Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Chapter One: Basic electrical engineering parameters

By Habtamu A.
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 Charge
 Columbs Law
 Electric Field
 Electric current
 Voltage
 Power
 Energy
 Electrical Circuit Parameters
 Electrical Source

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Atoms
 An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.

 It consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by a group of

orbiting electrons.

 As you learned in physics, the electrons are negatively charged, while the
protons are positively charged.

 But each element has its own unique combination of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.

 For example, the hydrogen atom, has one proton and one electron, while
the copper atom has 29 electrons, 29 protons, and 35 neutrons.
 Each shells can contain a Maximum number of electrons for
stability depending on the formula of 2n2 , where n is the
shell number (n=1,2,3,4)

 This outermost shell is called its valence shell, and the

electron in it is called its valence electron.
1.1 Charge
 Charge is an electrical property of atomic particles that exists due to
an excess or deficiency of electrons, measured in coulomb (C).

 The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are

1/(1.602 ×10−19) =6.24 ×1018electrons

 The charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the electronic
charge 1e=−1.602 ×10−19C

 The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be

created nor destroyed only transferred.

 Like charge repel each other (P to P and e to e) and unlike charge

attracts each other’s (P to e).

F
+ +F - F F +
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 1.2 Columbs Law

 It states that the force b/n two charges Q1 and Q2 is

directly proportional to the product of their charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance b/n them.

q 1 q 2 …………………………….(1)
Mathematically F  k
where r 2
• q1 and q2 are the charges in coulombs,
• r is the distance between them in meters,
• and k is constant k = 9x109N.m2/C 2.

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1.3 Electric Field
 Around a charged body, there will be invisible lines of force represent
an invisible electrical field that causes the attraction and repulsion.

 These invisible lines of force around the charged body is known as an

Electric Field.

 The electric field around a charged body is represented by electric flux

lines.

 The denser the flux lines, the stronger the electric field.

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 Electric field strength at a point is the force acting on a unit
positive charge at that point; that is,

𝐹
𝐸=𝑄 .......................(2) Newton/Columbs(N/c)

 The force exerted on a unit positive charge (Q2 =1 C), by a charge Q1,
r meters away, as determined by Coulomb’s law in eq(1)

𝐾𝑄1
 𝐸= .................................................(3)
𝑟2
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1.4 Electric Current (I)
 Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes
(A).
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) .........................................................(4)
𝑑𝑡

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
 The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by
integrating both sides
𝑡
𝑞(𝑡) = ∫𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑 𝑡 .............................................................(5)
0

 Types of current
(a) Current from a battery flows steadily

in one direction (direct current, DC).

(b) Current from a power plant

varies sinusoidally (alternating current, AC)

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 Current
 It is measured using ammeter by connecting in series
with load
 It can be either alternating (time varying) or
direct(constant)
 To maintain a current these two conditions must be fulfilled:
 The source must provide a driving force called the
electromotive force
 The circuit must be complete

How you should be thinking about

electric circuits:
Current: the actual “substance” that
is flowing through the wires of the
circuit (electrons!)
Current flow ways
 Convectional current flow – current flows from positive terminal to
the negative terminal of battery.

 Direction current flow-current flows from negative terminals the positive

terminal of battery.

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 1.5 Voltage (V)

 To move the electron through a conductor in a particular direction

requires some work or energy transfer.
 This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf),
typically represented by the battery.

 This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.

 Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a

unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).

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 Voltage
 It can be either alternating (time varying) or
direct(constant)
 It always measured between two points in the
system
 It is measured using voltmeter by connecting
parallel to load

How you should be thinking about

electric circuits:

Voltage: a force that pushes the

current through the circuit (in this
picture it would be equivalent to
gravity)
  The voltage between two points is one volt if it requires one joule of
energy to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

 In equation form.

𝑉=𝑊 ................................................................(6)
𝑄
W is energy in joule
Q is charge in coulombs (C)
1 V= 1 J/C=1Nm/c
 Two equivalent representations of the same voltage Vab:

(a) Point a is 9 V above point b.

(b) Point b is −9 V above point a.
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 1.6 Power (P)
 Power is the indication of how much work is done (the conversion
of energy from one form to another in specified amount of time).

 measured in watts (W).

𝑊 𝑄𝑉
𝑃= = = 𝑉𝑖...............................................................(7)
𝑡 𝑡
P is power in watts (W, J/S).
W is energy in joules (J).
t is time in Seconds (s).
 When the current enters into the positive terminal of an element, p =+vi.
 If the current enters through the negative terminal, p = −vi.

a) Absorbing power,

(b) Supplying power

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 1.7 Energy (W)
 Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).
 The energy lost or gained by any system is determined by the energy
absorbed or supplied by an element from time to to time t is
𝑡 𝑡
𝑤 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑 𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑t
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . .(8)
𝑡0 𝑡0

 Energy (Wh) =power (w)*time (h)

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1.8 Electrical group of material
 Depending on conductivity electrical materials can be classified as:
 Conductors
 Insulators
 Semiconductors

a) CONDUCTORS
 Material through which charge move easily are termed
conductors.
 They have large number of free electrons at room temperature.
 Valence electrons are loosely bounded to the nucleus.
 Have very low electrical resistivity.
 The most familiar example are metals.
 Good metal conductors have large number of free electrons
that are able to move about easily.
 In particular, silver, copper, gold and aluminum are excellent
conductors. Of these, copper is the most widely used.
 Cont’d
b) INSULATORS
 Material that do not conduct electricity are termed insulators.
 Have very few electrons and so that require a large force (voltage)
to establish current.
 Do not conduct because they have full or nearly full valence shell
and thus their electrons are tightly bound.
 Have very high electrical resistivity.
c) SEMICONDUCTOR
 Semiconductor materials such as silicon can be used to
manufacture devices that have characteristics of both
conductors and insulators.
 Many semiconductors devices will act like a conductor when
an external force is applied in one direction.
 When the external force is applied in the opposite direction
the semiconductor device will act like an insulator.
 This principle is the basis for transistors, diodes, and other
solid-state electronic devices.
 1.9 Electrical Circuit Parameters

 An electric circuit is the combination of any number of sources and

loads and connected in any manner which allows charge to flow.

1. Resistors

2. Capacitors

3. Inductors

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 Resistors (R)
 The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current; it is measured in ohms (Ω).
 The ability to oppose or resist the flow of current is called resistance.

 The circuit symbol in Fig below is for a fixed resistor and variable
resistors.

 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

 An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

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 The resistance of any material with uniform cross-sectional area depends
on the following factors:

1.Type of material 2. Length of material

3.Cross- sectional area 4.Temperature

 The factors governing the resistance of a conductor at a fixed temperature of

20C (room temperature) may be summarized mathematically as follows:

where:
ρ = the resistivity of the material in ohm meters, (Ω-m)
l = the length of the material, in m
A = the cross-sectional area of the material, in seq. meter.

 In the above equation the lowercase Greek letter rho (ρ) is the
constant of proportionality and is called the resistivity of the
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material.
  A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it
permits one ampere current to flow through it when one
volt is impressed across its terminals.

How you should be thinking about

resistances:

Resistance: friction that impedes

flow of current through the circuit
(rocks in the river)
 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
 The temperature coefficient of resistance at a temperature of 20°C, and
R20 as the resistance of the sample at 20°C, the resistance R1 at a
temperature T1 is determined by

Conductors Temperature will result in an Positive

increase in the resistance level Temp coff

Semiconductors an increase in temperature will Negative

result in a decrease in the Temp coff
resistance level

Insulators an increase in temperature will negative.

result in a decrease in the Temp coff
resistance

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 Types and Applications of Resistors

CONDUCTANCE
 the reciprocal of the resistance of a material, we have a measure of
how well the material will conduct electricity. has the symbol G, and is
measured in Siemens (S).
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 Capacitors(C)
 A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric
field.

 A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator

(or dielectric).

 When a voltage source v is connected to the capacitor, the source deposits a

positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge −q on the other.
 The amount of charge stored
q= CV..............................................................(12)
C, the constant of proportionality, C is known as the capacitance of the
capacitor.
 The unit of capacitance is Farad (F). 1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt.

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 Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to
the voltage difference between the two plates, measured in farads (F).

C=∈𝐴......................................................................(13)
𝑑
A is the surface area of each plate
d is the distance between the plates,
∈ is the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plate
Types of Capacitors
(a) Fixed capacitor (b) variable capacitor
 To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor,

𝑖 = 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating both sides it gives
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝑐
𝑑𝑡
 The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is
𝑑𝑣
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑 𝑡 ..................................................................(14)

 The energy stored is 𝑊 = 1/2𝐶𝑉2……………………………………………..(15)

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Types and Application of capacitors

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Inductors(L)
 An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic
field. An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

 If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the

voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the time rate of
change of the current.
𝑑𝑖
𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡………………………………………………………(16)
Where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance measured in
henry (H),
 The energy stored is
1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 2 ...................................................(17)
2

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Types and Application of Inductors

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1.10 Electrical Sources

 An active element is capable of generating energy examples are elements

include Generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.
 Passive element don’t generate energy passive elements are resistors,
capacitors, and inductors.
 An Independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage
or current that is completely independent of other circuit variables

(b) constant voltage(dc)

(a) Used for constant or time-varying
voltage(ac)
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 An independent current source is an active element that provides a specified
current completely independent of the voltage across the source.

Symbol for independent current source

 An Ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the

source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

 Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols.

(a) Dependent voltage source.

b) Dependent current Source.

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Types of Dependent Sources
 A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
 A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
 A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
 A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

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Examples
1. How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?

Solution

Each electron has −1.602 × 10−19 C.

Hence 4,600 electrons will have −1.602 × 10−19 C/electron × 4,600 electrons = −7.369 ×

10−16 C
2.Two equal charge are separated by 1cm.if the force of repulsion b/n them are 9.7*10-2N.

What is there charge? Both

𝐾𝑄1𝑄2
From Columbs law F= here Q1=Q2=Q
𝑟2

Q= 𝐹𝑟2/𝑘=( 9.7 ∗ 10 − 2 ∗ (1 ∗ 10 − 2)2)/9*109N𝑚2/c

Q=32.83microcolumbs

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3. The total charge entering a terminal is given by q = 5t sin 4πt mC. Calculate

the current at t = 0.5 s.

Solution:

i = dq/dt = d/dt(5t sin 4πt) mC/s = (5 sin 4πt + 20πt cos 4πt) mA

At t = 0.5,

I = 5 sin 2π + 10π cos 2π = 0 + 10π = 31.42 mA

4. To move charge q from point a to point b requires−30 J. Find the voltage

drop vab if: (a) q = 2 C, (b) q = −6 C .

(a) V=w/q=-30J/2C=−15 V

(b)V=w/q=-30J/-6C=5 V.

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5. The voltage across a 5-μF capacitor is
v(t) = 10 cos 6000t V

Calculate the current through it

By definition, the current is

i(t) = Cdv/dt= 5 × 10−6 d/dt(10 cos 6000t)

= −5 × 10−6 × 6000 × 10 sin 6000t = −0.3 sin 6000t A

6 .Calculate the charge stored on a 3-pF capacitor with 20 V across it. Find the energy

stored in the capacitor.

(a) Since q = Cv,

q = 3 × 10−12 × 20 = 60 pC

(b) The energy stored is

w = 1/2C𝑉2= 1/2× 3 × 10−12 × 400 = 600 pJ

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 7. Find the inductance of the air-core coil.

8. Find the power delivered to an element at t = 3 ms if the current entering

its positive terminal is i = 5 cos 60πt A and the voltage is: (a) v = 3i

(a) The voltage is v = 3i = 15 cos 60πt; hence, the power is

p = vi = 75 cos2 60πt W

At t = 3 ms,

p = 75 cos2(60π × 3 × 10−3) = 75 cos2 0.18π = 53.48 W

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9. How much energy (in kilowatt-hours) is required to light a 60-W bulb

continuously for 1 year (365 days)?

10.Find the power absorbed or supplied by the resistors?

11. Find the power delivered to the dc motor of fig shown below.

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12. A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional area of
0.8 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of copper is
0.02 μ Ω –m. Find the resistance of the coil and power absorbed by the coil

when connected across 110 V d.c. supply.

13. What is the relative increase or decrease in conductivity of a conductor if the

area is reduced by 30% and the length is increased by 40%? The resistivity is
fixed.

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