different constants, we get different stream
line.
• Flow always occur along the stream line, there will be no flow across it.

b) Stream Tubes:
• It is a bundle of stream lines flow within the stream tube must remains there and cannot cross
the boundary of stream tube. At any instant of time, the mass flow rate passing through the
slice of stream tube must remains same.
c) Path Line:
▪ The actual path travelled by any individual fluid particle over some period is path line.
▪ It is a LaGrangian concept.

d) Streak Line
The locus of fluid particles passing through a fix point is called streak line.

Note: For steady flow, stream path and streak lines

are all same.
Continuity Equation
▪ It is based on principle of conservation of mass.
▪ It states that mass inflow in a fixed region should be equal to mass outflow from that
fixed region in a particular time, i.e., fluid mass can neither created nor destroyed.

Continuity Equation (Cartesian Co-ordinate System)

𝜕(𝜌𝐴) 𝜕(𝜌𝐴𝑉)
+ =0 (one dimension)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠
𝜕(𝜌) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
+ + + =0 (two and three dimension)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
where,
𝜌 = density of fluid
A = cross section area of flow
V = velocity of flow
s = co-ordinate direction in the flow directions
u, v, and w are components of velocity in x, y, z direction, respectively.
For steady flow
As there is not change flow with respect to time, so
Continuity equation flow will be
𝜕(𝜌𝐴𝑉)
⇒ =0 (one-dimensional flow)
𝜕𝑠

𝜌𝐴𝑉 = constant
𝜌1𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝜌2𝐴2𝑉2

𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)

⇒ + + =0 (two- and three- dimensional flow)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

If flow is incompressible, 𝜌 is constant

𝐴1𝑉1 = 𝐴2𝑉2 (one-dimensional flow)
𝜕(𝑢) 𝜕(𝑣) 𝜕(𝑤)
+ + =0 (two- and three- dimensional flow)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Continuity Equation (Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinate System)

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝑟) 𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝜃) 𝜕(𝜌𝑉𝑧)

+ + + =0 (three-dimension flow)
𝜕𝑡 𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑍

𝜕(𝑟𝑉𝑟) 𝜕(𝑉𝜃)
+ =0 (two-dimension, steady, incompressible flow)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Acceleration of fluid
Let velocity component are,
𝑉 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑘෠

where, u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z direction, respectively.

Acceleration

𝑑𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑥 = = + + + = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Similarly,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Local acceleration or Convective acceleration or

Temporal acceleration Advective acceleration
NOTE
• For steady flow: temporal acceleration is zero
• For uniform flow: convective acceleration is zero
• For steady uniform flow: acceleration is zero
Tangential and Normal Acceleration
Tangential acceleration : It is due to change in the magnitude of velocity.

𝑑𝑣𝑠 𝜕𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑠 = = + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑣𝑠 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 + 𝑣𝑛 𝑠 +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

For a stream line, 𝑣𝑛= 0

𝜕𝑣𝑠 𝜕𝑣𝑠
𝑎𝑠 = + 𝑣𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

Local tangential Convective tangential

acceleration acceleration
Normal acceleration : It is due to change in the direction of fluid moving on a curved
path.

𝑑𝑣𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑛 = = + +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑣𝑠 + 𝑣𝑛 𝑛 +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
For a streamline, 𝑣𝑛= 0
𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = + 𝑣𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

Local tangential Convective tangential

acceleration acceleration
𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝑑𝑠
As, =
𝜕𝑠 𝑟

𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝑉𝑠 2
𝑎𝑛 = +
𝜕𝑡 𝑟
 Type of motion or deformation of fluid element

• Rate of translation vector = velocity vector

𝑉 = 𝑢𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑗Ƹ + 𝑤 𝑘෠

• Rate of rotation (angular velocity) at a point

𝛺 = 𝑤𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑤𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑤𝑧𝑘෠
Angular Velocity (𝛺)
𝛺 = 𝜔𝑥 𝑖Ƹ +ω𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝜔𝑧𝑘෠

Let us take two initially perpendicular lines at O, OA and OB. Average rotation rate of
𝑑α 𝑑β
𝑑𝜃 (
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑑𝑡
)
these perpendicular lines is = .
𝑑𝑡 2
(Refer figure)
Let,
▪ The velocity at point ‘O’ be ‘u’ in x direction & ‘v’ in y direction
▪ Length ‘OA’ and ‘OB’ be ‘dy’ and ‘dx’, respectively.
𝜕𝑢
▪ At a distance of dy change in velocity in x direction is dy
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣
▪ At a distance of dx change in velocity in y direction is dx
𝜕𝑥
Above image represent angular motion as well angular deformation of a fluid element. Basically,
what is occurring is a velocity variation is causing the fluid element to rotate and deform. This
rotation and deformation will occur on the line segments OA and OB in short time intervals δt.
As a result, the fluid element will rotate to a position OA′ and OB′ through the angles δα and δβ.

Using the following limit, the angular velocity (ϖOA) about the line OA is determined as
𝜕α
ϖOA = lim
𝜕𝑡
…… (a)
𝜕𝑡→0

Furthermore, for small angles of deformation,

𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥
tan 𝜕α ≈ 𝜕α = = 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
In return, (a) and be written as,
𝜕𝑣
𝜕α 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑣
ϖOA = lim = 𝜕𝑥
= ,……………..(b)
𝜕𝑡→0 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣
is positive when ϖOA is rotating in a clockwise direction.
𝜕𝑥
Similarly, the angular velocity ϖOB for the line OB can be determined using the same
steps that were used to determine ϖOA. For small angles of deformation, ϖOB can be
written as
𝜕𝑢
𝜕β 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
ϖO𝐵 = lim = = ,……………..(c)
𝜕𝑡→0 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Unlike , will be positive when ϖOB is rotating in a counterclockwise direction.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Using what we know about ϖOA and ϖOB, we can determine the rotation, ϖz, about the z-
axis. Where, ϖz is the average of ϖOA and ϖOB. Hence, if a counter-clockwise rotation is
positive, then ϖz will be

1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = − …………(d)
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Similarly,
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝜔𝑦 = − and 𝜔𝑥 = −
2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

As, 𝛺 = 𝜔𝑥𝑖Ƹ +ω𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝜔𝑧𝑘෠

Hence,
𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛺=
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤

• If angular velocity is zero, flow will be irrotational.

 Ԧ
Vorticity (𝜉)
Vorticity is defined as twice of angular velocity.

𝜉Ԧ = 2 𝛺

Vorticity is equal to curl of velocity vector: 𝜉Ԧ = 𝛻 x 𝛺

𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
Ԧ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜉=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
Circulation (𝛤)
Circulation per unit area is equal to vorticity.
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝛤 = [ − ]dx.dy = vorticity x area
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝜉Ԧ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Velocity potential / Potential function (Φ)

▪ It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative
w.r.t. any direction gives velocity of flow in that direction.
⇒ Φ = f(x, y, z, t)
−𝜕Φ −𝜕Φ −𝜕Φ
= u, = v and =w
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Note
▪ Velocity potential concept helps in integration of Euler’s equation to find out
Bernoulli’s equation.
▪ Line joining points of equal velocity potential is called equipotential lines.
𝜕Φ 𝜕Φ 𝜕Φ
▪ On equipotential lines, = = = 0, so along the equipotential lines there will be
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
no flow.
▪ Φ exists only for ideal flow and irrotational flow.
▪ If Φ is constant in a particular direction, velocity will be zero in that direction.
▪ Velocity of flow will be in the direction of decreasing potential function.
For steady incompressible flow, the continuity equation is given by
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 −𝜕2Φ −𝜕2Φ −𝜕2Φ
⇒ + + =0 ⇒ = = =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2Φ 𝜕2Φ 𝜕2Φ
⇒ = = = 0 = 𝛻 2Φ (A)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Above equation A is a Laplace equation. Thus, any function Φ which satisfies Laplace
equation will represent some fluid flow.

Check for Irrotationality

As Φ exists only for ideal flow and irrotational flow
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = −
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 Φ 𝜕Φ
1 𝜕(− 𝜕𝑦 ) 𝜕(− 𝜕𝑥 )
= −
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕2Φ 𝜕2Φ
𝜔𝑧 = −
2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Thus, for irrotational flow 𝜔𝑧 = 0.
Stream function (Ψ)
▪ It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative w.r.t. any
direction gives velocity component of flow at right angles (anti-clockwise) in that
direction.
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ = V𝜃, and = - V𝑟
= v, and = -u 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Polar coordinate

Irrotationality
For irrotational flow, 𝜔𝑧 = 0
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = − = 0
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕Ψ
2
𝜕2Ψ
=− 2
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2Ψ 𝜕2Ψ
+ 2 = 0,
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦
Thus, if stream function satisfies Laplace equation, flow is irrotational else rotational.
Note
▪ Difference of stream function between two points is equal to flow across the line
joining these two points (per unit depth inside).

Ψ1- Ψ2 = flow across line joining AB

▪ See from A to B, if Ψ1- Ψ2 is positive, flow will be from left to right.

▪ Ψ is constant for a streamline.

Cauchy-Riemann Equation
• Φ function exists only for irrotational flow.
• Ψ function exists both for rotational and irrotational flow.
• Φ and Ψ function for irrotational flow satisfies Laplace equation.
• For irrotational incompressible flow
𝜕Φ 𝜕Ψ
u=− =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕Φ 𝜕Ψ Cauchy-Riemann Equation
v=− =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Flow net
▪ A line along which Ψ is constant is called Streamline.
▪ A line along which Φ is constant is called equipotential line.
▪ A grid obtained by drawing series of equipotential and stream lines is known as Flow
Net.
▪ Flow net is one of the methods for solving and analysing two dimensional-irrotational
flow problems.
▪ Flow net is drawn in such a way that difference between Ψ of two successive streamline
are same. Thus, the discharge between two successive streamline is constant in a flow net.
▪ Flow occurs in decreasing potential direction
▪ Equipotential and streamline are orthogonal to each other.
Proof
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ
As we know, dΨ = dx + dy
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
For streamline, Ψ = constant, thus, dΨ = 0
𝜕Ψ
𝜕Ψ 𝜕Ψ d𝑦 −𝑣
dΨ = dx + dy = 0 ⇒ = 𝜕𝑥
= = Φ = m1 (say)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 d𝑥 −𝜕Ψ −𝑢
𝜕𝑦
𝜕Φ 𝜕Φ
Similarly, dΦ = dx + dy
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
For equipotential line,Φ = constant, thus, dΦ = 0
𝜕 Φ
𝜕Φ 𝜕Φ d𝑦 𝑢
dΦ = dx + dy = 0 ⇒ = 𝜕𝑥
Φ= = m2 (say)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 d𝑥 𝜕
− 𝜕𝑦
−𝑣

Here, m1m2 = -1, hence, equipotential and streamline are orthogonal to each other.
Use and limitations of the Flow net

Use
Flow net is used
• To determine the streamline and equipotential line.
• To determine the velocity and pressure distribution for the given boundaries of flow.
• To evaluate loss of flow due to seepage in earth dams and unlined dams.
• To workout lift pressure on the bottom of the dam.

Limitations
The limitations of flow net are
• The method can not be applied in the region close to the boundary where the viscosity
effects are predominant.
• The method can not be used to determine flow pattern past a solid boundary on the
downstream side due to separation of flow and eddies.