B.

Ed
PROGRAMME
Paper : Guidance & Counselling
Course No. : BED-15202
Semester : 2nd

Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir
Hazratbal, Srinagar
Course Prepared By

1. Mr. Habibullah Shah 3. Dr. Mohd Ziaul Haq Rafaqi

Directorate of Distance Education Department of Education
University of Kashmir University of Kashmir
Srinagar Srinagar

2. Mr. Manzoor Ahmad Rather 4. Dr. Shireesh Pal Singh

Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Department of Education Mahmata Gandhi Hindi University
University of Kashmir

Programme Co-ordinator and Format Editing

Habibullah Shah
Assistant Professor (Education)
Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir
Srinagar

Course Co-ordination Team

 Prof. Neelofar Khan

 Mr. Showkat Rashid Wani
 Mr. Habibullah Shah
 Mr. Javeed Ahmad Puju
 Miss. Shabnum Feroz

Published By: Prof. Neelofar Khan Director DDE, University of Kashmir.

Year of Publication: 2016

ISBN:

© Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir, Srinagar.
Course Code: BED-15202 Educational Guidance and Counseling

Unit I Guidance

i) Concept, Type – Educational, Vocational, personal.

ii) Aims and Basic principles
iii) History of Guidance Movement in U. K. and India

Unit II Foundation of Guidance

i) Philosophical and Socio-cultural Foundations

ii) Psychological Foundation
iii) Relevance of Intelligence and Personality tests

Unit III Organization of Guidance Service

i) Purpose of Organization
ii) Principles of Organization
iii) Guidance services at Elementary level.
iv) Guidance services at Secondary level.

Unit IV Counseling

i) Meaning and Purposes

ii) Steps involved in counseling
iii) Qualities of a Counselor.
iv) Directive and non-directive theories of counseling.
 Introduction to Paper

Dear Students,
The paper comprises four units which highlight the conceptual understanding of
Guidance and Counseling. The main objective of this paper is to acquaint the students
with the important guidance and counseling in day to day life situations especially in the
area of education.
Unit I: It deals with meaning and importance of guidance with special reference to its
historical background in India and UK. The unit also discusses the basic principles of
guidance.

Unit II: It deals with the foundation of guidance from philosophical and psychological
perspective.
Unit III: It tends to explain organization of guidance service at different levels.
Unit IV: It tends to explain meaning and purposes of counseling. This unit also explains
the various elements and steps involved in counseling. It also discusses the theories of
counseling like Directive/ Non-directive and Psycho- analytical.

Wish you a happy reading!

Coordinator
Course Code: BED-15202 Educational Guidance and Counseling

CONTENTS

Lesson No Theme Page No

1. Meaning And Principles of Guidance 1-35

2. Historical Background of Guidance 36-57

3. Philosophical and Socio-Cultural 58-65

Foundations of Guidance

4. Psychological Foundations of Guidance 66-73

5. Relevance of Psychological and 74-94

Personality Testing

6. Organization of Guidance 105-109

7. Counseling : Concept and Meaning 110-128

8. Theories of Counseling 129-156

 BED=15202

UNIT I

LESSON NO: 01 MEANING AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

GUIDANCE

Lesson Structure
1.0 Introduction

1.1 Objectives

1.2 Meaning of Guidance

1.3 Guidance-How Thinkers View It?

1.4 Characteristics of Guidance

1.5 Nature of Guidance

1.6. Need and Importance of Guidance

1.7 Areas of guidance

1.8 Main Objectives of Guidance

1.9 Area Wise Objectives of Guidance

1.10 Basic Principles of Guidance

1.11 Let Us Sum Up

1.11 Check Your Progress

1.13 Suggested Readings

1
 BED=15202

1.0 Introduction

Guidance is as old as civilization. In the primitive society, elders in the family

offered guidance to the young and to persons in distress. Even today, in India, guidance,
whether in educational, vocational or personal matters, is sought from family elders.
Guidance - unorganized and informal - in all places and at all levels has been a vital
aspect of the educational process. With the passage of time, revolutionary changes have
taken place in the field of agriculture, industry, business and medicine etc. These changes
in all walks of life coupled with extraordinary growth in our population has made the
social structure very complex. Head of the family or leader of the community with a
limited knowledge of the changed conditions is hardly competent in providing guidance
and counselling to the youth of today. Hence, there is a need for specialized guidance
services. In this lesson, we will try to interact with you regarding the meaning and nature
of guidance, its need and scope in India.

It will be true to say that the origin of the guidance services antedates recorded
history. It is wrong to think that guidance service is provided only by and for man. It is
our common experience to observe many of the lower animals giving their young’s the
guidance necessary to enable them to survive and to grow towards adulthood.
Programmes of organized guidance were undertaken in America towards the close of the
nineteenth century. James B, Conant remarks, “Guidance is the key-stone of the arch of
American education.” In the early stages of the guidance movement attention was
centered upon vocational guidance. The city of Boston in America is called, “the cradle of
vocational guidance” and Frank Parsons of Boston as “the father of the vocational
guidance movement,” He planned and organized the Vocational Bureau of Boston in
1908, on his famous book, “Choosing a Vocation” appeared in 1909. Although Parsons
was connected with the work of vocational guidance yet he was not unaware of the
importance of a long-term educational guidance service. Before the time of Parsons,
extensive work in school guidance had been done by Jesse B, Davis from 1898 to 1907.
The credit of emphasizing the need for educational guidance goes to Truman L. Kelley

2
 BED=15202

who submitted his dissertation for Doctorate in 1914, under the title ‘Educational
Guidance’.
Factors Influencing Guidance Programme: Traxler thinks that five factors have
influenced the guidance programmes,
1. Humanitarianism of Philanthropy: According to this view “People should be
guided when they are young so that the maladjustments will not occur. This is a
job for the school.”
2. Religion: The religious man would say, “We must get hold of people when they
are very young and train them for the good life. We must build character in our
youth.” And so he looks to the educational institutions to assist him in this task.
3. Mental Hygiene: A mental hygienist thinks that mental therapy is the sure way of
treating maladjustment. According to this school of thought, people should learn
to get a correct perspective on abilities in relation to life goals even when they are
young and they say that the schools should provide for guidance in mental
hygiene,
4. Social Change: The pressure of members and the essentially non-academic
character of the students have created new problems for the school administrators.
“What to do with thousands of young people who had no marked desire to be
there.” This is exactly true in the case of students. The present administrator finds
that such individuals must be helped to marshal their assets.
5. Measurement Movement: The results of the application of measuring techniques
and statistical methods have also contributed to the efficiency of the guidance
programmes.
World War I gave impetus to the guidance movement. For the scientific selection
and training of men for war purposes, intelligence tests were introduced and administered
to millions of men. However, it must be admitted that intelligence tests and achievement
tests antedate the beginning of organized guidance.

3
 BED=15202

1.1Objectives

Dear students after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
 Discuss the meaning and characteristics of guidance;
 Explain the need and importance of guidance;
 State the basic principles of guidance; and
 Discuss the objectives of guidance.

1.1 Meaning of Guidance

What does guidance precisely mean ? Let us first see what it does not mean.
Lester.D. Crow and Alice Crow (1961) in “An Introduction to Guidance”, have aptly
stated that “Guidance is not giving directions. It is not the imposition of one person’s
point of view upon another person. It is not making decisions for an individual, which he
should make for himself. It is not carrying the burdens of another life”.

If guidance is not all these, then what is it really? To quote them again:

“Guidance is an assistance made available by personally qualified and

adequately trained men or women to an individual of any age to help them
manage their own life activities, develop their own points of view, make
their own decisions, and carry out their own burden”.

Guidance is a general term which means helping people to make wise choices and
solve their educational, vocational and personal problems. It is a process by which the
individuals are assisted in making adequate adjustments to life's situations. It is an
organized service which aims at helping the individuals understand themselves which
means enabling them to know their abilities, aptitudes, interests, perceptions, needs,
purposes, their assets and limitations. It is a service which also aims at providing the
individuals relevant and necessary information about himself and also about the world
around him. Arming the individuals with these two sets of information guidance process
aims at developing maturity and desired level of integration which are required for

4
 BED=15202

bringing about a harmony between their inner and the outer world. Thus, guidance is a
process by which individuals are helped to make adequate adjustments in difficult
situations of life. A comprehensive definition of guidance given by Ruth Strang (1966)
runs as follows:
Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through his own efforts, to
discover and develop his potentialities. Ruth Strang for his personal fulfillment and social
usefulness highlights four important characteristics of the process of guidance : (1) it is a
process of gaining understanding of one's self, (1) it is a process of gaining understanding
of one's relationship to other people, (3) it is a process of gaining understanding of
solving personal problems, (4) it is a process of gaining understanding of making
decisions. He considers process of guidance more important than the outcome of
guidance and emphasizes that “learning how to understand himself and to arrive at certain
decisions is more important an element of guidance than solving the problem. By giving
the individual information or sources of information that he needs, by directing his
attention to relevant facts in the past, to his future goals and to possible consequences of
certain behaviour the counsellor may show him how to think through himself. Thus, he
gradually acquires a method or a process of guiding himself.
Ruth Strang holds the view that guidance is not meant only for problematic
individuals, such as the slow learners, delinquents, mentally retarded, etc., as was
generally, thought in the beginning. Rather, he says, guidance is necessary for all
individuals.
The term guidance has been used in the above account of the help that psychology
can render in the solution of vocational, educational and personal problems. Educational
guidance is required in the field of education, vocational guidance in the field of
profession and vocation, and personal guidance in the individual's personal life. Before
going on to a detailed account of what these three forms entail it would be better to
understand what guidance is? Guidance may be defined as the process of helping the
individual in selecting, preparing, entering and progressing in the behavioural patterns
which comprise Human activities in the educational, vocational, recreational field as well

5
 BED=15202

as in connection with community service group. This help takes the form of personal help
on the psychologist's part. It is, again, in the form of advice. This does not solve problems
but only helps the individual in solving his problems. Husband, in his book entitled
‘Applied Psychology’, has defined the term thus, “Guidance may be defined as assisting
the individual to prepare for his future life to fit him for his place in society.” In this way,
guidance prepares the individual for his life. It informs the individual of the kind of
education that he requires, the subject that he would be advised to choose in his study, the
vocation of which he should apply himself when old enough, as well as the means he
should employ when faced with problems that he must solve. In society every individual
has a specific status and certain roles that are concomitant with it. For example, a male
member is head of his family, and from this position is derived his responsibility of
providing for the needs of the family and keeping in mind the proper development of
every member. But an individual does not maintain the same status throughout his life. At
one and the same or different times he passes through stages where he occupies the status
of son, father, husband, teacher or advocate, a citizen of the nation etc. In each of these
different statuses he has distinct and definite roles to play.
The person who has ability or sense enough to work as befits his status in society
is the one who wins the acclaim of society and its approval as well. It is in the
performance of these various roles and duties, which conform to his differing statuses,
that he needs guidance. In this way, the psychologist's guidance helps the individual fit
into his role and status in society. Every individual is not fit to take up any and every
position in society. Teaching, doctoring, advocacy and a variety of other professions are
not jobs that require the same individual qualities from the person occupied in doing
them. Introducing fitness in an individual to occupy some position is a matter that has two
aspects. The first is that his ability should be commensurate with the requirements of the
job and the second that he should try to become qualified to occupy that position. The
second of these aspects has some limitations. Whatever the effort expended every person
cannot become as artist or author, because every individual does not have the ability or
quality to adopt any and every profession. Even every individual cannot become a

6
 BED=15202

successful trader as that requires a definite shrewd and calculating mentality that is not
possessed by everyone. Hence, in order to prove able for some particular position a
person should choose the position that concurs with his capabilities and qualities.
Educational psychology helps the individual in his choice. In this way, guidance helps the
individual to settle down into positions that are, or are, not of his own choosing. As has
been said in the preceding discussion guidance help to prepare the individual for this
future life. Preparation for the future life implies creating ability in the individual to bear
responsibilities that fall to his lot. These future responsibilities can take a variety of
forms. Normally, for example, every boy or girl gets married when he and she grow up,
creates a family and indulges in prolific procreation. In this manner, every individual is
to face in the future responsibility concerning his children, responsibilities concerning the
partner he has chosen for life as well as further responsibilities of the family in general.
And in the normal circumstances, again, most young men and some young women have
also to adopt some or the other profession, whether to their liking or not. A child grows
up to be not on a man but also a citizen of his country and in this position certain rights
devolve upon him that bring with them some additional responsibilities.
Consequently, when we talk of preparing an individual for the future we mean to
prepare him for bearing his responsibilities and sufficiently whether he may be called
upon to do so in the field of family relations, the economic sphere, the political field of
any other situation in life. For this every individual boy and girl should turn to the
profession that conforms to the education they have had so that they may be in positions
for which they have been prepared and act with skill and confidence. They should decide
upon the profession that they would like to adopt. They should have the capacity to face
and solve their own problems as well as the problems that are likely to arise in their
relation with others. Guidance helps the individual in all these kinds of efforts.
In the words of Jones, “Guidance is the personal help that is given by one person
to another in developing life goals, in making adjustment and in solving problems that
confront him in the attainment of goals.” In this manner, guidance is personal assistance.
Although guidance is sometimes offered at the group level, yet even in these matters

7
 BED=15202

every member of the group is also individually given advice. Applied psychology is based
on the conception of individual differences. General experience and scientific research
have both established that every single individual has certain abilities, problems and
difficulties that are distinctly his own, as distinct from those of others. Evidently, if any
advice or guidance is to be rendered, it must be rendered individually and personally.
This personal help is forthcoming from one individual to another, one of these two
individuals is a psychologist, or one who knows psychology and the other a person who is
in need of psychological guidance. Guidance, then, is a help rendered to an individual by
the psychologist. In its more extensive sense the term may be taken to comprehend the
advice rendered by any individual who is in the know concerning psychology to another
who is in need of it.

1.2 Guidance-How Thinkers View It?

The term Guidance has been defined by several psychologists. Some important
definitions have been provided in the following paragraphs:
 In the words of Jones, “Guidance involves personal help given by someone; it is
designed to assist a person in deciding where he wants to go, what he wants to do,
or how he can best accomplish his purposes; it assists him in solving problems
that arise in his life. It does not solve problems for the individual, but helps him to
solve them. The focus of guidance is the individual, not the problem; its purpose is
to promote the growth of the individual in self-direction.”
 According to Ruth Strong, “Guidance is a process of helping every individual,
through his own efforts, to discover and develop his potentialities for his personal
happiness and social usefulness.”
 According to Humphrey and Traxler, “At any level, guidance implies that the
individual attains self-direction just at fast and as far as mental, social and
emotional abilities permit. Guidance of the younger or less mature individual, of
course, calls for closer direction than does guidance of the older or more mature

8
 BED=15202

individual. The term guidance, moreover, aptly applies to working with an

individual all along the lines from early childhood into adulthood.”
 According to Knapss, “Learning about the individual student, helping him to
understand himself, effecting changes in him and in his environment which will
help him to grow and develop as much as possible - these are the elements of
guidance.”
 Chishorlm opined that “Guidance seeks to help the individual discover his own
talents in comparison to the opportunities of the world and help him prepare
himself so that he can find or develop a place in which he can live a well-
balanced life and contribute his part to the welfare of his fellow men.”
 Brewer is of the view that “The word guidance should be used whenever an
important activity is to be learnt and assistance is needed by the individual to learn
that activity and adjust himself, whether that activity is the choice of leisure time
activity or habit of eating or behaviour towards the opposite sex.”
 Ritch and Segel maintained that “On the elementary school level, guidance is
predominantly educational guidance, broadly viewed as encompassing the
objectives of physical and mental health, well- rounded social development,
proper use of leisure time and mastery of the fundamental school processes.”
 According to Sec. Edu. Commission (1952-53), “Guidance involves the difficult
art of helping boys and girls to plan their own future wisely in the full light of all
the factors that can be mastered about themselves and about the world in which
they are to live and work. Naturally, therefore, it is not the work of a few
specialists, but rather a service in which the entire school staff must cooperate
under the guidance of some persons with special knowledge and skill in this
particular field. Guidance in this sense is not confined to the vocational field only.
It covers the whole gamut of youth problems and should be provided in an
appropriate form at all stages of education through the cooperative endeavour of
understanding parents, teachers, head-masters, principals and guidance officers.”

9
 BED=15202

 According to Mathewson, “Guidance is a continuous and pervasive process as a

favourable directional influence upon appropriate social behaviour, personal
effectiveness in every-day affairs, academic competence and progress and
assimilation of right values and attitudes.” “Guidance cannot remain solely
remedial or even orientational, it must also be developmental.”
 Proctor opined that “Guidance is a process through which an individual or groups
of individuals are helped to make necessary adjustment to the environment- inside
or outside the school.”
 In the words of Rama Rao, “Guidance is essentially an educative process the
outcomes of which are mental and educational preparedness for courses of action
centered round the basic functions of men, especially those pertaining to
vocational, recreational and community service field.”
 According to Hamrin and Erickson, “Guidance is that aspect of educational
programme which is concerned especially with helping the pupil to become
adjusted to his personal situation and to plan his future in line with his interests,
abilities and social needs.”
 According to Lefever, “Guidance is that systematic, organized phase of the
educational process which helps youth in his power to give point and direction to
his own life, to the end that he may gain richer personal experiences while making
his own unique contribution to our democratic society.”
 Guidance as defined by Strang is the process of solving problems of individuals
through their own efforts. It is not the counsellor who takes the responsibility of
solving the problem of the individual. The process of guidance is such that it only
creates a situation in which the individual himself becomes capable of solving his
problem. This principle is based on the belief that the individual has resources
within himself to work out his own salvation, and hence, the role of the counsellor
should be somewhat like that of a catalytic agent. Guidance should, therefore, be
concerned with the growth possible for the individual in his environment.
Guidance should mean providing all the needed information and supporting

10
 BED=15202

material to the individual for taking a decision. But, the decision should be taken
by the individual himself and the guidance worker should encourage him to take
responsibility for making it.
According to Baquer Mehdi (1966) guidance is the process which is concerned
with the development of the total personality of the individual and the welfare of the
society. He says it is a developmental process or activity aiming at (1) developing an
individual's potentialities in such a way that he is able to understand himself and his
environment as well as his relationship with his environment which enables him to
successfully face the reality, (1) helping the individual in such a way that he constantly
makes efforts on developing his own self and achieves success. To him guidance also
means organization of those programmes and activities through which efforts are made by
the counsellors to solve those complex problems which call for psychological help.
These definitions indicate the following aspects of Guidance:
1. Helping people to make wise choices when faced with various alternatives
available.
2. Helping people to solve their educational, vocational and personal
problems as efficiently as possible.
3. Helping people to make adequate adjustments in life's situations.
4. Helping people to develop a more realistic understanding of themselves
and their environment,
5. Helping people to know their potentialities, to acquire knowledge of their
level of intelligence, their interests and aptitudes, their self-concepts,
values and level of maturity.
6. Helping people to develop their potentialities optimally.
7. Helping people to acquire more reliable information about the world of
work.
8. Helping people to contribute their best to the development and welfare of
the society.

11
 BED=15202

9. Helping people to live a balanced and tension free-life with full

satisfaction under the circumstances.
10. Helping people to satisfy their needs most effectively and efficiently in
most desirable way.
11. Helping people to bring excellence in their according their abilities and
potentialities.

1.3 Characteristics of Guidance

The above definitions and aspects of guidance indicate the following important
features.
1) It is promotion of the growth of the individual in self-direction.
2) It is process of helping the individual in affecting changes in him.
3) It helps the individual himself through his own efforts.
4) It assists an individual to find his place in the society
5) It is helping the individual to establish harmonious relationships.
6) It is assisting the individual to adjust himself in the society.
7) It is helping the individual to make appropriate educational vocational and
personal choices.
8) Its programme is to organize the individual personality for the development.
9) Its programme has a structure, system and personnel.
10) It consists of specialised services— testing counselling, educational and
vocational information placement and follow up services.
11) Its programme is an integral part of the school system.
12) It is helping an individual to identify and develop his potentialities and talents.
13) It is a point of view that includes a positive attitude towards children.
14) It helps in bringing excellence among people.
15) It helps in developing the abilities and potentialities of the people.

12
 BED=15202

1.4 Nature of Guidance

The following aspects and processes after analyzing the various meanings,
definitions of guidance. This analysis also throws light on the nature of guidance:

1. Continuous Process: Guidance is a continuous process. It is important to note

that the process of guidance never ceases. It remains dynamic. In this process,
an individual understands himself, learns to use maximum his own capacities,
interests and other abilities. He continues his struggle for adjustment in
different situations. He develops his capacity of decision-making. Hence, we
see that it is a non-stop process.

2. Related with Life: The process of guidance is related to life. This guidance
contributes formally or informally to life because life experiences both formal
and informal occasions. A person gets informal guidance from his friends and
relatives while formal guidance is sought from organised school guidance
services and other organised guidance services.

3. Development of Capacities: During the process of guidance the individual is

assisted in such a way that he makes himself enabled to develop his capacities
maximum from all angles. Hence, guidance stresses the complete development
of possibilities present in an individual. An individual becomes familiar with
his real image. Hence, guidance is helpful in self-realization.

4. Individual Assistance: Guidance is accepted as individualized help. Through

guidance, an individual's personal development is provided a direction and not
to a group. Hence, it is a process of individualized assistance.

5. Task of Trained Persons: Providing guidance is not the function of all persons
because various techniques and skill are to be used in it. Everybody does not
possess the knowledge of the same. For this task, trained persons, psychologists
and counsellors are required. Hence, guidance is a skill-involved process.

13
 BED=15202

6. Wide Scope of Guidance: The scope of guidance is too wide. Any needy
person can be guided. This can include the persons of different age, different
interests, various characteristics and persons of different nature. Hence, we
cannot draw boundaries around the process of guidance.

7. Helpful in Adjustment: Guidance helps the person in his adjustment in

different situations. This process allows to learn to adjust with different types
of problems. In this way, the main characteristic of the nature of the guidance is
to provide new energy to the demoralized person by adjusting himself in the
problematic situation through the process of guidance.

8. Helpful in Developing the Ability of Self-guidance: The nature of guidance

also includes the characteristic of developing self-guidance in a person with the
help of guidance process. This enables him in achieving self-dependence by
searching out the solution of problems of life.

9. No Imposition of One's View Point: It is also the main characteristic of

guidance not to impose one's viewpoint on others. It depends upon the wish of
an individual how he acquires benefit by accepting the decision of the guidance
worker. If he wishes, he may deny accepting such decisions of the guidance
workers. Hence, it is not a process of imposing the decisions.

10. Helpful in Preparing for Future: The process of guidance is helpful in

preparing a person for his future. Hence, a person can succeed in preparing
himself for future activities. In this way, guidance is a well- wisher of an
individual's future.

11. Guidance as an Educational Service: The nature of guidance also includes

educational touch. It has been defined as educational service. The meaning of
guidance is explained in the context of problems occurring in the field of
education and in the context of adjustment in the school environment.

14
 BED=15202

12. Client Centered: Guidance has been accepted as a specialized service. In this
form, this process is more client centered. In other words, it is based upon
developmental approach.

13. Guidance as a Sub-process of Education (Supporting device): Guidance is

also considered as a sub-process of education. In education, efforts are made for
all- round development of the pupils; Guidance occupies its own place in this
process of education. It is being considered as a process like other processes of
education.

14. Guidance as More than Assistance: Guidance is not merely assistance. It is

more than assistance. Limits of this assistance are not fixed or decided. This
assistance has a wider scope. It cannot be predicted when and how much help
an individual needs. Nothing can be ascertained in advance.
Baquer Mehdi has expressed the following views regarding the nature of guidance
in his book entitled “Guidance in Schools 1978” published by NCERT:-
a) Guidance as an Organised Service: Guidance is an organised service. It is not a
single activity of the school. It is a process with broader base and definite
objective. In order to achieve the objective of guidance curriculum is used.
Keeping in view this objective, charges are also brought about in it. In this way,
guidance based education develops.
b) Guidance is set apart from Instruction in the Narrowest Sense: Instructions are
concerned with acquiring mastery and skills in the subject. Guidance is
cornered with the fulfillment of pupil's needs in their growth in the areas other
than instructions. Still, guidance helps instructions by providing assistance to the
pupils in the various areas of instructions so that they may get adjusted in a
better way.
c) Guidance is both Specialized and a Generalized Service: Guidance is both
specialized and generalized service in which a teacher, parents and counsellor
play important roles. But, like other services, guidance service also needs
trained stuff so that this process may work smoothly. In the guidance
15
 BED=15202

programme all have important roles but the main responsibility is of guidance
staff because these staff-members may solve the problems properly due to their
training. Specialized persons include school counsellor, school psychologist,
school psychiatrist, curriculum expert, placement worker, coordinator of school
activities etc.
d) Guidance is for all: Every person needs guidance at all the stages of life,
situation from childhood to old age. He needs guidance for solving problems to
adjust in the family as well as in the society.
e) Guidance is a Dynamic Process: Guidance is a life-long process at all stages of
life problems. The nature of problems changes so the type of guidance also
changes. It is related to the whole life.

1.5 Need and Importance of Guidance

Guidance and counselling services are becoming more and more important as the
society and its various institutions are growing in complexity. The society and all its
institutions are built of individuals as their units as a mansion is built of bricks. The
strength and solidarity of the society and its institutions are, therefore, contingent upon
the strength of these individual units. Strength and solidarity of these individual units
constitute the foundation of a strong nation. Hence, the optimum development of each of
these units should be the most cherished goal of every nation. Guidance and counselling
contributes to the achievement of this goal. Through guidance and counselling efforts are
made to develop the potentialities of individuals to the maximum possible extent so that
they may live an effective life themselves and may contribute their best to the progress of
the society. From this point of view guidance and counselling should be considered
essential social services. Besides, there are several other considerations on the basis of
which the need for guidance and counselling may be justified.
The following are the major considerations for the need of guidance services:
1. The total development of the student: Intellectual development through
the teaching of subjects along cannot lead to the total development of the
16
 BED=15202

students. What is needed is some method of helping students to understand

themselves and helping teachers to understand the students. There has to
be a basic and fundamental change in the entire system of education,
which recognizes that a person remains a barbarian unless he knows
something about himself no matter how well a human being is educated in
chemistry, physics, economics, history or literature. Self-knowledge in
depth must become its primary focus. This is done through a programme
of guidance and counseling. Total development of the students requires
that individual differences among students are accepted and understood,
and all types of experiences are so organised in an institution as to
contribute to their total development.
2. Proper choice of courses: Everyone knows that our educational system
has grown haphazard. While humanities and the liberal arts are subjects
most frequently offered and taken, both in the colleges and the universities
they were the oldest and relatively inexpensive areas of knowledge, taken
because they require no specified intellectual equipment. Hence, thousands
of young men educated in these liberal are arts without jobs.
3. Proper choice of careers: Our’s is highly complex and rapidly changing
world of work. The changing requirements in industrial jobs, altered
market conditions for professional manpower, the development of par a-
professional occupations and many other labour market trends are making
occupational selection more difficult than ever. The young students in
colleges and universities must be informed about various available jobs
and openings and the requirements, responsibilities and the nature of work
involved in them so that they could measure themselves up to them and
develop and crystallize their occupational goal. They should be helped in
making meaningful occupational selection. They must be prepared for an
entry into them to have a fulfilling and rewarding career. The majority of
students in our colleges and universities are the first generation learners.

17
 BED=15202

They have no one with an experience of college 01 university education

background in their family to guide them in the choice of a career. With a
right to the best education available, and a wide range of jobs open to
them, education available, and a wide range of jobs open to them, these
students need mature help in making a judicious occupational choice. This
shows the need of adequate guidance and counselling arrangement in our
colleges and universities.
4. Vocational development: The process of vocational development covers
almost the entire span of life of an individual. It begins quite early in
one's life and continues till sometimes after retirement. In this process,
the individual passes through growth, exploration, maintenance and
decline. Guidance services are provided at the colleges and universities to
help the students in the process of vocational development by making a
possible for them to gain knowledge about themselves their abilities,
interests and needs and knowledge about the world of work. Their
transition from education to work can be facilitated by providing them
opportunities for self-exploration as well as exploration of the world of
work while they are still in an educational institution.
5. Development of readiness for choices and changes to face new
challenges: In a paper entiled “The Need for Counselling in Higher
Education”, presented at the Third International Round Table Conference
of Educational Counselling and Vocational Guidance, Miss Newsome,
Counselling Officer at the University of Keels, North Strafford Shire,
England, writes, “For the students of higher education the demands of life
are likely to be great, in a most different way from the exacting demands
of education itself on graduating he will be called upon to make use of the
kind of person he has become a much if not more than what he has learnt
in his course of study - not only to make an initial choice of what he is to
do on graduating but will be called upon to change his occupation several

18
 BED=15202

times in a life time. Readiness for these choices and changes is essential,
not only to the student himself but to the society as a whole. To the extent
to which he is able to capitalize on his experience and face new challenges
with a realistic expectation of success, to that extent he will benefit
society. If he is unable to meet the changing demands, not only of the
working world but also of his other roles of life, to that extent he will be a
liability and will fail to fulfill the expectations which society hajj for its
most able people.” Guidance services are needed to develop in the students
the ability to cope with their new problems and concerns so that they
become more competent to meet the demands which will be made upon
them in the future.
6. Minimizing the mismatching between education and employment and
help in the efficient use of manpower: The hiatus between education and
employment has rarely been as wide and as disturbing as it is today.
Higher academic education is far too general and diffused to be of
practical value to the vast majority of young men and women. Most of
Indian young men and women have no clear objectives or career targets.
They go through university courses of learning without acquiring much
knowledge or preparing themselves for an uncertain future. Every year,
Indian colleges and universities send thousands of hopeful youngsters into
the labour market virtually unemployable despite their fancy degrees and
diplomas. Employers often complain that of the hundreds of applications
that come in response to a single vacancy, at least 80 percent have no
reality to the job specifications. Few students pursue their education with a
clear idea as to what they would eventually like to become. People register
at the employment exchange with scant idea about the sort of work they
would like to take up. Thus, while jobs to a begging the youth go begging
for jobs. The employment of workers ill-suited to their jobs leads to a
higher rate of labour placement or to the retention of persons who are

19
 BED=15202

inefficient. This is a huge wastage of scant resources. Guidance facilities

may help in reducing this wastage and thus ensure efficient use of
manpower.
7. Motivating the youth for self-employment: Considering the magnitude
of educated job-seekers flowing into the job market in India every year, a
sizable fraction of enterprising youth should be initiated into careers of
self-employment. Some arrangement needs to be instituted in the colleges
and universities to identify the deserving cases fit to take up self-
employment. They must be educated on how to proceed about the job of
setting up a venture. They must be helped through the cooperation of the
concerned agencies in this sphere to prepare technically sound and
economically viable projects. Agencies must sponsor their cases to the
banks for loans assistance and guide them to overcome the teething trouble
through effective follow—up after the commencement of the venture. All
this requires guidance.
8. Helping freshers to establish proper identity: In India the young men
and women entering colleges and universities are comparatively young in
years. They are “passing through a stage between childhood and
adulthood, between the morality learned as a child and the ethics to be
developed by the adult. They find it extremely difficult to establish a
satisfactory identity. This failure or delay leads to what has been called
“role diffusion”. This crisis in role identity is very acute today. The
uncertainties of the future, the conflicts in languages, culture, regions,
castes, etc., and the erosion of traditional values have made Indian youth
rootless. In small study done by Fuster (1964) with Bombay college
students, both men and women, it was found that the strongest needs, as
reported by the students themselves where they were requested to indicate
rank orders, were for achievement in life, self-reliance and as sense of
security, success in college and university, to have an understanding friend

20
 BED=15202

and (for the males) money. Guidance and counselling programme is

needed to help students deal effectively with the normal development tasks
of adolescence and face life situations boldly.
9. Identifying and motivating the students from weaker sections of
society: Students from weaker sections of society have their own problems
and needs. They experience difficulty in adjustment with the peers,
teachers and the environment. It is a problem for them to communicate,
make friends, utilize the time profitably, make the best use of lectures,
make an effective use of library and other facilities available. Guidance
facilities are needed for such type to students to enable them to adjust and
utilize the available facilities.
10. Helping the students in their period of turmoil and confusion:
Normally all the students undergo a great deal to turmoil and searching to
give meaning to their lives. They have their conflicts and anxieties. They
are disillusioned regarding higher education. They find that instead of
imparting them education colleges and universities just enable them to
pass examination. They feel lost and bewildered, when this education does
not enable them to get immediate employment. They have their personal
conflicts and anxieties about their parents and family, their relations to boy
and girl friends. They have the problems of adjusting their personality to
the world of people, of ethical ideas and of goals and situations. To tackle
all these situations successfully, they need someone to sort out the strands.
This is done through guidance.
11. Checking wastage and stagnation: In India average pass percentage at
the graduate and post-graduate level is about 50 to 60. Besides thousands
of Indian students, unfortunately, drop out, get pushed out and fall out of
the system. This problem is becoming more and more serious today. Again
majority of our students pass in third division, which is a low qualification
for the world of work. This poor achievement, may be due to lack of

21
 BED=15202

proper study skills and effective study habits, lack of the knowledge for
making full use of the facilities provided and so on. Higher education is a
very costly enterprise. Much of the money wasted on poor and low
achievers could be saved by a policy of prevention. Preventive education is
more sound economically than remedial education. There is a clear need
for developing better professional services of a counselling kind— to
check the huge wastage of student time and money and also huge state
expenditure on education. In this connection Miller has well said, “If one
counsellor could prevent the wastage of only four student years each
costing £ 800 to £ 1100, he would be earning his keep. Similar savings of
graduate salaries foregone as a result of failure or delay would benefit
student as well as taxpayer”
12. Identifying and helping students in need of special help: Students who
are the gifted, the backward, the handicapped need special opportunities
and arrangement to be provided in colleges and universities. Guidance
helps in identifying them and providing them with help according to their
requirements.
13. Insuring proper utilization of time spent outside the classrooms:
Students in the colleges and universities spend two to three times as many
hours outside classrooms as in them. The manner in which students spend
their non-class hours clearly affects their success in achieving both
academic competence and personal development of all types. It is,
therefore, essential that institutions of higher learning provide positive
guidance to students by instructing how they can use those non-class
houses. The programme of guidance and counselling is requested to meet
this need.
14. Tuck ting problems of student explosion: Today, the increased demand
for higher education is outstripping the growth of facilities in the seats of
higher learning. Unfortunate qualitative changes in the nature of entire

22
 BED=15202

educative experiences are creating innumerable problems. The students

population is highly heterogeneous. Students from a variety of sections—
highly affluent and extremely poor, educated in convents and ordinary
schools and colleges, rural and urban areas, students from India those from
different foreign countries are attending colleges and universities.
Numerous problems crop up when students from a broad range of families
and educational and social backgrounds meet in classes for instruction, in
hostels for housing in cafeterias and mess halls for eating. Guidance and
counselling facilities should be provided for helping them to tackle these
diverse and complex problems.
15. Check on migration: There is unhealthy trend among the Indian youth of
migrating from rural to urban areas and from India to foreign countries. If
migration is not checked by proper guidance and counselling, cities will
swallow the rural talent and foreign countries will take away national
talent.
16. Fulfilling the deficiencies of home: A large number of students come to
institutions of higher learning from homes which have not taught them
how to deal with their problems. This is due to various factors such as
rapid industrialization, political and social changes in the occupational
structure of the country and the growing complexity of life there are
greater pressures and strains in the family. Again, there is gap in the range
of sympathetic adults who could be turned to in need, which was formerly
filled by adult brothers and sisters, friendly aunts and grand parents when
communities and families were more intimate. Most of the homes are not
equipped to be the source of information concerning the qualifications
required for different kinds of courses or careers. Such information can
come only from agencies which make a full time job of supplying
adequate and up –to- date materials. Most of the parents are not trained for
helping their grown up children to develop sound study techniques, and

23
 BED=15202

obtain reliable information in matters of sex. Etc Seth (1961) collected a

sample of students at Allahabad University, whose parents were indicated
as the most usual source of help. Forty per cent of student respondents said
that they could not discuss their problems with their parents. Professional
guidance required to sort out all these problems.
17. Checking incidence of indiscipline: Majority of Indian students lack a
sense of duration a sense of purpose and a sense of fulfillment. They
indulge in destructive activities leading lo social damage and loss.
Adequate guidance and counselling facilities are required to help and
guide the youth lo worthwhile channels and to make them realize the goal
of optimum academic, persona and social development.
18. Need in developing economy: Guidance and counseling have a
challenging role to play in every developing economy, much more so if it
is labour intensive. Selection of a job from a multitude of alternatives, is a
very important objective of guidance and counselling although it is not the
be — all and end - all of guidance and counselling. The core aim of these
services is to help the job-seeking youth to form realistic career notions, in
conformity with their capacities, aptitudes and social settings, so that in
their adult life, they do not end up as career 'failures'. Wrong career
decisions make a big drain on the emotional health of the individuals and
the productivity of the society, Guidance is needed to help the youth to
build up a desirable self-concept to achieve an every larger measure of
self-appraisal and choose a proper career line. Thus, the provision of
guidance and counselling service is India's immediate requirement.
19. Quantitative Improvement of Education: In India there has been a rapid
expansion of educational facilities to cater to the needs of increasing
number of children. This has resulted in the fall of educational standards.
Consequently, there is a strong current of thinking among educationists as
well as general public that educational planning should emphasize

24
 BED=15202

schemes for the qualitative improvement of education, The introduction of

guidance services in the country is an important means for affecting
improvement in the quality of education.
20. National Development: By helping and identifying and developing
human potential which is the richest source of a nation, guidance can help
to reduce the wastage of educational facilities and abilities so prevalent in
India. Guidance may also help to correct the existing imbalances, in the
employment situation by channeling young people into occupations where
there are manpower shortage. It was help in the reducing labour turn-over
and its costs. It may increase efficiency and levels of production by
enabling a person to be trained properly and placing them accordingly. At
a time when India have embarked upon various programmes of economic
development, it is urgent and essential to establish a close link between
education and the manpower needs of the country. This may be done
through guidance.
21. Fulfillment of the extra-instructional needs of pupils: Rama Rao has
stated, “Classroom instruction by itself has not the full resources which art;
essential as well as necessary in an impoverished home for helping the
pupils to acquire and preserve the. background requirements for successful
scholastic or poly technical career. Proper attitudes to persons, things and
ideas of certain value and systematized working and living habits are
essential to any career. The need to supplement, correct and complement
the areas of education is obvious.” This statement points to need of
guidance.
Thus, there is need for guidance from the point of view of the society as well as of
the individual. Society can make progress if its individuals find places, in the
occupational, civic and social order where they can contribute their best for the welfare of
human kind.

25
 BED=15202

1.7 Areas of Guidance

Guidance services are meant to help students to make proper adjustments the
environment in which they are living and also make the best possible contribution
commensurate with one's strengths and limitations. Every individual, at some time or
other, needs help to become happier, more creative arid better adjusted in his family and
social milieu. In [his regard, he will be required to act according to certain decisions. He
being self autonomous must, therefore, be permitted to make his own decisions. There are
several areas where students require assistance. These areas can be classified into:

Areas of Guidance

Education Vocational Personal Social Avocational Health

Guidance Guidance Guidance Guidance Guidance Guidance

1. Educational Guidance: Educational Guidance refers to the Guidance to students

in all aspects of education. The emphasis is on providing assistance to students to
perform satisfactorily in their academic work, choose the appropriate courses of
study overcome learning difficulties, foster creativity, improve levels of
motivation, utilize institutional resources optimally such as library, laboratory,
workshop etc.
2. Vocational Guidance: Vocational guidance is the assistance provided for
selection of a vocation and preparation for the same. It is concerned with enabling
students to acquire information about career opportunities, career growth and
training facilities.
3. Personal Guidance: Personal Guidance refers to the guidance to students to
enable them to adjust themselves to their environment so that they become

26
 BED=15202

efficient citizens. Adolescent behaviour, to a great extent, depends upon the

moods and attitude of the adolescent. Emotional instability is a characteristic of
adolescents and this is often the cause of many of their personal problems.
4. Social Guidance: Social Guidance is the guidance to students to enable them to
make substantial contributions to the society, assume leadership, conform to the
social norms, work as team members, develop healthy and positive attitudes,
appreciate the problems of society, respect the opinions and sentiments of fellow
beings, acquire traits of patience, perseverance, fraternity, friendship. Its main
purpose is to enable the student to become an efficient citizen.
5. Avocational Guidance: Avocational Guidance s the assistance to be provided to
students to spend their available leisure time profitably. Activities and
programmes outside the formal classrooms provide many opportunities for the
blossoming of talents of students. They may use their leisure time in many
activities such as games, photography, drama, fine arts which have recreational
value also. Students must enjoy life around them through which all-round
development is possible.
6. Health Guidance: Health guidance implies the assistance rendered to students for
maintaining sound health. Sound health is a prerequisite for participating in
curricular and co-curricular activities. This type of guidance focuses on enabling
students to appreciate conditions for good health, and take steps necessary for
ensuring good health, maintaining sound physical and mental health. A sound
mind is possible only in a sound body.

1.8 Main Objectives of Guidance

Robert Henry Mathewson has given following four main objectives guidance:
1. To Appraise and Interpret Personal Characteristics : Self-
understanding the discovery of aptitudes and capacities, attributes of the
self, weak points and strong points ability to evaluate the self in relation of

27
 BED=15202

personal and several experiences and to use the self more effectively in
everyday living is sought by guidance.
2. To Adjust to School, to Teachers and Pupils : Guidance aims at
satisfactory adjustment to academic work, getting the most out of studies
and school activities, diagnosis of severe learning problems and
instructional difficulties and their remedy, placement in suitable
educational experiences in accord with individual needs and potentialities
etc. Guidance helps transfer from one course to another or from one
programme to another, depending upon need, performance or other
circumstances. It provides social adjustment to teachers and other pupils. It
develops personal status in school; growth in self-confidence and
acceptance of self.
3. To Provide Orientation to Educational, Vocational and Avocational
Opportunities and Requirements : Guidance seeks selection of
appropriate courses in line with individuals needs, interests, abilities and
circumstances by making choice of various types of experiences in the
whole school curriculum including co-curricular activities. Guidance aims
planning a total educational programme, choice of suitable and feasible
types of advanced training programme-college or otherwise-in line with
individual needs and social requirements, Its objective is selection of
tentative broad area of preparation of vocational pursuit, information on
occupational opportunities and trends. Aid in obtaining work experiences,
exploratory try-outs. Assistance in finding suitable employment. Follow-
up after leaving school help in early occupational adjustment and
interpretation of social and democratic values and relation of individual to
these values.
4. To Develop Personal Potentialities: Guidance aims at growth in
intellectual and academic capacities, skills and understandings
commensurate with personal potentialities. It seeks development of

28
 BED=15202

favourable attitudes and habit-disposition. It aims at understanding and

assimilation of ideas and of capacity to undertake consistent action in
accord with a socially constructive and individually satisfactory
philosophy.

1.9 Area Wise Objectives of Guidance

The objectives of the various areas of guidance are indicated in the following
table:

Area Objectives
1. Educational 1. To monitor academic progress of students
Guidance
2. To identify special learners such as academically
backward, gifted, and creative.
3. To assist students in further/continuing education
4. To provide assistance to special learners by catering to
their educational needs.
5. To diagnose the learning difficulties of students in different
subjects
6. To help students in their adjustment to curricular
and co-curricular demands of the educational programme.
7. To make students familiar with the world of work and its
diverse requirements.
8. To provide career information.
2. Vocational 1. To enable students to discover their potentialities and
Guidance interests vis-à-vis occupational requirements.
2. To make available information about vocational training.
3. To assist in choice of vocation.
4. To train students for entrepreneurship.

29
 BED=15202

5. To train students f»r adjustment in a chosen vocation.

6. To assist students in attaining emotional stability.
7. To help students to get properly adjusted in life.
3. Personal 1. To help students to improve mental health.
Guidance
2. To assist students in becoming progressively responsible
for their own development
4.Social Guidance 1. To develop in students proper attitude for social life.
2. To inculcate in students right social values
3. To train students for leadership and follower ship qualities.
4. To build a spirit of team work in students.
5.Vocational 1. To provide Opportunities for participation in extra-
Guidance curricular activities.
2. To assist students in developing hobbies and interests.
3. To provide avenues for recreation.
4. To inculcate interest in games and other forms of
recreation.
5. To assist in using leisure time profitably.
6.Health Guidance 1. To indicate need for sound health
2. To provide for sex education.
3. To encourage students to follow a well-balanced
programme of physical activities.
4. To encourage students to overcome any remedial defects
they may have or to receive medical treatment for them.

Guidance and Counselling is an integral part of the effective functioning of

technician institutions in their attempts to educate and train their students to become
efficient and effective technicians. It helps every student to understand himself, to make
the most of his capabilities and interests, to make effective adjustments with the

30
 BED=15202

environment and the institution and to develop ability and inclination to discuss wisely
und solve his problems independently. A primary task of guidance and counselling is that
of enhancing learning; not only learning of skills and knowledge related directly to the
world in which the student lives but also learning related to his ‘inner world’- that is an
increased understanding of self. Technical institutions need, therefore, to accept the
responsibility of providing an adequate and properly organized mechanism for instituting
guidance and counselling services to their students.

1.10 Basic Principles of Guidance

In order to organize a guidance programme successfully, it is essential to

understand the principles along with the meaning of guidance upon which the guidance
process is based. After knowing these principles, it becomes convenient to run this
programme. All the educationists do not agree on the principles of guidance. For
example, Jones has given five principles of guidance. Humphrey and Traxler have given
seven while Crow and Crow have described fourteen principles of guidance. Some
principles are common. The principles, convincing to all, are as follows —

1. Principles of Guidance According to Jones

According to Jones, the principles of guidance are as follows
i. Principle of individual differences.
ii. Principles of specific abilities are not innate.
iii. Principle of need of assistance in solving the problem of the individuals.
iv. Principle of developing self-guidance.
v. Principle of important place of school in providing guidance.
2. Principles according to Crow and Crow
According to Crow and Crow, the principles of guidance are as follows —
i. Study of an Individual and Evaluation: In the guidance programme,
unless and until correct information regarding every person is not collected,
it is impossible to run this programme. Hence, in order to collect such

31
 BED=15202

information’s, it is essential to appraise the individual, to study him and to

run the programmes based on research. In order to run a guidance
programme, cumulative record must be presented before the guidance
programmers. This presents a clear picture of a pupil's achievements and
progress to the guidance worker, According to this principle, the use of well-
selected standardized tests for the study and appraisal of a person prove very
helpful. We can collect facts regarding a person's achievements, interests,
and mental abilities with the help of these tests. The maintenance of such
facts as cumulative record is must for guidance.
ii. Evaluation of Guidance Programme: The guidance programmes being run
in the schools should be evaluated from time to time. The success of
guidance programme should be explored in the form of changes brought
about as a result of guidance. If such changes are not seen, then the entire
programme would be considered ineffective. Hence, to follow the principle
of evaluation of guidance programme is essential for the success of guidance
workers.
iii. Responsibility of Skilled workers: In the guidance programme, the specific
problems of the persons are tried for solution. Its responsibility should be of
skilled workers otherwise there will be a question mark on the success of
this programme.
iv. Responsibility of Teachers and Principals or Headmasters: The
responsibility of guidance programme should not be of teachers only but it
should also be shared by the principal or headmaster. In a guidance
programme, if they are assigned specific roles, the guidance programme can
be conducted more smoothly.
v. Advantage of Guidance: The benefit of guidance should be given not only
to those who demand it directly or who express its need. But the benefit of
guidance should be given to those persons also who can benefit it directly or
indirectly. Hence, the scope of its advantage should be wider.

32
 BED=15202

vi. Guidance by a Trained Person: In order to accomplish guidance process,

the entire responsibility of guidance should be of a trained person so that this
programme can be executed after contacting the related persons and
departments.
vii. Flexible Programme of Guidance: Variations among the needs of an
individual and society are must. Hence, keeping in view these variations,
the guidance programme should be very flexible so that necessary changes
can be brought about.
viii. Related to Every Aspect of Life: A man is a social being. The life of social
being has various aspects. The guidance programme should be related to all
these aspects of life. The various aspects of life include those aspects which
study an individual's physical and mental hygiene, his family, school, social
needs and vocational needs etc.
ix. Cooperation among Related Persons: In the present circumstances various
difficult situations create many problems. In order to solve these problems it
is very essential to develop a feeling of cooperation among the persons
involved in the guidance work.
x. Preference to the All-Round Development: In order to develop a person's
personality, it is essential to develop each and every aspect of the
personality. Hence, the guidance service should follow the principle in
which attention is paid towards all-round development of a person,
xi. Guidance according to the Stages: All persons are not alike but still they
show similarities and variations. Guidance should be imparted according to
the needs of children, adolescents and adults so that desirable assistance can
be provided to them.
xii. Help in Achieving Useful Objectives: The function of the guidance
programme should be to achieve the useful objectives for a person and from
this point of view, this programme should be executed.

33
 BED=15202

xiii. A Continuous Process: Guidance process is a continuous process which

goes on life long.
xiv. Attitude of Guidance: Guidance is such a programme that its altitude
appears in the curriculum contents and teaching methods.

1.11 Let Us Sum Up

In this lesson, you have learned the meaning and principles of guidance. You have
learned that nature and characteristics of guidance. An attempt had been made to discuss
the basic objectives and the need and importance of guidance in our day today life.
Besides, you have also learned that both USA and India have a long history of guidance.
A number of universities, institutes, organizations are involved in guidance. There are
individual initiatives also. You have come across important views about guidance and
how these views help to develop effective guidance programs.

1.12 Check Your Progress

1. Define the term guidance? Explain the characteristic features of guidance?

2. Indicate consideration for the need of guidance?
3. Discuss the areas of guidance? Explain the objectives of guidance areas wise?
4. Explain the nature of guidance? State briefly the basic principles of guidance?

1.13 Suggested Readings

1. Borow, H. (1964). Milestones of Notable Events in the History of Vocational

Guidance. In Henry Borow (ed.) Man in a World at Work, pp. 45-64.
2. Brewer, J. M. (1918). The Vocational Guidance Movement: Its Problem and
Possibilities. New York: Macmillan.
3. Crow, L. D. & Crow, A. (1951). An Introduction of Guidance Principles and
Practices. New York: American Book Company.

34
 BED=15202

4. Gupta, S. K. (1985). Guidance and Counseling in Indian Education. Delhi:

Mittal Publications.
5. Tolbert, E. L. (1978). An Introduction to Guidance. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company.

35
 BED= 15202

UNIT I

LESSON NO: 02 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF

GUIDANCE

Lesson Structure
2.0 Introduction

2.1 Objectives

2.2 Historical Background of Guidance

2.3 Guidance Movement in UK

2.4 Guidance Movement in India

2.5 Guidance Movement in India and the Recommendations of

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)

2.6. Guidance Movement of India and the Recommendations of Indian

Education Commission (1964-66)

2.7 Present Position of Guidance Services

2.8 Let us Sum Up

2.9 Check Your Progress

2.10 Suggested Readings

36
 BED= 15202

2.0 Introduction

As a school student, you must have received guidance from your parents, teachers,
and others. You have received advice, suggestions, directions to do some work
systematically when you needed. As a college student, you may have given advice to
some school children or your classmates, or have helped them to complete a task. You
have done these depending upon your knowledge, skills and understanding of the
situation. You might have done it perfectly or might not. You may not be aware at this
stage about the meaning of ‘guidance’, or principles of guidance, though you have helped
some students or others in the past.
Guidance in educational settings means to assist a learner to acquire sufficient
understanding of himself/herself or his/her environment so that he/she can utilize the
educational opportunities afforded by the school and/or community effectively. From this
point of view, you may recall the way you helped any student in the past. Did you help
them to solve the problem directly? Did you give them direct advice to do something or
not to do something? Did you guide only once? Did you collect feedback after few days?
Yes, all these questions are important. When you read this unit, you can make a
difference in between the type of guidance you have given to any student, and the type of
guidance we should provide.

This is the first lesson of course “Guidance and “counselling”. In this lesson we
shall discuss the meaning of guidance, highlight few definitions and principles of
guidance, discuss brief history of guidance with reference to USA and India, and the
importance of appraisal in guidance. We shall also highlight some important views
available in the literature.

2.1 Objectives

Dear students, after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
 Trace out the historical background of guidance movement in India;

37
 BED= 15202

 Trace out the historical background of guidance movement in U.S.A.

 State the recommendations of Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) in
guidance; and
 State the recommendations of Indian Education Commission (1964-66) in
guidance;

2.1 Historical Background of Guidance

Literally guidance means ‘to direct’, ‘to point out’, ‘and to show the path’. It is the
assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to
solve certain major problems of the individual (less experienced) i.e. educational,
vocational, personal etc. Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept
guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the individual. As a process
guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding one‘s strengths,
limitations and other resources) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make
choices and decision on one‘s own).

Many people engaged in providing guidance services in schools, and other

organizations, are not aware of the historical background of guidance in the world at
large, and even in their own countries. Those engaged in guidance services should be able
to relate early developments of guidance to what is happening now and appreciate the
need for such services. Guidance is an old concept and process. It is unorganized and
informal process in all places, at all levels and at all times. In the ancient time, guidance
was given to the young by elders or parents in the family. Even to-day, in our country,
guidance whether in personal, educational and vocational is taken from the family priest,
palmist, numerologists. Good teachers have always been interested in providing
awareness to their students to help them for overcoming problems of learning and
adjustment. The guidance was informal and incidental, more akin to ‘advising’,
‘suggesting’ and sometimes ‘ordering’ and ‘prescribing’. In the ancient time, it was the
responsibility of teachers to provide the guidance to their students. The contact between

38
 BED= 15202

teacher and students was intimate during the course of study. Bhagwad Gita’, is the result
of providing guidance and counselling to Arjuna by Shri Krishna during Mahabharat.
Guidance, as a personalized assistance made readily available by a mature,
experienced and qualified person who gives it the status of separate field of endeavour
with adequate sophistication and specificity separate from teaching, learning or education.
The intellectual climate, out of which guidance emerged as an essential activity of
education, can be traced back to the time of Comenius — when the intellectual and social
precursors of the modern world were uncertainly established. The development of science
was a potent force in this direction. The technological advance of the Industrial
Revolution brought in its wake increased division of labour and occupational
complexities which really made the need for vocational guidance. The revolution also
brought changes in the way of life. The development of democratic values and the
utilitarian emphasis on education gave an impetus to two things— freedom of the
individual and a feeling of need for practical education. Thus, the Industrial Revolution,
with the changes it introduced in modes of working, living and thinking, made this
supposedly family problem of guidance assume wider importance.
Guidance, as an organized professional activity, dates back to 1905 and the credit
for the same goes to Frank Parsons of Boston, U.S.A. At the end of his career, he
actively engaged himself in social work in a Boston settlement house where he worked
directly with young people struggling to find work for themselves. He helped to found
the Vocation Bureau and wrote his classic Choosing a Vocation. These two achievements,
in the last years of a varied and eventful career made him pioneer in the guidance
movement in America.
Parsons was followed by a number of social reformers like Jessie B. Davis, Anne
Reed and Eli Weaver who advocated social reforms and stressed the necessity for the
school to prepare youngsters meet the rigours of a competitive and materialistic society.
Davis S. Hill, another guidance pioneer, considered guidance as a means of developing
human beings who could build a better society.

39
 BED= 15202

2.2 Guidance Movement in UK

The beauty of the educational programme of U.K. is that it has grown out o their own
needs, culture, trade lines, and compulsions. U.K. has so well organized education system
that no nation in the world can compete with her. No text, they take a lot of time to
change and change only when they are fully convinced of the merits of the change, yet
they have made guidance programme as one of the important constituent of the education
process, it may be difficult to say when it started, yet it can be definitely said that it
developed her own policy to adopt it rather than transplanting from other nations. Even
they take some help to clarify heir concepts on some educational problem from some
other culture; they fully absorb it into their process.
School Guidance Programme:
In U.K., there is a strong guidance and counseling programme. The cumulative record
of all the students are prepared and kept up-to-date right from the day the children enters
the school and all types of records are maintained in it. The Elementary education is well
planned. There are three types of the schools i.e Grammar Schools, Vocational Schools,
and Modern Schools. The class teacher watches all the students at Elementary level
keenly. All types of guidance is provided to all of them. Now, a different type of
secondary education in the shape of comprehensive system has been adopted and all the
three types of schools are combined in the same pattern. The services of the school
counselor are provided in almost all the schools. The supporting staff also assists them.
Students are provided educational, vocational, and psychological guidance at school level
for the selection of the subjects after the end of the secondary education, those who want
to go in some professional, technical, or mechanical types of work are guided to go in for
such trainings and only a very good few are allowed to go in for university education. In
this way, there is good type of guidance and counseling programme organized in their
schools.

40
 BED= 15202

Career Guidance
The part time teachers are appointed in the schools. The Local Education Authorities
(LEAs) and The Ministry of Labour, shares the responsibility of providing career
guidance.LEA is responsible to organize the schooling programme and also organizes the
guidance programme. In some schools, there are full time guidance counselors. In U.K.,
there is a very good tradition that when the students pass out school education, their
cumulative record is handed over to the Employment Exchange for his placement in some
job. The Youth Employment Officers keep in touch with schools and places of
employment and cooperate with teachers and others concerned in the transition from
school to work.
Child Guidance Clinics:
Child guidance centers or clinics for the treatment of children with emotional or behavior
problems are provided by many local education authorities, as well as by homes, hospitals
or voluntary organization. Clinics provided by LEAs are part of the School Health
Services and generally co-operate closely with the National Health Services. The services
of Psychologists are taken for investigation of children with emotional or psychological
disturbances and they give talks and advice to the parents and teachers on the
management of children and their behavioral problems.
School Welfare Officers:
LEA usually employs a school welfare Superintendent. He acts as leader of a team of
local education welfare officers or school attendance officers of a team. They look after
their areas in the district and make a liaison between the schools and the children homes.
The annual house-to-house census undertaken by the officers ensures that no child of
compulsory school age is over-looked.
Children Care Committees:
A unique system of child-care has been developed in London where the Inner London
Education Authorities employ trained social workers as organizers of voluntary care
committees. These consist of voluntary workers and are attached to both primary and
secondary schools or groups or such schools.

41
 BED= 15202

Briefly, speaking today, there is a network of guidance clinics of different types

and innumerable centres for the training of guidance personnel in U.K. The review and
revision of guidance techniques and procedures are clear indications of the increasing
popularity of guidance work in UK. The guidance movement, in fact, has been the
greatest single force in improving the educational practices where it has assumed the
shape of an educational, social and cultural movement.

2.3 Guidance Movement in India

As far as India is concerned, the techniques of guidance-informal and incidental

can be traced far back to ancient times, The Panchtantra and Jataka tales are well-known
for their moral stories, parables and question-answer techniques in learning. Even before
the time of Socrates, these were used in India. The teacher- taught relationship was that of
Gum-Shishya. The word ‘Guru’ meaning the one who guides.
In India the issue of technical and vocational education has already been there
since ancient days. With the changes in time, ideas, circumstances and needs of life, its
shape has also been changing. One may understand the technical and vocational
education in India in the following two periods:
1. Ancient period; and 2. Modern Period

1. Ancient Period: The development of technical and vocational education of the

ancient period may be understood in the following periods:
i. Vedic Period: Vedas are the oldest literature of world. One finds reference to
technical and vocational education in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda. In the
Rigveda, one finds vivid descriptions of construction of canals, bunds and
bridges, vehicles incorporating fast speed and beautiful palaces. Ayurveda is a
branch of Atharvaveda. Therein one finds elaborate discussion of medical
science. In the Vedic literature one finds ample discussion of manufacture of

42
 BED= 15202

cotton, silken and woolen cloths, agricultural implements and arms and
ammunitions.
ii. Post-Vedic Period: During this period the technical and vocational education
continued as prevalent in the Vedic age. This is the epic (Ramayana and
Mahabharata) period. In the Ramayana, the epic written by Valmiki, one finds
frequent Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling reference of Rama’s
journey by Pushpak Viman and construction of bridge for going across the
sea, i.e., to Lanka, for conquering Ravana. In the Mahabharata one finds
mention of Houses made of wax and houses parks of which appear to be
having water and other portions dry. The ruins of Mohanjodaro and Harappa
remind us to technical and vocational\kills of that period. One finds
descriptions of means of fast transport for going from one place to another.
One also finds description of various types of weapons and fire-arms used in
wars.
iii. Buddhist Period: During the Buddhist period the Vedic literature was also
studied along with Buddhist religious scriptures. The vocational study of Ayur
Veda (Science of medicine), Dhanurveda (science of war) and Gandharvaveda
(art of music) developed much during this period. The science of medicine,
architecture, painting, sculpture, veterinary and chemistry are some of the
chief contributions of this period.
iv. The Muslim Period: During this period the art of making various types of
silken, woolen and cotton clothes, wood work, architecture, drawing and
ornaments developed remarkably. Imperial palaces, mosques, carpets, utensils
and embroideries of this period have been of world fame. Vocational
education during this period was not organized. The trainees used to learn the
art under strict personal control and sub provision of the artisans concerned.
v. The British Period: After establishment of the British rule in India, the
Britishers engaged themselves in consolidating it. For this purpose, they
needed various types of workers. They felt the need of technicians in various

43
 BED= 15202

areas. As it was very costly to borrow these expert workers from abroad, so
they decided to start some technical and vocational colleges.
In 1947 an Engineering College was started at Roorkee. Afterwards, engineering
were started at Calcutta, Madras and Poona. The Wood’s Despatch of 1854 emphasized
the importance of making Indian education useful of life. By 1902 about 80 technical and
vocational schools were established in the country. Lord Curzon took keen interest in
expansion of technical and vocational education. He established an agriculture
department in each province. He emphasized the need of establishing agriculture colleges.
During this period from 1902 to 1921 also, the Government of India did not pay
any attention towards technical and professional education. However, the
recommendations of Indian Education Commission were accepted and technical and
vocational subjects were included in the curricula of high schools in different provinces.
After the establishment of the dual rule in 1921, demand of the people for
technical and vocational education received great momentum. A special Committee
under the Chairmanship of Lord Lytton was entrusted this work in order to take a
decision in this matter. This committee studied the problems and difficulties of the Indian
students studying in foreign countries. It made many suggestions to remove them. The
most important suggestion of the Committee was that the technical, vocational and
industrial institutions should be established in India. Provision should be made for
imparting higher education to Indians in their own country. Following institutions were
established in consequence of this recommendation:
 Harcourt Butler Technological Institute, Kanpur.
 College of Engineering and Technology, Jadavpur.
 Government School of Technology, Madras.
In 1937, there were nearly 535 technical, vocational and industrial school in India.
After 1937, vocational and technical education was expanded with great speed due to the
following reasons:
a. Up to the Second World War, the demand of persons with technical education
increased,

44
 BED= 15202

b. New industries were established in India for the production of war material.
Industrial persons having received technical education were required for these
industries.
c. The demand of persons having received technical education increased for
implementing the post-development schemes prepared by the Control and the
Provincial Government.
In 1941-42, only 264 students were studying in graduate courses of technical
education and 22 students in chemical technology respectively.

2. Modern Period (After Independence): The post-independence period (1947-69)

witnessed the tremendous progress in the field of technical and vocational education
along with the rapid growth of industrialization in the country. Earlier, there was the
provision of imparting vocational and technical education to only 6,600 students.
This number increased to 4, 35,7% in the year 1963. Besides this, facilities were
also provided to 25,000 students for engineering and technical degree. The
following landmarks are works to mention here in order to trace out the
development of guidance in India after independence.

 Calcutta University: The privilege of introducing the guidance movement in

India goes to Calcutta University which set up the first psychological
laboratory in India in the year 1915. A separate section of research in Applied
Psychology was opened under the direction of G.S. Base, the then Head of the
Department in 1936 in order to adopt psychological tests prepared in America
to suit the Indian conditions and to evolve procedures to satisfy the vocational
needs of Indian students.

 Mumbai University: In 1941, Balliboi Vocational Guidance Bureau was

established in Bombay with the efforts of a retired accountant practicing in
Calcutta and Mukherjee, a psychologist from Calcutta University.

45
 BED= 15202

 Patna University: In it was established a Department of Psychological

Services and Research in 1945, offering personal and vocational guidance to
students and constituting a number of psychological tests.

 Parsi Panchayat: The Trustees of the Parsi Panchayat Funds and Properties
established the Parsi Panchayat Vocational guidance Bureau in 1947, Dr. H.P.
Mehta, its first Director, for the first lime published the journal of Vocational
and Educational Guidance.

 Uttar Pradesh Government: In 1947, the U.P. Government established the

Bureau of Psychology at Allahabad on the recommendations of Acharya
Narendra Deo Committee.

 Mumbai Government: In 1950, the Mumbai Government set up the

Vocational Guidance Bureau in Bombay renamed as Institute of Vocational
Guidance in 1957. In 1952, the Vocational Guidance Association of Bombay
was formed to coordinate the efforts of various individuals and agencies in the
field of guidance in Bombay (Now called Mumbai).

 Workshop and Seminar at Delhi: In March 1953, Dr. W.L. Barnette, an

American Fullbright Professor, held a workshop of guidance workers in the
country at the Central Institute of Education, Delhi. A second seminar was
held in November 1954, again at the Central Institute of Education, Delhi, It
was decided to form an All India Educational and Vocational Guidance
Association and to affiliate it to the International Association for Vocational
Guidance.

 Secondary Education Commission (1952-53): On the recommendations of

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), the old unilateral education
system was replaced by a scheme of diversified courses. The Commission
provided for seven different streams at the Secondary Stage-humanities,
science, agriculture, commerce, technical, fine arts, and home science. The

46
 BED= 15202

students were supposed to choose the course at the Delta stage, (Class VIII)
hence there is a need of guidance at this stage. The Commission wrote: “The
secret of good education consists in enabling die .student to realize what are
his talents and aptitudes and in what manner and to what extent he can best
develop them so as to achieve proper social adjustment and seek right types of
employment.” The Commission recommended the introduction of guidance
services in the following words “Educational and vocational guidance is not to
be regarded as a mechanical process whereby the advisers and teachers sort
out boys and girls as a grading machine sorts cut apples. It is not a question of
just deciding that one boy should stay in the farm, another work in an
aeroplane factory, a third become a teacher and a fourth take to the
management of garage. Guidance involves the difficult art of helping boys and
girls to plan their own future wisely in the full light of all the factors that can
be mustered about themselves and about the world and which they are to live
and work. Naturally, therefore, it is not the work of a few specialist but rather
a service in which the entire school staff must cooperate under the guidance of
some person with special knowledge and skill in the particular field.
Guidance, in this sense, is not confined to the vocational field only. It covers
the whole gamut of youth problems and should be provided in an appropriate
form at all stages of education through the cooperative endeavour of
understanding parents, head-masters, principals and guidance officers.”
The following were the main recommendations of the Commission:
1. Educational guidance should receive greater attention on the part of the
education authorities.
2. To broaden the pupil’s understanding of the scope, nature and significance
of various occupations of industries, films should be prepared to show the
nature of the work in industries and this should be supplemented by actual
visits.

47
 BED= 15202

3. The services of trained Guidance Officers and Career Masters should be

made available in an increasing measure to all educational institutions.
4. The Centre should take up the responsibility of opening centres of training
for Guidance Officers and Career Masters in different regions to which each
State may send a number of teachers or other suitable persons for training.

 Central Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance: In 1954, the

Ministry of Education, Government of India, set up the Central Bureau of
Educational and Vocational Guidance with following specific functions:
I. Production and distribution of tools and aids serviceable for guidance work
in schools.
II. Technical assistance in setting up educational and vocational guidance
bureaus in the States.
III. Training guidance personnel, particularly psychologists and counsellors.
IV. Coordinating guidance activities throughout the country.
V. Preparation of manuals dealing with educational and vocational guidance
careers and occupations.
VI. Co-ordinating with the Occupational Information Unit of the Directorate
General of Resettlement and Employment in the preparation of occupational
information material and its distribution in schools.
The Central Bureau had been rendering a valuable and useful service in the field
of guidance since its establishment. In July, 1958 it started a ten months’ course for
training counsellors in the field of student personnel work in the Central Bureau’s
premises in the Central Institute of Education, Delhi. The course was primarily designed
“to meet the requirements of the personnel responsible for planning and operating
educational and vocational guidance services in the secondary school.” The course was
limited to 15 candidates only. Trained graduate teachers with at least three years’
teaching experience were eligible to be admitted in it. It consisted of (a) Theoretical
instruction, (b) Practical training and (c) Field work practice. Since then, many courses
have been organised.

48
 BED= 15202

Earlier a part of the Ministry of Education, the Bureau is now a part of the
Department of Psychological Foundations of the National Institute of education under the
National Council of Educational Research and Training.
The Extension Services Department of the Central Institute of Education, Delhi,
conducted two long-term courses in Educational and Vocational Guidance during 1957
and 58 to provide in-service training of teachers so that they should work either as career-
masters or as teacher- counsellors.

 State Bureaus of Educational and Vocational Guidance: The state bureaus

have been established to perform the following functions:
I. Organisation of sample group guidance activities for a few schools.
II. Collection of occupational information and production of information
material.
III. Development and adaptation of translation of tests, questionnaires’, check
lists, etc.
IV. Training of guidance workers.
V. Planning, coordination and supervision of guidance service within the State.
VI. Consultative and field services.

2.4 Guidance Movement in India and the Recommendations of

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)

As a result of the recommendations of Secondary Education Commission (1952-

53), the old education system which was unilateral in character, was replaced by a scheme
of diversified courses. The Commission provided for seven different streams at the
Secondary Stage- humanities, science, agriculture, commerce, technical, fine arts, and
home science. The students were supposed to choose the courses at the Delia stage, (Class
VIII) hence the need of guidance emerged at this stage. The Commission wrote  “The
secret of good education consists in enabling the student to realize what are his talents
and aptitudes and in what manner and to what extent he can best develop them so ‘as to

49
 BED= 15202

achieve proper social adjustment and seek right types of employment.” The Commission
recommended the introduction of guidance services in these words:
“Educational and vocational guidance is not to be regarded as a mechanical
process whereby the advisers and teachers sort out boys and girls as a grading machine
sorts out apples. It is not a question of just deciding that one boy should stay in the form
m another work in an aeroplane factory, a third become a teacher and a fourth take to the
management of garage; Guidance involves the difficult art of helping boys and girls to
plan their own future wisely in the full light of all the factors that can be mustered about
themselves and about the world in which they are to live and work. Naturally, therefore, it
is not the work of a few specialists, but rather a service in which the entire school staff
must cooperate under the guidance of some person with special knowledge and skill in
this particular field. Guidance, in this sense, is not confined to the vocational field only. It
covers the whole gamut of youth problems and should be provided in an appropriate form
at all stages of education through the cooperative endeavour of understanding parents,
headmasters, principals and guidance officers.”
The following is the summary of the recommendations of the Commission:
1. Educational guidance should receive much greater attention on the part of the
educational authorities.
2. In order to broaden the pupil’s understanding of the scope, nature and
significance of various occupations of industries, films should be prepared to
show the nature of the work in various industries and this should be
supplemented by actual visits.
3. The services of trained Guidance Officers and Career Masters should be made
available gradually and in an increasing measure to all educational institutions.
4. The Centre should take up the responsibility of opening in different regions
centres of training for Guidance Officers and Career Masters to which each
State may send a number of teachers or other suitable persons for training.

50
 BED= 15202

A definite shape to the guidance movement was given when the Ministry of
Education, Government of India, set up the Central Bureau of Educational and Vocational
guidance in 1954. The following were the specific functions of the Bureau:
i. Production and distribution of tools and aids serviceable for guidance work in
schools.
ii. Technical assistance in setting up educational and vocational guidance bureaus
in the States.
iii. Training guidance personnel, particularly psychologists and counsellors.
iv. Coordinating guidance activities throughout country.
v. Preparation of manuals dealing with educational and vocational guidance
careers and occupations.
vi. Co-ordinating with the Occupational Information Unit of the Directorate
General of Resettlement and Employment in the preparation of occupational
information material and its distribution in schools.

2.5 Guidance Movement of India and the Recommendations of Indian

Education Commission (1964-66)

In the development of guidance movement in India, the Indian Education

Commission (1964-66) made the following recommendations:

1. Aim and Scope of Guidance Services: The commission recommended that

guidance services have a much wider scope and function than merely assisting
students in making educational and vocational choices. Their aims are both
adjustive and developmental. They help the student in making the best possible
adjustment to the situations in the educational institution and in the home. They
facilitate the development of all aspects of his personality. Guidance as an integral
part of education and not a special psychological or social service peripheral to
educational purposes. It is meant for all students, not just for those who deviate

51
 BED= 15202

from the norm in one direction or the other. It is a continuous process aimed at
assisting the individual to make decisions and adjustments from time to time.

2. Guidance in Primary School: The commission recommended that guidance

should begin from the lowest class of the primary school for helping pupils to
make a satisfactory transition from home to school for diagnosing difficulties in
the learning of basic educational skills ; in identifying pupils in need of special
education (e.g., the gifted, the backward, the physically handicapped) ; for helping
potential drop-outs to stay in school ; in guiding pupils to develop insight into the
world of work and favourable attitudes towards work ; and for assisting in plans
for their further education or training. Little has been done so far in the shape of
guidance services at the primary stage because of the large numbers of institutions
involved, the poor qualifications of the teachers and the absence of resources. It
would, therefore, be unrealistic for a long time to come to think of providing
qualified counsellors on these schools. Some guidance functions can, however,
be performed by well trained primary school teachers. Community resources can
also be mobilized to meet some of the guidance of the young pupils. Following
suggestions may be used making a beginning in guidance in the primary school:
i. Training Programme: The training programmes for primary school teachers
should include familiarizing them with simple diagnostic testing and with
the problem of individual differences and the implications of these
differences for classroom practices.
ii. Lecturer: There should be at least one lecturer in the training school who
should be able to deal with the subject of principles of guidance and mental
hygiene.
iii. Training School: Guidance services should be introduced in the training
institutions and schools attached to the institutions so that the trainees may
get first-hand knowledge of the problems.
iv. Short in-Service Courses: Wherever possible, short in-service courses in
guidance should be provided for the primary school teachers.

52
 BED= 15202

v. Literature: Simple literature for the occupational orientation of children

may be prepared and made available in the regional languages.
At the end of primary stage, children and parents should be helped in the selection
of courses for further education and the selection should be based on the examination
results alone.

3. Guidance in Secondary Education: The commission suggested that the main

function of guidance at the secondary level is to aid in the identification and
development of the abilities and interests of adolescent pupils. It helps pupils to
understand their own strengths and limitations and to do scholastic work at the
level of their ability; to gain information about educational and vocational
opportunities and requirements; to make realistic educational and vocational
choices and plan based on a consideration of all relevant factors; and to find
solution to their problems of personal and social adjustments in the school and the
home. It also helps headmasters and teachers to understand their students as
individuals and to create situations in which the students can learn more
effectively.

4. The Role of the Counsellor in the Education for the Talented: With his
detailed knowledge of each talented student, the counsellor is in a unique position
to formulate a programme of enrichment for him and to suggest the necessary
modifications in the curricular and extra-curricular requirements. This task will
fall on the teachers where special counsellors are not available. It is, therefore;
necessary to train teachers for this responsibility through in-service seminars and
special courses. The classroom atmosphere and the attitudes of teachers is of
considerable importance. The first requirement for the promotion of talent is for
the teachers to create an atmosphere of free expression in the class and to provide
opportunities for creative work.

5. Guidance and the Education for the Backward: Guidance and counselling
services have an important role to play in the education of the backward, with

53
 BED= 15202

regard to identification of the group, diagnosis of their special defects and

planning for their education and future occupation. The commission suggested
that the essential factor for the success of the programme is the co-ordinated
approach that the entire school faculty should make to the problem of these
children with a degree of sympathy and understanding and with an insight into
child psychology born out of long experience. The teacher should be able to give
some help to the under-achievers. Parent-teacher associations should be mobilized
for enlisting cooperation of parents in dealings with special cases. There should be
at least one adequately staffed child guidance clinic in each major town. Serious
cases of backwardness should be referred to these clinics for diagnosis and
remedial help.

6. At the College Stage: A guidance and counselling programme, assisting the

students in the choice of courses, indicating the lines of remedial action and
helping in dealing with the educational facilities provided in institutions of higher
education. It would be necessary to have at least one counsellor for every one
thousand students on the roll. Smaller institutions may share a counsellor who
may work in each of the institutions on a part-time basis. The organization of
such a service requires a large number of professionally trained counsellors.
Hence, project for their training should be organized in some university competent
to do so.
The employment, information and guidance bureaus of the National
Employment Service have been collecting, compiling and making available to the
students occupational and employment market information, information regarding
preparation for different careers, training facilities, apprenticeships, scholarships,
etc. They have also been placing students in employment. In the absence of
counselling services with fully qualified counsellors, they have also been offering
advice and help to the students in planning their careers. The student advisory
bureaus originally set up by the Ministry of Education to provide information
regarding facilities for higher education abroad, are now providing information

54
 BED= 15202

regarding facilities in India. Since educational and occupational information is

closely interlinked, it is recommended that these bureaus may be combined to
form an information and employment centre which should function directly under
the supervision of the Dean of Students.

2.6 The Present Position of Guidance Services

At present two major establishments are developing guidance programmes for

school-going children in our country-government organisations and private agencies. The
government agencies include the Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations
of Education, the National Council for Educational Research and Training, State Bureaus
of Guidance and the guidance units of the National Employment Service. Private agencies
include Vocational Guidance Society at Calcutta, Gujarat Research Society at Bombay,
Y.M.CA of Calcutta, the Rotary Club of Bombay, the Lions Club and the Junior Chamber
of Baroda.
According to the information collected by the Department of Psychology and
Foundations of Education in 1976, out of 30328 secondary schools in the country, 8,732
(29 per cent) have a programme of guidance. Only 37 schools in the country have full
time counsellors, 258 schools have part-time counsellors and the rest of the schools have
career masters. As the impact of guidance is not immediately perceptible, effective
guidance service is rare in schools. Bureaus are functioning in all the-r States except
Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu. Among the Union Territories,
only Chandigarh and Delhi have guidance bureaus. In most of the States, the bureaus are
ill-equipped. The requisite personnel are not available and sufficient funds are not
provided to carry on the programme effectively. In most of the States, the programme is
considered a frill and a luxury. Teachers and headmasters shirk responsibility and the
guidance master cannot work under a management where the guidance programme does
not figure in the time schedule. The trained career masters with their normal teaching load
are unable to give guidance in the schools and the pupils remain ignorant.

55
 BED= 15202

The State Guidance Bureaus have no administrative control over the

district/school counsellors and career masters who are generally found doing odd jobs for
the District Education officer responsible for writing the annual confidential reports of
these counsellors. Thus, the district counsellors are unable to carry out the duties for
which they are appointed. School counsellors are also found to be doing teaching work
and neglecting actual guidance.
The State Guidance Bureaus are not consulted even for the transfers of district
counsellors, school counsellors or Career Masters. Thus, due to the lack of administrative
control over the guidance personnel in the state, the guidance work has not made much
headway. Besides, occupational and guidance literature is neither available in sufficient
quantity nor in the latest and attractive form which dampens the enthusiasm of guidance
personnel. It is time to evolve a clear national policy for introducing guidance and
counselling in schools.

2.7 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit, you have learned the historical background of guidance. You have
also learned that both UK and India have a long history of guidance. A number of
universities, institutes, organizations are involved in guidance. There are individual
initiatives also. You have come across important views about guidance and how these
views help to develop effective guidance programs.

2.8 Check Your Progress

1. Discuss the origin of guidance and state the development of guidance in India?
2. Describe in brief:
a. Guidance Movement in U.K.
b. Guidance Movement in India.
3. Explain the present position of Guidance in India?

56
 BED= 15202

2.9 Suggested Readings

1. Borow, H. (1964). Milestones of Notable Events in the History of Vocational

Guidance. In Henry Borow (ed.) Man in a World at Work, pp. 45-64.
2. Brewer, J. M. (1918). The Vocational Guidance Movement: Its Problem and
Possibilities. New York: Macmillan.
3. Tolbert, E. L. (1978). An Introduction to Guidance. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company.

57
 B.Ed - 15202

UNIT II

LESSON NO 03: Philosophical and Socio-Cultural Foundations of

Guidance

Lesson Structures
3.0 Introduction

3.1 Objectives

3.2 Concept of Guidance

3.4 Philosophical Basis of Guidance

3.5 Socio-Cultural Basis of Guidance

3.6 Let Us Sum Up

3.7 Check Your Progress

3.8 Suggested Readings

3.0 Introduction

Guidance occupies a very important place in one’s whole sphere of life. Every
person is unique with diverse potentialities: physical, mental, social and spiritual. To
quote Shakespeare,’ what a piece of work is man, how noble in reason and unlimited in
faculties.’ These faculties remain dormant. In order to identify and explore these
faculties, one needs guidance. Guidance is a process of assisting individuals to
understand their own selves, their assets and capabilities. Guidance assists them to
recognize their inner self or the inherent capacities. It never means solving the
problems of others, rather it means to aware individuals to know themselves and take
their own initiatives for solving their problems. In this lesson, we will discuss about the
philosophical and socio-cultural foundations of guidance.

58
 B.Ed - 15202

3.1 Objectives

The following objectives have been formulated for this lesson;

1. To understand the philosophical foundations of guidance
2. To understand the socio-cultural foundations of guidance;

3.2 Philosophical Foundations of Guidance

Philosophy refers to certain set of beliefs, norms and values which have ever
been dictating our behavior and conduct. Again the social fabric we live in too is being
influenced by the philosophy of the state or country .An individual living in a specific
social set up has to adopt the philosophical fabric of that setup and owe a sort of
integrity towards the total system of the country he/she is a member. Since
philosophical dictums govern our behavior patterns, we need guidance to make certain
adjustments. Certain philosophical principles govern the process of guidance. Here we
present an account of the philosophical foundations of education.

Uniqueness of a person

Almighty bestows every individual with different capabilities and potentialities. There
is a hidden treasure within that needs to be identified ,and nourished to the
fullest.Timely guidance is needsed so that everybody can harness the actualizing
tendencies and realize ones inner self. The guidance owes a helping hand to study the
individual scientifically by employing certain measures and approaches. Guidance
helps an individual to hear the inner voice and take steps in bringing out the within
specialties. The philosophy of Existentialism put an emphasis on the uniqueness and
individuality of a person. This school of philosophy pleaded for an uncompromising
affirmation of authentic freedom and individual uniqueness.

The Nature of Man : In order to understand the very nature of man different
philosophies have their own conceptions and perceptions. To understand an individual
merely on the basis of her/his biological and environmental factors and ignoring

59
 B.Ed - 15202

altogether the philosophical, spiritual, religious and moral factors is simply

misunderstanding. A guidance worker has to be conversant with the set of value
systems and ethical standards governing the very essence of a person in order to
understand and guide individuals.

Supremacy of the Dignity of the Individual

Man inherently possesses an inherent worth and dignity which is an end by itself. In
Kant’s formulation, we should always treat others as ends in themselves and never
merely as means to ones own ends. Each person is his or her own unique center of
value. Indian constitution guarantees the respect and dignity of each individual in the
‘fundamental Rights’. Guidance services take into consideration this dignity while
providing assistance for maximum growth.

Freedom of Choice or Freewill

Free will refers to the ability to choose, think, and act voluntarily. For many
philosophers, to believe in freewill is to believe that human beings can be the authors of
their own actions and to reject the idea that human actions are determined by external
conditions or fate. By providing opportunities to the students ‘to choose’ means to give
them a chance to enhance their creative potentialities. This becomes the very basis of a
better guidance programme.

Chaos and Confusion in life

Life is full of chaos and confusions arising from the social environment. An individual
has to face these problems at every stage of his/her life. These confusions may invite
despair, stagnation and isolation. In order to face such confusions, guidance provides a
helping hand to feel integrity, autonomy, and identity.

All Round Development

The personality of an individual comprises of all his/her aspects, physical, mental,

social, emotional and spiritual. Development is needed in each and every aspect. This

60
 B.Ed - 15202

integrated and harmonious approach in development necessitates the need of the

guidance services so that an individual’s development is not fragmentary or lopsided.

To achieve maximum growth

Human potentialities and creative abilities need to be identified at an earliest.

Nourishment of these faculties leads to maximum growth and utilization of these
powers. Proper guidance at right time makes one more motivated and committed to
attain excellence.

Value System

An individual moulds his personality according to the set value system determined by
the aims of life. Philosophy is generally concerned with the aim of life. It is the value
system of an individual that makes an impact on his choices, decisions and on his
whole personality.

Guidance provides educational, vocational and personal assistance for the development
of ndividuality.The focus of guidance is individual who is capable of meeting his needs
and solving his problems efficiently. The guidance worker has to accept the individual
as a problem solver and decision taker full of inherent capabilities.

3.3 Socio-cultural Foundations of Guidance

Socio-cultural influences often play significant role in shaping the personality of an

individual. People possessing different capabilities get influenced by the different
agencies like home, school and society. In order to make maximum use of one’s
capacities and have proper adjustments in the environment, people need guidance.
Following description indicates the socio-cultural basis of guidance.

The Family

There was a time when people would live in joint family system where every
responsibility was shared .in such cohesive environment of families, children would

61
 B.Ed - 15202

imbibe the qualities of co-operation, co-ordination, mutual understanding, social

virtues, team spirit etc.,.The single family system prevails now and people have lost
their social connections and social solidarity. Children feel isolation, insecurity and
emotional disturbances. In order to tackle such problems guidance services are needed
to seek proper adjustments of people.

The School.

After family, it is the school which exerts a strong influence on the delopment
of the complete living of the children. Since school facilities are inadequate, classes
over-crowded and libraries and playgrounds ill-equipped, children don’t see the
opportunities to grow. In schools children feel lack of co-curricular activities and hence
lack of recreations. No proper choices and specializations are available and Children
often face chaos and confusions. Children leave schools before completing their
courses and add to certain educational problems like wastage and stagnation and
student unrest. Adolescents face Identity crises due to non-availabilities of scholastic
and non-scholastic avenues. All such conditions need to be resolved and guidance
programmes need to be organized so that more and more social effectiveness and
emotional maturity is infused in our children.

Modern Complex Society

Modern Society is a complex one. We have observed Technological and

Industrial Revolutions which have rendered the man not less than a machine. Life is
very fast changing and we find erosion of value system due to this technological based
society. This has resulted in chaos and confusion in our families and social setup.
Family disputes, divorce, conflicts and emotional breakdown is very common
now.Socail norms, rules and regulations are being eroded like anything. In order to
safeguard the social fabric and preserve the ever valued standards of life people need
guidance. This will ensure proper mental health among the members of the society.

62
 B.Ed - 15202

Regulation of Social Behavior

Since human beings are gregarious, there is an instinct to live together, establish
groups, associations and organizations. It is from the stage of infancy that the child gets
influenced socially in family and later on in school and society. In order to make
children socially effective guidance at every stage of life is needed to save them from
becoming deviants and delinquents .This assistance helps individuals to imbibe the
right type attitudes towards other children, teachers, family members and towards the
society.Un-socail and introverted personalities, criminals, delinquents and antisocial
elements are born in societies where children don’t receive timely guidance in school
and homes.

Occupational Adjustment

The development of any nation largely depends upon the trained and skillful
personnel.Adequate guidance services are needed to youth so that they may be enabled
to choose relevant professions. Occupations chosen according to ones talents are fruit
full both for the individual and society. ‘Square pegs in round wholes’ is a grave
problem that renders people un-productive. Adequate professional guidance and
training from parents and teachers is necessary to make them well adjusted,
emotionally stable and socially efficient personalities.

Guidance for Societal and National Solidarity

It is seen that the main focus of our educational institutions is on academic pursuits
neglecting the social and emotional aspects of children. Proper guidance is needed to
the students to make them conscious towards social and national needs. Education has
to be productive in the sense to train pupils to owe towards the social and national
solidarity and cohesiveness. Kothari Commission (1964-66), emphatically remarked, “
The most important and urgent reform needed in education is to relate it with life needs
and aspirations of the society and thereby making it a powerful instrument of social,
economic and cultural transformations, necessary for the realization of the national

63
 B.Ed - 15202

goals.’ Guidance services should be provided to the students for attainment of good
citizenship by making them conversant towards their rights and duties.

Social Change

Social changes on the basis of technological and industrial revolutions opened new
opportunities of vocations. In this connection people needed to have different skill and
training orientations which necessitated the organization of guidance services.

Universalisation of Elementary Education

The objective of universalisation of education made it necessary to tackle the problems

of wastage, stagnation, truancy, dropout etc. It again necessitated providing guidance
services to avoid such problems.

Diversified Roles of Women

Since modern societies have become more complex and competitive, people struggle
hard to survive and sustain. Women are now not confined to the four walls of their
homes but are found working in every sector of the society in order to benefit their
families. Working ladies face problems with their jobs, abjustment, and health etc.
These circumstances have led to the need for providing guidance assistance.

To conclude it may be said with emphasis that guidance services are needed for our
children to give them a relevant outlet of their talents and to satisfy their needs which
may be of cognitive, philosophical, social, aesthetic or emotional nature. Let they be
given opportunities to take their own decisions, to think creatively and hence to be
productive in their own tastes and aspirations. Their dignity of being talented, with
potentialities and creative urges are to be well recognized by the social setup.

3.6 Let Us Sum Up

Dear students we have so far discussed the philosophical and socio cultural
basis of Guidance. Talking in terms of philosophical basis, guidance provides

64
 B.Ed - 15202

assistance to the individuals to recognize their basic purpose of being in this universe
and achieve the ethical and aesthetic standards of life and to maintain the dignity and
respect of the self. This basis ensures for recognizing the free choice and will,
uniqueness and inherent goodness of the individual.

Social foundations highlight the role of guidance in safeguarding the social

cohesiveness, social virtues and social solidarity in the social setup. The attitudes of
collectivism, cooperation, and living together are reinforced. Such guidance ensures
relating human endeavors to social productivity. People if guided properly may prove
useful both for themselves as well as for the society they live in.

3.7 Check Your Progress

 What do you understand by the philosophical foundations of guidance?

 In what respect the concept of ‘uniqueness of personality’ influences the
process of guidance?
 Sociological basis of guidance ensure rich social effectiveness among
citizens, discuss?
 Write a short note on the guidance for good citizenship?

3.8 Suggested Readings

1. Crow and Crow: An Introduction to Guidance Eurasia Publishing House, New

Delhi, (1962).
2. Jones , A.J: Principles of Guidance , Ny, McGraw Hill Books
3. S.S. Chauhan Principles and Techniques of Guidance, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt LTD (1982)
4. Shertzer and Stone Shelly C: Fundamentals of Guidance Boston, Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1967
5. Brewer, J.M: Education as Guidance. NY, The Macmillan Co.

65
 B.Ed =15202

UNIT II

LESSON NO 04: Psychological Foundations of Guidance

Lesson Structures
4.0 Introduction

4.1 Objectives

4.2 Concept of Guidance

4.3 Psychological Bases of Guidance

4.4 Psychological Problems at Different Developmental Stages

4.5 Psychological Needs, Individuality and Guidance

4.6 Let Us Sum Up

4.7 Check Your Progress

4.8 Suggested Readings

4.0 Introduction

Guidance is a process of assisting individuals to understand their own selves,

assets and capabilities. Guidance assists them to recognize their inner self or the
inherent capacities. It never means solving the problems of others, rather it means to
aware individuals to know themselves and take their own initiatives for solving their
problems. Guidance in this sense means to assist an individual in such a way, that
through his own efforts, he/she can discover and develop his/her own potentialities for
his/her personal growth and social usefulness. In this lesson, we will discuss about the
psychological foundations of Guidance.

66
 B.Ed = 15202

4.1 Objectives

The following objectives have been formulated for this lesson;

1. To understand the psychological foundations of guidance
2. To know the psychological needs of individuals; and
3. To understand the psychological guidance at different stages of development

4.2 Psychological Foundations of Guidance

Psychological research is witness to the fact that no two individuals are alike.
Individuals do differ in their physical and mental faculties. These faculties inspire
individuals to seek different adjustments in different circumstances. Every
developmental stage; childhood, adolescence, adulthood or old age bring different
problems and demand different solutions to these problems. In order to seek different
solutions people need guidance services.

To identify talent among students and nourish the same is one of the core
objectives of educational endeavors. Proper choices to proper indiduals in terms of
courses and careers are beneficial to both individual and society. Guidance provides
assistance to individuals in seeking proper and wise decisions, right adjustments and
accomplishments in different spheres of their lives. This results in selecting or placing
right type of people at right times for right type of jobs and careers.

Guidance workers make an analysis of the psychological needs of the children

and provide assistance in their personal, educational or vocational pursuits. They
properly understand the variations in the nature of the children and the developmental
stages they live in. It is necessary to have a critical estimate of these two aspects before
providing guidance to the learners. Learners show progress in their areas of educational
endeavors if guided properly on psychological considerations.

67
 B.Ed =15202

Certain psychological principles govern the process of guidance. Here we present an

account of the psychological foundations of education.

Variations among the Individuals

Individual differences are there on the bases of their natural capacities, sensory
capacities, mental capacities, interests, physical and psychological development, sexual
and moral development, and in other personality characteristics. Some people are born
with their normal and clear sense perceptions of touch, taste, smell hearing and vision.
At the same time some face visual, hearing and other sensory impairments.

On the basis of mental capacities, we have various categories like averages, gifted,
mentally retardates, morons; imbeciles etc, .Some are very fast at understanding and
grasping and can understand even the abstractions at a faster rate. Some are poor at
learning, performing, grasping and in understanding abstractions. Such individuals rely
often on concrete illustrations and examples to comprehend the things.

On the basis of interests people differ from each other and are being categorized
accordingly. Some people take interest in sports while others in academic pursuits.
Some develop interest in music, social work activities or political affairs.

On the basis of personality traits, we can categorize people among introverts,

extroverts, sociable, reserved, outgoing, authoritative, intelligent, dull, creative, sober
minded, tender minded etc.

Research in the field of learning, achievement, and performance is witness to the fact
that people do differ in their native capacities and we can say that people are not born
equal so far as their capabilities are concerned. Again environmental influences allow
an individual to develop certain traits differently. So guidance services are needed to
individuals in a separate individualized manner based on psychological principles.

66
 B.Ed = 15202

Variations within the individuals

Not only an individual varies from other individuals, he/she is variable from within.
This is also known as within person variation. This refers to variability from occasion
to occasion within a person. This variation is unique to the individual. Some children
show variation in their different phases of their development. The pattern of
development is not uniform across different stages. Psychological and mental
characteristics associated with ones physiological maturations don’t remain constant.

Philosopher Heraclitus is of the view that “we cannot step into the same river
twice, because in the first and second stepping both the water and man gets changed,
nothing remains same.”People show variations in behavior patterns and personality
traits at different occasions. Even people do differ in certain dimensions of their
personality; one individual may show a high degree of intellectual maturity but may be
weak in his/her social trait.

People exhibit variations in behavior because of their inherent variations. This demands
specific guidance at individual levels.

4.4 Psychological Problems at Different Developmental Stages

Different stages of Development

The process of development is not a stagnant entity. It goes on changing throughout

one’s life. Every stage comes with different issues and crises. The individual struggles
to cope up with these issues in order to have peace with him and the environment.

According to Erikson man faces certain crises and if he is guided properly, he

may imbibe the traits of trust, initiative, industry, identity, generativity and integrity. if
genuine atmosphere and timely guidance is not provided the person may imbibe the
traits of mistrust, guilt, role confusion and stagnation. These crises have to be solved
by the help of psycho-social mechanisms.

69
 B.Ed =15202

Shakespeare Compares life to a stage and has divided life into seven stages each
having its own varied qualities and features. People play seven roles according to their
age. The first stage is of a helpless infant crying and vomiting. The second stage is of a
schoolboy unwilling to go to school. The third stage is of a lover lost in his thoughts.
The fourth stage is that of a solidier; aggressive, short tempered, and ambitious. The
fifth stage is that of a family man who is an authoritative judge and advisor. The sixth
stage is that of man who has grown older and whose voice trembles as he talks, the last
stage is that of a snileman who loses his teeth, vision and hearing. Every stage is beset
with a problem and the individual needs guidance and assistance to grow into a
healthier, integrative and balanced personality and seek proper adjustments.

Human Potentialities

Every person selects certain goals, objectives and targets to realize the individual
potentialities. The satisfaction of these objectives depends upon the capability,
opportunities and aspiration level of the individual. Guidance comes to the rescue of the
individual to understand his real potential, aspiration and the environmental factors
affecting the way of reaching the goal.

Development and Environment

Many of the environmental factors affect the normal growth and development of the
individuals. High/low soio-economic status, family atmosphere, school adjustments and
vocational hardships are some of environmental forces which bring forth certain
problems. Guidance workers analyze these factors and assist the individuals to solve
their problems and ensure optimal development.

4.5 Psychological Needs, Individuality and Guidance

Psychological Needs

The most basic needs are physiological, such as breathing, eating and sleeping. Mid-
level needs are social, such as family, friendship and sexual intimacy. Psychological

66
 B.Ed = 15202

needs such as confidence, achievement and morality are on a high level of human
needs. Human beings have deeply evolved psychological needs to be competent,
autonomous, and related to others. People evidence more volitional, high quality
motivation and greater wellbeing if these needs are satisfied. Conversely, if these needs
are thwarted, people display diminished motivation and more symptoms of ill-being.

Need for self esteem and respect, need to know, need to appreciate, need for self-
actualization are all psychological needs. One has to satisfy such needs in order to have
certain adjustments of life. Guidance needs to assist people in engaging themselves in
such activities which bring satisfaction and respect. It again assists in realizing ones
real potential and to enjoy one’s peak experiences in a specific line of endeavor.

Self Realization

It is to go for the maximum growth of ones potentialities. It is the highest possible

achievement in mental satisfaction and development. The individual struggles hard to
realize his mettle for which he has to receive genuine and intelligent guidance.

Adjustment and Development

The process of human development and adjustment go together. Different stages of life
demand different adjustment and development on the part of the individual. In order to
provide proper guidance, he guidance worker has to be conversant with the process of
human development.

Heterogeneous Groupings in Schools

In school a teacher faces students like averages, sub-averages, gifted, creative,

differently abled, learning disabled etc. All such categories demand proper
identification on the part of the teacher and institutions. Teachers and the other
concerned will have to understand the psychological needs, developmental stages, and
every background of such children in order to guide and teach them according to their
specialties.

71
 B.Ed =15202

Dimensions of Individuality

Research in the field of psychology is witness to the fact that psychologists have tried
hard to construct improved and sophisticated methods to find characteristics that
differed individual from individual. People differed on dimensions personality,
adjustment, interest, intelligence, value orientation, motivation, self-esteem, mental
health so on and so forth. All these factors do play a role in ones achievements and
accomplishments. How to guide low achievers, under-achievers, mal adjusted, low
motivated, below averages etc, teachers , parents, educationists, counselors and
clinicians will have to see the psychological analyses of the individual differences.

To conclude it is again emphasized that guidance services are needed for

individuals so they may understand themselves and choose the appropriate courses and
vocations relevant to their taste and temperaments. It will help to the educationists,
psychologists, policy makers to place right type of persons on right type of jobs which
is necessary and beneficial to both the individual and the society. In this way an
individual is aided in self-development and self-realisation.Guidance ensures better use
of human resource resulting in the betterment of the whole society.

4.5 Let Us Sum Up

Dear students, in this lesson, we discussed the psychological basis of Guidance.

Talking in terms of psychological basis, guidance provides assistance to the individuals
to recognize their inner resources. Every individual is a separate, different and unique
entity in this world with unique capacities and capabilities. Guidance assists an
individual in the process of identifying, discovering, and nourishing the inner
potentialities. Psychological foundations form the very basis of guidance. Variations
among individuals and variations within person need to be analyzed psychologically.
Besides physiological and social needs, an individual craves for the satisfaction of
psychological needs. Every stage of one’s development provides new challenges and
issues before an individual. All these various problems faced by an individual demand

66
 B.Ed = 15202

appropriate guidance from the guidance workers so that no individual goes un-noticed
and unsung from this world.

4.6 Check Your Progress

1. ‘Every individual is a unique, separate and a different individual’ Elaborate the

statement.
2. Every stage of human development brings forth new crises in ones life. How the
process of guidance helps in this regard.
3. Guidance assists students in making proper choices and decisions. Explain:
4. What factors help us in explaining the psychological basis of education?

4.7 Suggested Readings

1. Crow and Crow: An Introduction to Guidance. Eurasia Publishing House, New

Delhi, (1962)
1. Jones , A.J: Principles of Guidance , Ny, McGraw Hill Books
2. S.S. Chauhan Principles and Techniques of Guidance, Vikas Publishing House
pvt LTD (1982)
3. Shertzer and Stone Shelly C: Fundamentals of Guidance Boston, Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1967
4. Brewer, J.M: Education as Guidance. NY, The Macmillan Co.
5. Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st
Century.

73
 B.Ed - 15202

UNIT II

LESSON NO 05: Relevance of Psychological and Personality Testing

Lesson Structures

5.0 Introduction

5.1 Objectives

5.2 Testing Devices in Psychology

5.3 Intelligence Tests

5.4 Importance of Intelligence Testing

5.5 Personality

5.6 Methods of Assessing Personality

5.7 Importance of Personality Tests

5.8 Let Us Sum Up

5.9 Check Your Progress

5.10 Suggested Readings

5.0 Introduction

Guidance services are provided to the individuals after making an appropriate

analysis of their personality traits. This analysis is done after administering some
testing devices like, intelligence tests and personality, aptitude or achievement tests.
Intelligence as a personality trait has been ever regarded as an important factor
influencing one’s achievement in any line of endeavor. A person with more intelligence
performs well in a given situation. In this lesson, we shall discuss the relevance of some
psychological tests in the area of guidance and counseling.

74
 B.Ed - 15102

5.2 Objectives

The following objectives have been formulated for this lesson;

1. To comprehend the techniques of testing in Guidance
2. To recognize the qualities of a good testing device,
3. To understand the utility of Standard testing devices
4. To comprehend the intelligence testing
5. To understand importance of intelligence testing in guidance and
6. To know and understand personality tests and their utility.

11.2 Testing Devices in Psychology

In order to provide guidance to an individual, it is necessary to have a clear

understanding and knowledge of the individual. This information about the individual
is sought through employing different testing devices like intelligence and personality
tests. We have both standardized and Non-Standardized testing devices. Standardized
assessments seek to measure the measurable, while non-standardized tests measure
skills that are noticeable but can’t be quantified. A standard test is a test that is
administered and scored in a consistent or standard manner. Standard tests are designed
in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and
interpretations are consistent and are administered and scored in a predetermined and
standard manner. Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test
takers, is a standardized test. The standard test can be given on topics like academic
skills, creativity, personality, professional ethics etc.

The other category is non-standardized testing, in which either significantly different

tests are given to different test takers, or the same test is assigned under significantly
different conditions. For example, one group is given less time to complete the test than
the other. Or is evaluated differently e.g, the same answer is counted right for one
student and wrong for another student.

75
 B.Ed - 15202

Standard tests are constructed by following scientific principles and their validity and
reliability is ensured before their use. Intelligence tests, personality tests, aptitude tests,
interest tests and achievement tests are all examples of standard techniques.

Qualities of a Good Test

Standard test has to go through the following criteria:

Reliability

A test is reliable if it shows consistency of results. It means consistency of the scores of

the subject when tested again and again at different occasions.

Validity

A test is valid if it tests the same thing for which it has been constructed. An
intelligence test must measure intelligence not language skills.

Objectivity

A test is objective if it does not involve any personal bias or opinion of the scorer.

Predictability

If the test predicts the future performance of the subjects, it is meeting the criteria of
predictability.

Utility/Importance of Standard Tests

The primary function of guidance is to facilitate self direction and self analysis. These
tests help in giving reliable information and knowledge about the individuals which
enables the guidance workers to facilitate growth among them .The tests are useful in
the following manner;

Prediction : These tests provide the real basis upon which decisions are taken. A
prediction about the future life of the individual is made on the basis of the information
and data provided by these tests.

76
 B.Ed - 15102

Selection

Since these tests are objective, selection of individuals for different courses, jobs and
careers is made possible.

Classification

These tests do help us in classifying individuals on the basis of some criteria. For
example on the basis of intelligence test, we can categorize people like gifted, averages,
mentally retarded etc.

Evaluation

These tests help in the assessment and evaluation of programmes, methods and
treatments.

These tests are useful because these help in providing objective and impartial
information about an individual. It helps the guidance workers to realize the objectives
of guiding a person. Parents and guardians also know about the assets and limitations of
their wards. These tests provide the information about the person which he may not be
in a position to disclose. Subjective observation won’t help us to discover many traits
which hardly come to surface.

These tests do help in guidance for securing accurate and reliable information about the
student’s intelligence, abilities, interests and aptitudes. Such information is used for
providing vocational, educational or personal guidance. Guidance workers and
counselors use these tests in diagnosing academic deficiencies, adjustment problems,
wastage and stagnation, or when students play truancy or display any other undesirable
social behavior.

5.3 Intelligence Testing: Intelligence and Intelligence Tests

Intelligence: Intelligence refers to the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and
skills. Putting it in a different way, it is the ability to perceive information, and to retain

77
 B.Ed - 15202

it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment and

context. Intelligence involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think
abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.
Intelligence empowers individuals to imagine, discriminate, and understand, adjust and
face new situations.

According to Cyril Burt,’ ‘It is the innate general cognitive ability’.

Sternberg& Salter, ‘Intelligence is Goal-directed adaptive behavior’

David Wechsler, ‘The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act

purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with ones environment.’

Gates : “A composite organization of abilities to learn, to grasp broad and suble facts,
especially abstract facts, with alertness and accuracy, to exercise mental control and to
display flexibility and ingenuity in seeking solutions to problems.’’

Jean Piaget: ‘Intelligence is the ability to adapt to ones surroundings’

Summing up, we can say that intelligence comprises of the characteristics;

a) Adaptation to novel situations,

b) Abstract thinking

c) Purposive behavior

d) Economy and efficiency of performances

e) Ability to retain and retrieve past knowledge

Intelligence is an innate natural power which differs from individual to individual. It

aids individuals in making adjustments, solving complicated tasks and learning skills,
habits and attitudes. An intelligent person makes use of past experience, in making
adjustments to novel situations. He sees the situation as a whole and takes a broader
view of the situation.

78
 B.Ed - 15102

Types of Intelligence

Various theorists have classified intelligence variously.Thormndike comes up with

three types;

Concrete intelligence

Also known as mechanical or motor intelligence is the ability to deal with machines or
mechanical objects. It is more related to physical education. It helps in learning and
participating in activities like dancing, games and sports.

Abstract Intelligence

It refers to the ability in dealing with abstract ideas. It helps in solving problems
presented in the form of words, symbols, numbers, diagrams etc.

Social Intelligence

Social Intelligence refers to social effectiveness. It refers to the ability that helps a
person to adjust in society. It is the ability to behave effectively in dealing with others.

Measurement of Intelligence

There are standardized intelligence tests for measuring the intelligence of a learner. On
the basis of one’s I.Q the teacher takes decisions about the teaching methodology,
materials, and evaluation tools to be used by the teacher.I.Q is the measure of
intelligence. Before knowing about I.Q we need to know about chronological age and
mental age.

Chronological Age

Chronological is the age which is counted from the date and time of birth.

Mental Age: Mental Age refers to an expression of the extent of mental development
achieved by an individual. It is stated in terms of his performance on a standardized
intelligence test. An intelligence test is standardized by ascertaining the age level for
which it is suited.

79
 B.Ed - 15202

Intelligence Quotient

I.Q is a measure of intelligence obtained by dividing the individual’s mental age (as
determined by his test performance on standardized test items), by his chronological
age and multiplied by hundred. It can be defined as the ratio between mental age and
chronological age multiplied by 100.

Intelligence Quotient (I.Q) = Mental age (M.A) × 100

Chronological Age (C.A)

Classification of individuals on the basis of IQ

S.N Intelligent Classification of

Quotient(IQ) Individuals

01 0-25 Idiot

02 25-50 Imbecile

03 50-70 Moron

04 70-80 Dull

05 80-90 Feeble Minded

06 90-110 Average

07 110-120 Above Average

08 120-140 Superior

09 140 and Above Genius

Intelligence Test
Intelligence test, as we understand it, is a measuring tool designed to measure the
intelligence of a subject or testee in terms of intelligence quotient. This test presents a
wide variety of tasks to a testee and these tasks serve as adequate samples for the

80
 B.Ed - 15102

measurement of all important intellectual abilities of the testee. We are having a variety
of tests for measuring intelligence. As a matter of fact, intelligence tests do not measure
intellectual capacities directly. These tests measure the manifestation of intellectual
capacity in action or in behavior.

Classification of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests have been classified variously. On the basis of the administration of a
test to an individual or a group of individuals, we have;
Individual intelligence tests
Group intelligence
On the basis of the form of tests, we have;
1) Verbal Intelligence tests
2) Non-verbal intelligence tests
3) Verbal and Non-verbal intelligence tests
4) Performance test
We can have other tests also, like Culture free tests, culture fair tests etc,
In individual tests, only one individual is tested at a time, while as in group tests, a
group of individual s is tested at a time.
In verbal or language tests instruction is given either in written or oral form or in both
forms. The respondents make use of language as well as that of paper and pencil. The
test content is loaded with verbal content.
In non-verbal tests, the use of language is not necessary. The use of language in such
tests is used neither in test material nor in making responses. Language is used just in
making directions. Test content of these tests is in the form of materials. The tester
makes use of oral instructions or signs to give directions to the testee.performance tests
are entirely non-verbal.

81
 B.Ed - 15202

Verbal Individual Tests

This type of test involves the use of language and is administered individually at a time.
Benet – Simon test and the various revisions of this test are all verbal individual
tests.Alferd Binet, the French psychologist is known as the father of intelligence
testing. It was in 1905, that Benet and Simon prepared a test containing 30 items graded
for different levels. The test included the following items:
1) Recognition of objects by name.
2) Recognition of the organs of the body.
3) Making a tower of blocks
4) Naming an object from its picture.
The activities or tasks performed by the testees in these tests range from simple
manipulation to abstract reasoning.

Individual Performance Tests

The contents of these tests and the responses of the respondents in these tests are in the
form of performance and in no way language is used. Those activities requiring motor
activities are included in these tests. The following types of activities are generally used
in such tests:

1) Block Building or cube construction

2) Fitting the blocks in holes
3) Tracing a maze
4) Picture arrangement or picture completion
Group Intelligence Tests

These tests involve language in the test items and are designed to measure the
intelligence of a group of individuals. All the testees receive the same directions and
have to perform the same type of activities. Army Alpha test, Army general
classification test are some popular group verbal tests.

82
 B.Ed - 15102

Army Alfa Test was developed in World War Ist. This test was confined to test the
America solidiers.The test was used to identify the feeble-minded, men capable of
becoming skilled specialists, men capable of becoming Army officers and men who
needed some specific training.

Army General Classification Test was developed in world war IInd. This test contained
three subjects for testing problems relating to mathematics, vocabulary and problems of
counting blocks.

Some of the Indian Group verbal Tests include;

The Group Test of General Mental ability (Hindi) (Samuhik Mansik Yogayata
Pariksha) constructed by S. Jalota

Group Test of Intelligence, prepared by Bureau of Psychology, Allahabad (Hindi)

Samuhik Budhi ki Janch (Hindi) prepared by S.M. Mohsin, Educational and Vocational
Guidance Bureau, Bihar, Patna.

Non-verbal Group Intelligence tests

These tests are applicable to groups of individuals and do not involve language. Also
known as paper and pencil tests or visual tests, they are different from performance
tests. These tests do not require any reading and writing. Attempts are made to develop
tests which are equally fair to members of all cultures and are named as culture free
tests. The performance tests require the manipulation of concrete objects or materials
by the subject. Purely motor responses are required and no use of paper and pencil is
used. In case of group non-verbal tests, material is provided in booklets and requires the
use of paper and pencil. In these non-verbal tests, the administers of the test need to
explain or demonstrate the directions by making least possible use of language. Some
examples of such tests are; Army Beta Test and Chicago Non-verbal test.

83
 B.Ed - 15202

Army Beta Test was developed to test the intelligence of soldiers in world war Ist in
U.S.A. These soldiers happened to be either illiterates or were not familiar with the use
of English language.

Chicago Non-verbal test. This test was developed to assess the young children in the
age group 12 and 13 years.

Utility of intelligence Tests in education and Guidance

Intelligence tests have proved much important in the field of education and guidance.
The following points highlight such importance:

Useful in making classifications

Intelligence tests help the teacher in classifying students according to their mental
capabilities. On the bases of one’s I.Q, students are classified as backward, average , or
gifted. This helps the teacher to make homogeneous groups and provide them relevant
educational opportunities and provisions according to their mental capabilities.

Useful in making promotions

These tests prove beneficial in promoting right type of students and others in promoting
to next classes or occupations. Selection of pupils for different courses can also be
made on the bases of these intelligence tests.

Useful in making teaching learning more effective

These tests help the teacher to understand what a specific child can learn and how
quickly he/she can learn. This can help the teacher to arrange the learning experiences
for child accordingly so that the child is helped to realize his/her potential.

Useful in providing placement services for the children

On the bases of one’s I.Q suitable students are placed in different courses and
occupations. Children who don’t show readiness for academic excellence can be placed
in different sports, art or other fields of endeavor.

84
 B.Ed - 15102

Useful in educational and vocational guidance

These tests help teachers in adjusting their teaching process in accordance with the
abilities of the children. These also help in discovering the children who need
vocational training and guidance.

Use in selection process

Intelligence tests are helpful in making selections of students for different special
educational programmes or courses of instruction, scholarships to gifted, or for
assigning specific responsibilities in scholastic or non-scholastic programmes.

Use of Research

Intelligence tests prove very useful in making research in the domains of education,
psychology, and sociology etc. seeking relationship of intelligence with creativity,
anxiety, adjustment, anxiety level, leader ship, or delinquency.

Prediction

Intelligence tests help to predict educational expectancy. Once the intelligence of an

individual is measured, he can be made aware about the limits of his efforts.

Classroom Teaching

These tests are useful for making school admissions, identifying gifted and talented and
making accelerated programmes for them. Again these testes help in segregating
students for different educational streams.

Vocational guidance

Different occupations demand for different levels of intelligence and aptitude from
applicants. A big number try without knowing their own specific merit. So vocational
guidance helps in this regard after assessing ones I.Q.

85
 B.Ed - 15202

Vocational Selection

Since a huge number of candidates apply for small number of posts, most of the
industrial centers shortlist candidates on the basis of intelligence tests and call genuine
people for interview.

Vocational counseling

For making adjustments in certain vocations, people sometimes face certain difficulties
and need counseling. Cancellers often use intelligence tests to see how intelligence of a
person affects certain adjustments.

To enhance Motivation

Intelligence tests aware an individual of his high potentialities and he makes immense
efforts to realize this potential up to an optimal level.

To check un-healthy behavior

To deal with nervous and disturbed students, counselors make use of intelligence tests
and it helps them to develop rapport with them and help them to grow. These tests also
help counselors to minutely see and observe the restlessness or nervousness during the
period of testing which helps a lot to the counselor in the process of understanding the
individual. .

Intelligence tests have proved very much beneficial in the field of education and
guidance. A student is made aware about his real potential and it helps him to take
educational and vocational decisions. He may choose different courses of study
according to his merit and taste. Intelligence tests along with aptitude tests assist an
individual to take a relevant line of endeavor in his life so that he may not be a misfit
and maladjusted in his course or career.

86
 B.Ed - 15102

5. 4 Personality: Meaning and Concept

Personality is a much interpreted word in psychology. Psychologists do have different
notions with regard to the concept of personality. Some lay emphasis on the internal
structure and some highlight the overt behavior exhibited by a person in different
situation. In fact, personality includes the totality of both the overt and covert behavior
of an individual. In education, psychology and guidance, the study of personality is of
crucial importance.
Watson, “Personality is the sum of activities that can be discovered by actual
observations over a long enough period of time to give reliable information.”
R.B. Cattel, “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in
a given situation.”
Morton Prince, “Personality is the sum total of all the biological, innate dispositions,
impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual and the disposition and
tendencies acquired by experiences.”
Allport; “Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-
physical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought”
So many characteristics of personality emerge out of the definitions cited above.
a) Personality is not a static entity. It is an ever-changing phenomenon. It
represents an interaction between inherited potentialities and environmental
influences.
b) Even though personality changes, it goes on changing in an organized
manner. It maintains balance and equilibrium.
c) Each personality is unique and different. People do differ in their various
personality traits. There exist variations among the groups.
d) Personality is both physical and mental. It is psycho-physical. It is not just
synonymous with good physique.

87
 B.Ed - 15202

5.6 Assessment of Personality

The foremost function of a guidance worker or a counselor is to know the person who
is in need of any guidance. Guidance cannot be effective unless and until we know the
personality of the person. Psychologists have devised tools and techniques to asses
personality. To serve the purpose, both testing and non-testing devices have been
constructed.
Methods of Assessing Personality
Since human behavior is very complex, mysterious and complex, it is a tedious task to
asses it exactly. Personality comprises the totality of one’s knowing, believing and
doing. It is the totality of one’s being and includes one’s physical, mental, emotional
and temperamental make-up. Psychologists have come up with so many subjective,
objective and projective techniques to unravel the mysteries of human behavior. The
following description may help to have a glimpse of these techniques:
1) We have techniques helping us to know about the behavior of an individual
while observing him/her in real life situations. In this category we include;
Observation techniques and
Situational tests.
2) We can also use techniques helping us to know what an individual tells us about
himself. In this category we have tequniques like;
Autobiography
Questionnaire
Interview and,
Personality inventory
3) Techniques which help us what others tell about the person under assessment.
In this category we include;
Biography
Case-history method

88
 B.Ed - 15102

Rating Scales
Sociometric techniques.
4) We have techniques helping to know how an individual reacts to imaginative
situations involving fantasy
Let us have a small description of some of the techniques.
Observation Method
One of the popular methods of assessing personality is observation. It is an important
non-testing technique of appraisal. The observer aims here to asses some sort of
behavior of the individual in real life situations. By employing this technique, the
observer tries to find out the degree of relevant traits which are present in the
individual. The observation may be either participant or non-participant. In the first
one, the observer becomes a part of the group under observation. In the next one, the
observer remains at a distance and his presence in not even felt by the subjects under
study. For recording the observation, the observer may make use of tap-recorder,
cameras etc. To ensure the reliability, the observer can repeat the observation or a
number of observers may be selected to observe and asses the specific behaviors of the
subject under investigation. The results of naturalistic observation are verifiable. This
method can serve more when supplemented by the scientific procedures.
Situational tests

In such type of technique certain artificial situations are created resembling real
situations and behavior of the subject is assessed with regard to certain traits. On the
basis of their reactions they are being rated or assessed. Certain traits of their
personality like, initiative, imagination, risk taking capacity, honesty, cooperation etc,
can be evaluated after creating artificial situations. How reliable and valid these tests
are is a matter of concern.
Questionnaire : In questionnaire, the subject has to respond to a series of questions
about him/her. The respondent himself/herself fills in the questions about his/her

89
 B.Ed - 15202

personality characteristics. His/her personality is being judged on the basis of the

information given by the subject himself or herself. The limitation of this method is that
the subject may not be aware about his/her shortcomings or he/she may try to hide
many of the facts concerning his/her life.
Interview
Interview as a technique of personality assessment takes place in a face to face
interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. In provides an opportunity for
mutual exchange of ideas and information between the subject and the interviewee. The
interviewer establishes a rapport before asking certain questions relating to certain traits
of personality of the subject under study. The following objectives are being realized
while employing this technique.
1) To create a sort of mutual respect and confidence.
2) To gain information on certain issues which is not possible through other
techniques.
3) To verify the information
4) To observe the subject while he/she talks
5) To guide an individual to solve his/her problems
6) To help to release the tension
Interviews can be formal, informal, structured or un-structured. It is being again
emphasized that establishing the rapport with the subject helps to gain the needed
information.
Projective Techniques
These techniques are used with an objective to delve deep in the unconscious mind of
the subject. These techniques help the investigators to assess the emotional, social or
intellectual traits of the individuals who unconsciously attach their inner feelings with
the external objects. By projection we mean to project ones unconscious wishes, desires
thoughts, fears, etc., on some external object. The material used in these techniques is

90
 B.Ed - 15102

kept ambiguous so that it can serve as a sort of screen upon which subject projects his
characteristic ideas, attitudes, strivings, fears, conflicts etc.
Chief Characteristics
1) These techniques help to assess the total personality of the individual.
2) Persons give different responses to different stimuli according to their own
problems.
3) Stimulus material/situations given are ambiguous and unstructured so that the
subject expresses his own ideas, views, wishes and conflicts
4) Some standardized set principles are formulated to assess the given responses.
5.6 Importance of Personality Tests

The following points highlight the importance of personality tests in Guidance and
Counseling;
1) These tests help to identify well-adjusted and mal-adjusted students. Guidance
services are then provided to such students.
2) The tests help an individual to critically examine his/her own personality make
up. It helps him/her to make proper choices and take real decisions.
3) These tests prove beneficial in predicting future development trends in the
personality of an individual. So guidance services can be provided to the
individual for future.
4) Personality tests serve the purpose of assessing the totality of behavior of an
individual.
5) These tests help to explore the central and more enduring aspects of one’s
personality.
6) Personality inventories and rating scales are used in educational institutions to
understand the developmental problems of children.
7) For the purpose of providing vocational guidance, these tests help in identifying
right persons for right courses and right vocations.

91
 B.Ed - 15202

8) Personality tests are most useful for clinical situations. Whatever the behavioral
disorder, the tests can detect the difficulty and help in resolving it.
9) These tests prove beneficial in industrial selections, placement and promotion of
workers etc.
10) These tests are used to gain personal information for several purposes such as
jobs, admission, research etc.
11) Teachers use personality tests to categorize students on certain personality traits
and guide them accordingly. This categorization helps them to provide students
relevant educational opportunities.
12) These tests aid professionals, psychologists and experts for constructing the
inventories and making insightful analysis of behavior.
13) These tests are very much essential for clinicians as they help to diagnose
mental aberrations.

5.8 Let Us Sum Up

Dear students we have so far discussed the relevance of intelligence and

personality tests in the field of education and guidance. Intelligence as a personality
construct helps an individual to solve the problems quickly, to learn at a faster rate and
to think in terms of abstractions. It helps the individual in the attainment of the life’s
goals and to cope with his environment in terms of adaptation and dealing with novel
situations as effectively as possible.

The assessment of intelligence is carried out through intelligence tests. These

tests may include individual tests, group tests, verbal, non-verbal, performance, cultural
free tests etc. In these tests the assessment of a person is made on the basis of one’s
responses to intellectual activities. These tests are useful in making selections,
promotions, diagonosis, improving learning processes, and in research process.

Personality constitutes the sum of all the attributes and aspects; physical,
mental, social, temperamental, emotional and spiritual of a person. Personality is in fact
92
 B.Ed - 15102

the working dynamism of all these aspects leading to integration. Personality can be
assessed through various personality tests which are of subjective, objective and
projective nature. These tests may include observation, situation test, questionnaire,
personality inventory, rating scale, interview and projective tests like Rorschach Inkblot
and Thematic Apperception Test etc.

These personality tests are useful in so many respects. They help in

identification of different categories of people; adjusted, maladjusted, neurotic, etc.
These help to provide the needed guidance and counseling. These tests help to
clinicians and industrialists while dealing with disturb ones and workers respectively.
Again they help an individual to asses one’s own personality make up and make
choices and take decisions realistically. Professionals and experts too are helped to
make inventories and take insights of human behaviors. Scope of these tests is also seen
when teachers use them in categorizing children and provide relevant opportunities to
the students.

5.9 Check Your Progress

1. What is intelligence? Discuss in some detail the uses of intelligence testing?

2. Compare verbal and performance intelligence tests.
3. What is personality? Discuss some of the techniques of assessing personality?
4. Write a detailed note on the utility of personality tests in Guidance?

5.10 Suggested Readings

1. Freeman, F.S: Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.Holt Richart, NY.

(1962)
2. Cronback, Lee. J.: Essentials of Psychological Testing. Harper and Brothers,
NY(1960)
3. Mischel, W. Personality and Assesment (1968)

93
 B.Ed - 15202

4. Vernon P.E: Personality Assessment, London, Metheun, (1964)

5. Guilford, J. P. (1967). The Nature of Human Intelligence.
6. Anderson, H.H. and Anderson, G. L.: An Introduction to projective Techniques
Prentice Hall, NY(1951)

94
 BED= 15202

UNIT III

LESSON NO: 06 ORGANIZATIONS OF GUIDANCE

SERVICES

Lesson Structure
6.0 Introduction

6.1 Objectives

6.2 Organization of Guidance Services

6.3 Purpose of Organization

6.4 Principles of Organization

6.5 Guidance services at Elementary Level

6.6 Guidance services at Secondary Level

6.7 Let us Sum Up

6.8 Check Your Progress

6.9 Suggested Readings

6.0 Introduction

Guidance and counseling as explained previously is an enlightened process

whereby people help people by facilitating growth and positive adjustment through self-
understanding. It helps an individual to become fully aware of him-self and the ways in
which he is responding to the influences of his environment. It further assists him to
establish some personal meaning for his behavior and to develop and classify a set of

95
 BED= 15202

goals and values for future behavior. In other words this interactional relationship is
designed to facilitate the personal development of information leading to effective
decision making and self-awareness.
In order to procure the utmost benefits out of guidance and counseling, it should
be organized and very well planned, which means organisation of the whole work of
guidance and wise distribution of its various activities, so that maximum benefits can be
derived. There is need for organizing guidance services in every school as guidance is an
inseparable part of every school activity and cannot be alienated from the general school
life. In this chapter we will deal with guidance services, their organisation, need,
importance and its purpose in our schools. We will also come to know why it is necessary
to organize such services in our schools and colleges. After going through this lesson, we
hope that you will be able to organize some kind of guidance services in your future or
existing schools.

6.1 Objectives:

Dear students, after reading this lesson, you should be able to know:
 The purpose of organizing guidance services.
 How to organize the guidance services in schools.
 Various principles to be followed in organizing the guidance services
 Need and importance of guidance services at elementary level.
 Need and importance of guidance services at secondary level.

6.2 Organization of Guidance Services:

It is a well-known fact that guidance services are not fully provided or introduced
in our schools in India. Although, there are some schools that render such services, which
carry on some sort of guidance and counseling. Guidance and counseling cells are being
formed which provide information and guidance services to their students, but, such

96
 BED= 15202

service rendered by the personnel is inadequate because of their limited experience,

background and training. An important aspect in the organisation and administration of
school guidance is the need to plan the programme of action. In other words, it is
necessary to decide the strategy to be followed before the execution of any guidance
programme. Planning essentially involves deciding in advance what is to be done and
how to accomplish the task. Therefore, a counselor must be equipped with adequate data
on the type of programme to be introduced in the school before initiating/providing such a
service. There are certain principles that should be borne in mind to introduce a guidance
programme into the school setting. Some of the important points which seem to be
prominent are as follows:
i. Guidance services should be presented progressively than being superimposed on
the school and the staff.
ii. The aim and objectives of the programme must follow the instructional activities
of the school.
iii. The school guidance programme must facilitate continuous communication
among all members of the school.
iv. Special facilities are needed for such programmes without which the counselor
cannot function effectively.
v. Above all, it must constantly be engaged in a process of self-examination, that is,
the programme must be evaluated on continuous basis.

With this background, it is mandatory for a school counselor to plan well in

advance before the execution of any guidance programme. Some steps to be followed in
the execution of any guidance programme are as follows:
1. Pre-planning Stage: i.e. preliminary activities. At this stage, the counselor carries out
the following activities:
(a) Need Assessment of the Programme: The counselor on arriving at the school must
conduct a preliminary analysis which measures the needs for the programme. This entails
an independent investigation of the attractiveness of the programme in the school setting.

97
 BED= 15202

This will reveal the problems of students, population of the students in a school, available
facilities and the fate of the proposed programme.
(b) Formulation of Aims and Objectives: Equipped with the preliminary assessment
data, the counselor now proceeds to formulate the aims and objectives of the guidance
programme. The objectives must be formulated according to the needs of the students.
(c) Determining the means and methods of Operation: The counselor must determine
in advance the approach to be used in executing the programme. The most suitable
approach should be selected for the programme.
2. Planning Stage: The following sub-stages are noteworthy under the planning stage:
(a) Consultation: consultation with principal, staff members, other school functionaries,
the students and the parents is very vital for the success of the programme. Having
collected relevant information about the desirability of the programme for a particular
school, the counselor must seek their support for the success of the programme. In other
words, the programme must be approved by the entire school community before it takes
off. In addition, the counselor must determine the site and facilities for the programme,
supporting personnel, staff service training, participation and support of the
administration and public enlightenment. Moreover at this stage it is essential to discuss
and agree upon how the outcomes of the programme should be evaluated.
(b) Formation of the school guidance team/committee: At the planning stage, school
guidance community should be formulated including the representatives of the
administration, staff, other school functionaries and students as the members. The school
counselor should serve as the secretary of the committee. The roles and responsibilities of
this committee are as following:
i. Defining the resources/facilities to be used for the programme;
ii. Outlining the objectives of the programme;
iii. Demarcating the execution of the programme;
iv. Identifying the essential services to be introduced and implemented;
v. Coordinating the programme of activities;
vi. Assigning duties/responsibilities to other school functionaries;

98
 BED= 15202

vii. Giving feedback on the programme;

viii. Evaluating the programme from time to time; and
ix. Carrying out other activities fruitful for the smooth functioning of the programme.
3. Implementation Stage: this is a very important phase of the whole process where
each and every individual has to play his assigned role. Here the qualities of leadership,
effectiveness and ability to coordinate the activities of the programme of the counselor
will largely affect the outcome of the programme. At this stage, it becomes necessary to
plan a time-table of guidance activities.
4. Evaluation of the programme: The school guidance programme should be reviewed
and evaluated from time to time. This will help to determine whether the objectives of the
services provided have been achieved or not. However, it must be stated that the review
should involve the entire school community. The counselor can use different techniques
such as interview method, observations techniques and questionnaire method for
collecting information from the participants and beneficiaries of the programme. The
information collected will assist the counselor to determine whether or not the objectives
of the programme have been achieved.

6.3 Purpose of Organisation of Guidance Services:

The service of guidance and counseling is desirable by one and all, at every stage
of life either directly or indirectly. In the modern times every school is showing
enthusiasm to organize guidance programmes. They are offering different kinds of
guidance services than ever before. Emery Stoops in her book “Guidance Services:
Organisation and Administration” states that “the need for guidance service‘s has greatly
expanded because of increased opportunities and the remoteness of individuals from these
opportunities”. According to Indian Education Commission (1964-66) Guidance services
have a much wider scope and function than merely that of assisting students in making
educational and vocational choices. The aims of guidance are both adjustive and

99
 BED= 15202

developmental: it helps the student in making the best possible adjustment to the
situations in the educational institution and in the home and at the same time facilitates
his/her all-round development. Guidance, therefore, should be considered as an integral
part of education and not a special psychological or social service which is marginal to
educational purpose. It is meant for all students, not just for those who depart from the
norm in one direction or the other. It is also a continuous process aimed at assisting the
individual to make decisions and adjustments from time to time.”
Regarding the purpose of organisation of guidance services, "Emery articulates
that, “guidance is to help the individual learner achieve his happiness and success through
activities which make his community, state and nation strong and free.” Therefore, a
comprehensive programme of organized guidance is essential for every student. Various
educationists and psychologist have advocated the usefulness of guidance services at
schools/colleges and universities, some of the reasons are as under:
1. Facilitate individual efforts: Guidance is a synchronized activity; every member
of the staff has something to contribute. Organisation of guidance will facilitate
the use of skill, training and interests of every member of the staff, which
facilitates the recognition to the talent and skills of members, both inborn and
acquired through various in-service courses.
2. Avoiding wastage of time and effort: Proper organisation of guidance will
avoid wastage of time and efforts of the concerned persons. They will work only
towards the well-defined goals, instead of making irrelevant efforts.
3. Understanding the traits of the pupil: Organized guidance programme will help
in understanding the diverse traits of pupil(s). Different personnel involved in the
programme will make concerted effort to fully understand children before they are
helped or guided in overcoming their problems. Devices such as personality tests,
intelligence tests, aptitude tests and other such techniques may be employed for
understanding the pupils.
4. Understanding the pupil(s) need: Organized guidance programme will also help
in understanding the pupil(s) physical, social, emotional and intellectual needs.

100
 BED= 15202

Once these needs are recognized, guidance work is facilitated. Each child will
recognize his or her potentialities and feel(s) that he is ‘Someone’ and people are
‘concerned about him/her.
5. Class-room relations: Organized guidance work will improve class-room
relations and will create healthy and favorable class-room environment for the
guidance worker to function.
6. Utilization of community resources: A well-organized guidance service will
help in the utilization of community resources which can contribute to the welfare
of society in general and that of an individual (student) in particular.
7. Increased staff unity and morale: An organized approach to guidance should
result in increased staff unity and morale. Each staff member is able to know the
responsibilities of others as well as his own and can participate as a team member.
8. Assessment of the Curriculum: a well-organized guidance program can help the
students in:
i. Recognition, prevention and taking remedial steps for snags in curriculum.
ii. Participation in curriculum development.
iii. Evaluation of curriculum outcomes.
iv. Assisting researches in curriculum development.
v. Orientation and preparation of teachers for their guidance responsibilities.
vi. Orientation and articulation for students, teachers and parents.
vii. Assisting in a comprehensive testing programme.
viii. Test information and interpretation.
9. Development in educational aspects: a well-articulated guidance programme
will aid in the recognition of learning difficulties of the students followed by
adopting the prevention and remedial measures. It will also provide provision of
referral service and maintains coordination with appropriate individuals and
agencies.
10. Enabling students to plans for their future: Counseling with various students for
assisting them to understand their potential and aspirations in relationship to their abilities

101
 BED= 15202

and achievements, will provide them assistance in understanding themselves fully and
will also facilitate their decision making power, which will assist them in streamlining
their future.

6.4 Principles of Organization of Guidance Services:

In the organization of guidance services certain principles should be observed.

Humphrey and Traxler have given the following principles to be followed while
establishing guidance services:
1. Defining the objectives clearly: the objectives of the entire guidance programme
should be clearly defined at the time of organizing school guidance service. While
defining these objectives, the school ideals and needs of the pupils and specialties
of teachers must be kept in mind.
2. Defining the task: all the activities to be performed through the guidance
programme must be enlisted beforehand, logically and clearly.
3. Allocation of duties: the success of the guidance programme depends upon the
allocation of duties to the persons involved in this job in advance so that every
person has a clear idea of what he is to perform. The allocation of these duties
should be according to the abilities of the persons or workers.
4. Defining the powers: the workers should be made aware of their powers and
rights, just like their duties.
5. Defining the relations: the relations of persons working in the guidance
programme, whether full-time or part time, must be defined clearly in accordance
with their guidance responsibilities assigned to them.
6. Nature of guidance Organisation: it is proper to decide about the structure of
school guidance service prior to its beginning, such as member of its employees,
finance, size etc. the basis of the programme must correspond to the objectives of
the institute, finance and other resources and the number of students in the school
etc.

102
 BED= 15202

7. Simplicity: the Organisation of school guidance service should not be of complicated

nature. The framework of its structure should remain simple as far as possible because
every person will start taking interest only in a simple framework of the Organisation.

6.5 Guidance Services at Elementary Level:

The basic responsibility of an elementary school is development of skills,

creativity, and leadership qualities in the children. During this period of time children
develops self-concepts and values which determine their motivation for learning and
personal development in the secondary school as well as in the near future. It has been the
role of elementary-school teacher to bear the responsibility of knowing the child and
facilitating him/her in personal and social development. Many factors have contributed to
an increasing demand for organized guidance services in the elementary school, and there
is a definite trend towards such services that will enhance the guidance role of the teacher
and at the same time provide more adequately for the great diversity of pupil needs.
The elementary school level here refers upto the primary and junior secondary
levels of education. This stage is of vital importance because it is from here the child
begins to form the concept of what he wants to become in future. If guided and directed
properly the child would come out as a fulfilled individual ready to venture into the world
of academics and vocation self-directed. Significant developments in recent decades have
brought recognition that organized guidance programmes are as important on the
elementary level as they are on the secondary level. Guidance must be a continuous
process from the child's first contact with the school until he is ready for placement on a
job or in some type of post-secondary education.
Assisting students to explore their full potentialities requires the cooperative
efforts of school administrators, teachers, community representatives, government
officials, parents and the students themselves, as well as trained school counselors who
are able to facilitate their development and achievement. Emphasis may change as the
growing child's needs change, but the essential process of helping each child to

103
 BED= 15202

understand himself in relation to his own needs and to those of his environment must
begin long before. Early guidance which helps the child to make adjustments to each new
situation can strengthen his ability to apply his self-understanding to the solution of
problems in his later years.
The elementary or the junior secondary school guidance and counseling
programme should be child-centered, preventive and developmental. The purpose here is
to interact with pupils, parents and teachers so as to help pupils maximize their potentials.
The programmes of Guidance and Counseling are intended to provide pupils with
assistance in:
I. Understanding and developing a positive self-image.
II. Showing respect for the feelings of others.
III. Understanding the decision-making process.
IV. Maintaining effective relationships with peers and adults.
V. Being prepared to make the transition to the next level of education or world of
work.
VI. Developing effective study skills.

VII. Gaining an understanding of the world of work.

6.6 Guidance Services at Secondary Level:

After the completion of junior secondary level of the education, a large number of
students are selecting their careers without proper planning. Subsequently, fitting round
pegs into square holes and square pegs into round holes, resulting in the wastage of
human resources. Due to this reason it is therefore necessary to have well-organized
guidance program to remove the defect. Society itself and its demand are continuously
changing and becoming more and more complex and without any guidance program it is
not possible for a child to cope with the changing society. So, the program of guidance is
needed for all the children in every aspect of their harmonious development. With respect

104
 BED= 15202

to this Kochhar (2004) aptly stated that, “The Guidance programme assumes a lot of
importance for secondary schools as the Indian society is undergoing rapid change,
socially as well as economically coupled with the changes in the values and life style of
people”. In the same line Srivastava (2003), said “Any service as comprehensive as
guidance must be carefully planned if it is to meet the desired goals. When the
programme is well organized, there is no doubt that all involved will participate to the
fullest extent”. Thus the guidance programme, like any other educational programme,
requires careful and consistent development. All the associated members should see it as
their own, rather than the headmaster's or guidance teacher's programme. Guidance
programme not only helps in resolving the students' problems but also increases the
chances of student's right placement, at right time in right work for their bright future.

6.7 Objectives of Providing Guidance Services at Secondary Level:

Following are some of the objectives as notified by various educationists for

providing guidance services at secondary stage:
1. A guidance service opens a gateway of various educational and vocational
programmes for the students at secondary level.
2. It broadens the mental horizon of the students, assists them in making educational
and vocational choices.
3. Helps an individual to understand his own self and assist him to assess his ability,
interest and needs.
4. Helps them to become acquainted with resources and facilities in schools and
community, which is beneficial for his information and experiences.
5. Proper guidance enables students to make the best possible use of available
opportunities and also assist them in channelizing their energy wisely.
6. Enables students to evaluate their experiences, clarify their objectives and make
plans for their future.

105
 BED= 15202

7. It can help to measure their vocational assets and abilities, prepare themselves for
entry into the career of their choice and to get suitable job.
8. To help principle and teachers to understand their students as individuals and to
create situations in which the student can learn more effectively.
9. To find the solution of problems associated to their personal, social and emotional
adjustment in school and at home.
10. To collect all relevant information about students.
11. To solve students problems through collective and entire community.
12. To win the co-operation of students, parents and entire community.
13. To provide opportunities for participation in all intellectual, social and cultural
programmes.

From the above mentioned objectives it can be said that a school guidance
programme at secondary school level can help the students to make progress in their
education by eliminating subject difficulties and in development of good study habits.
School Guidance programme is helping hand for school going children to fulfill their
needs, dealt with curriculum and method of teaching, develop work habits and
appropriate selection of subjects or streams for future vocation.

6.8 Need of Guidance Services at Secondary level:

According to National Curriculum Framework (2005), Secondary level is a period

of extreme physical change and formation of identity. It is also the period of intense
enthusiasm, vigor and liveliness. The ability to reason with abstractions and the use of
logic appears, allowing children for the opportunity of deep engagement with both
understanding and generating knowledge beyond here and now. The critical
understanding of the self in relation to society also materializes during this period so here
school guidance plays an important role to enhance the overall personality of the students.
Houston (1989), acknowledges some need of guidance as follows: Changing condition of

106
 BED= 15202

home, changing condition of Labor industry, increasing migration and population,

changing in birth and death rate, increase in amount of general education demanded.
Kochhar (2004), regarding Indian scenario states that there is an urgent case for
introducing and strengthening the guidance service in the secondary schools of our
country to meet the varied needs of the students, administration and the educational
system for the following reasons: Guidance programme helps the students in their total
development, making proper choices at various stages of their educational career,
vocational development, to make the best possible adjustment to the situation in school as
well as home etc. Thus it promotes the students in making intelligent choices and
adjustment in life. The ability to make such choices is not innate but like other abilities,
must be developed. It is one of the functions of secondary school to provide such
opportunities for the development of such abilities.
According to Gibson (2003), a developmental and comprehensive school guidance
programme not only benefits the students, but also the parents, teachers, administrators
and business community. The comprehensive guidance programme caters the needs and
aspirations of its diverse stakeholder in a very lucid manner. Some of its benefits for
various groups are as follows:
(a) For Students:
i. Acquaints them with their own self, their potentials and limitations.
ii. Increase self-knowledge and how to relate it effectively with others.
iii. Broaden the knowledge about the changing environment.
iv. Helps them reach their fullest academic potential.
v. Provides opportunities for career exploration, planning and decision making.
vi. Provides an opportunity for networking with services and thus establishes an
effective support system.
vii. Teaches responsible behavior.

(b) For Parents:

i. Promotes an interdisciplinary team approach to address student's needs and
educational goals.
107
 BED= 15202

ii. Increases opportunities for parental involvement in education of the child.

iii. Equips parents with skills necessary to support their child.
iv. Supports active partnership for student learning and career planning.
v. Provides data for information on student progress.
(c) For Teachers:
i. Promotes an interdisciplinary team approach to address student's needs and
educational goals.
ii. Provides an opportunity to work in collaboration with other teachers and parents.
iii. Supports development of classroom management skills.
(d) For Administrators:
i. Enhances the image of the school in the community and improves the general
appearance of the school.
ii. Allows for systematic evaluation.
iii. Provides a structure which can be monitored easily.
iv. Provides a proactive school guidance curriculum that addresses student's needs
and enhances school climate.

(e) For Business, Industry and the Labour Market:

i. Provides the potential for a well-informed workforce, with positive attitudes and
the necessary skills.
ii. Provides an opportunity for collaboration with teachers in preparing students for
the world of work, through participation in career fairs and other career guidance
activities.
iii. Enhances the role of the counselor as a resource person.
iv. Increases opportunities for business, industry and labor to participate actively in
the total school program.

108
 BED= 15202

6.9 Let Us Sum Up:

In this lesson, you have learned the need and importance of organizing the
guidance services along with its principles and its importance at elementary and
secondary level. You have also learnt how to organize and evaluate the guidance outcome
at different stages. It is thought that you are now enough capable of organizing and
providing a comprehensive program to your students.

6.10 Check Your Progress

1. Identify and discuss various stages involved in planning and organizing a school
guidance programme?

2. Enumerate various principles to be followed in organizing a comprehensive

guidance programme?
3. Discuss the need and importance of providing a Guidance programme at elementary
and secondary stage?

6.11 Suggested Readings

1. Borow, H. (1964). Milestones of Notable Events in the History of Vocational

Guidance. In Henry Borow (ed.) Man in a World at Work, pp. 45-64.
2. Brewer, J. M. (1918). The Vocational Guidance Movement: Its Problem and
Possibilities. New York: Macmillan.
3. Tolbert, E. L. (1978). An Introduction to Guidance. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company.
4. Howieson, C., & Semple, S. (1996) Guidance in secondary schools. Document
No, 9602, center for educational Sociology University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
5. Chaudhari, P. (2015)., Need of Guidance Programme at Secondary School
Level. Education Vol. 1, Issue 5.

109
 BED= 15202

UNIT IV

LESSON NO: 07 COUNSELING: CONCEPT AND MEANING

Lesson Structure
7.0 Introduction

7.1 Objectives

7.2 Meaning and Purpose

7.3 Steps Involved in Counseling

7.4 Qualities of a Counselor

7.5 Characteristics Directive and Non-directive of Counseling

7.6 Let us Sum Up

7.7 Check Your Progress

7.8 Suggested Readings

7.0 Introduction:

Before deliberating about counseling, I would like to share one of the real life
events that transmuted the life of a simmering boy. It is a talk of June 2013 when few
guests knocked at our hostel room, on being allowed to get in, my room partner get up
and hugged each of the three guests and introduced one of them as his brother and the rest
his friends pursuing Electrical Engineering (6th Semester) from a college located
somewhere in Haryana. After some time, I enquired about the degree completion of those
young boys. The answer of my friend stunned me when I heard that except his brother
rest of the two completed their degree, the reason joggled me when my friend told me that

110
 BED= 15202

his brother is taking counseling sessions at SKIMS. Let I guess, what you are thinking.
You may be thinking that he may be suffering from mental illness or any other mental
diseases. Or his academic endeavor has been vanished now and from now he may be a
parasite, actually a lot of deleterious ideas start popping out of one’s mind on reading this.
But the situation is not like that. After a gap of one year he qualified his degree with first
division and presently is working in a reputed MNC. Actually, he was suffering from
stress, anxiety and depression on being consulted by a general physician, he suggested
him to take few counseling sessions at SKIMS, Srinagar. Over the course of 5-8 sessions
of counseling, he developed a much fuller understanding of how some of the themes in
his own life were linked to his relationships both at college (work) and at home (family).
He became better able to express his needs and emotions, and found ways of delegating
and receiving support at work. He reported an enhanced sense of satisfaction and
commitment at reading, and an improvement in his relationship with his family and
friends. Counseling had not transformed him, or the highly pressurized environment in
which he was living, but it had allowed him to stand back from what has happening,
looking at himself and how he related to others, and find ways of restoring a degree of
balance to his life. This is the miracle of counseling, which restored life in a simmering
boy who would otherwise have been detiorated & vanished.

7.1 Objectives:

Dear students, after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
 Define the concept of counseling;
 Understand its strength, process and ways of providing counseling.
 Students should also be able to answer some basic questions about counseling:
Who needs it? What it is? Where is it available?
 Understand and handle the problems of the students.

111
 BED= 15202

7.2 Meaning and Purpose:

Counseling is an activity that emerged during the twentieth century, and reflects
the pressures and values of modern life. We live in a complex, busy, changing world and
in this world; there are many different types of experience that are difficult for people to
cope up with. Most of the time, we get on with life, sometimes we are stopped in our
tracks by an event or situation but by that time we do not have the resources to sort out.
Most of the time, we find ways of dealing with such problems in living by talking to
family, friends, neighbors, priests or our family doctor. But occasionally their advice is
not sufficient, or we are too embarrassed or ashamed to tell them what is bothering us, or
we just do not have an appropriate person to turn to. Counseling is a really useful option
at these moments. In most places, counseling is available fairly quickly, and costs little or
nothing. A counselor is someone who does his or her best to listen to you and work with
you to find the best ways to understand and resolve your problem. Counselors do not
diagnose or label people, but instead do their best to work within whatever framework of
understanding makes most sense for each client. For some people, one conversation with
a counselor is sufficient to make a real difference to them. Other people need to see their
counselor on a regular basis for months or years. These can be precious hours.
The initial narration of an engineering boy give some brief examples of what can
happen when someone goes to see a counselor. But what is counseling? What are the
ideas and principles that link together the very different experiences of these counseling
clients? How can we understand and define counseling? There are many definitions of
‘counseling’ formulated by professional bodies and leading figures in the field. Here we
will try to describe some of them:
 “Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals,
families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career
goals”. (American Counseling Association website 2013)
 “Counseling and psychotherapy are umbrella terms that cover a range of talking
therapies. They are delivered by trained practitioners who work with people over a

112
 BED= 15202

short or long term to help them bring about effective change or enhance their
wellbeing”. (British Association for Counseling and Psychotherapy website 2013)
 “Counseling is helping a person to come to see who he really is, what he has and
does not have; what he can do easily, what he can do with difficulty and what he
probably cannot do at all. It is a close sharing of a human relationship with one
who has for him a high regard, one who can offer him unconditional acceptance,
but one who has no guarantees, no answer” (Arbuckle 1965)

These definitions share one important feature in common: they are primarily
framed from the point of view of the counselor. They are definitions that primarily seek
to define counseling as ‘something done by a counselor’. In taking this perspective, these
definitions reflect the aim of professional bodies to establish counseling as a professional
specialism within contemporary society. However, a profession-centered definition of
counseling runs the risk of ignoring the basic fact that counseling is always a two-person
(or multi-person) activity, which arises when one person seeks the help of another. In
order to reflect a more inclusive meaning of the term ‘counseling’, here we will try to
adopts a user-centered definition: “Counseling is a purposeful, private conversation
arising from the intention of one person (couple or family) to reflect on and resolve a
problem in living, and the willingness of another person to assist in that endeavor.
The key assumptions that underpin by this definition include:
1. Counseling is a person to person relationship: Counseling is an activity that can
only happen if the person seeking help, (the client) wants it to happen. Counseling
takes place when someone who is troubled invites and allows another person to
enter into a particular kind of relationship with them. The person seeking
counseling is regarded as actively engaged in finding ways of overcoming his or
her problems as a co-participant in the counseling process.
2. Mutual participation: A person seeks a counseling relationship when they
encounter a ‘problem in living’ that they have not been able to resolve through
their everyday resources, and that has resulted in their exclusion from some aspect

113
 BED= 15202

of full participation in social life. The concept of ‘problem in living’ can be

understood to refer to any situation or perceived difficulty or impediment that
prevents a person from getting on with his or her life. Counseling is not focused
on symptom reduction, but on enabling the person to live their life in a way that is
most meaningful and satisfying to him or her.
3. Based on Conversation: Counseling is fundamentally based on conversation, on
the capacity of people to ‘talk things through’ and to generate new possibilities for
action through dialogue.
4. Explores Painful Issues: Counseling depends on the creation of a relationship
between two people, which is sufficiently secure to allow the person seeking help
to explore issues that are painful and troubling.
5. Counselee centered: The person seeking counseling possesses strengths and
resources that can be channeled in the service of resolving a problem in living.
The act of seeking counseling is not viewed as an indicator of personal deficiency
or pathology.
6. Grounded in ordinary persons: The person in the role of counselor does not
necessarily possess special training or knowledge of psychological theories–
counseling is grounded in ordinary human qualities such as a capacity to listen,
sensitivity to the experience of others, personal integrity and resourcefulness in
solving the difficulties that arise in everyday life.
7. Self-expression: The person seeking counseling invites another person to provide
him or her with time and space characterized by the presence of a number of
features that are not readily available in everyday life: permission to speak,
respect for difference, confidentiality and affirmation.
a. Encouragement and permission to speak. Counseling is a place where the
person can tell their story, where they are given every encouragement to give
voice to aspects of their experience that have previously been silenced, in
their own time and their own way, including the expression of feeling and
emotion.

114
 BED= 15202

b. Respect for difference. The counselor sets aside their own position on the
issues brought by the client, and his or her needs in the moment, in order to
focus as completely as possible on helping the client to articulate and act on
his or her personal values and desires.
c. Confidentiality. Whatever is discussed is confidential: the counselor
undertakes to refrain from passing on what they have learned from the client.
d. Affirmation. The counselor enacts a relationship that is an expression of a set
of core values: honesty, integrity, care, belief in the worth and value of
individual persons, commitment to dialogue and collaboration, reflexivity, the
interdependence of persons, a sense of the common good. Counseling practice
is therefore grounded in a distinctive set of values, and moral position, based
on respect and affirmation of the worth of the individual person.
8. Supportive Atmosphere: Counseling represents an arena for support, reflection
and renewal that is unique within modern societies. Within this arena, the client
and counselor make use of whatever cultural resources come to hand
(conversation, ideas, theories, rituals, altered states of consciousness, problem
solving algorithms, discourses, technologies) to achieve a satisfactory resolution
of the initial problem in living that initiated the decision to engage in counseling.
9. Readily accessible: Counseling is a ‘frontline’ service and is located within the
community or organization where the person lives, works or studies. There is
minimal ‘gatekeeping’ that needs to be negotiated in order to see a counselor. It
can be seen that a user-centered description of counseling highlights a range of
factors that are partially hidden in profession-centered definitions. User-centered
language characterizes the person seeking counseling as active and resourceful,
and purposefully seeking to resolve problems in living, rather than merely a
recipient of ‘treatment’. It also emphasizes the connection between counseling and
the social world of which the person is a member. It characterizes counseling as a
relationship, a space, or an opportunity that is sought by a troubled person, rather
than as any particular form of practice (e.g., two people sitting talking to each

115
 BED= 15202

other face to face) – thereby inviting creativity and exploration in relation to how
this space and opportunity might be constructed. It makes no claim that a
professional qualification, or formal knowledge of psychology, is necessary in
order to practice counseling – effective counseling can take place both within and
outside professionalized networks.

Consequences of Counseling:

The potential outcomes of counseling can be understood as:

 Insight: The acquisition of an understanding of the origins and development of
emotional difficulties, leads to an increased capacity to take rational control
over feelings and actions.
 Relating with others: Becoming better able to form and maintain meaningful
and satisfying relationships with other people: for example, within the family
or workplace.
 Self-awareness: Becoming more aware of thoughts and feelings that had been
blocked off or denied, or developing a more accurate sense of how self is
perceived by others.
 Self-acceptance: The development of a positive attitude towards self, marked
by an ability to acknowledge areas of experience that had been the subject of
self-criticism and rejection.
 Self-actualization: Moving in the direction of fulfilling potential or achieving
an integration of previously conflicting parts of self.
 Enlightenment: Assisting the client to arrive at a higher state of spiritual
awakening.
 Problem- solving: Finding a solution to a specific problem that the client had
not been able to resolve alone. Acquiring a general competence in problem
solving.

116
 BED= 15202

 Psychological education: Enabling the client to acquire ideas and techniques

with which to understand and control behavior.
 Acquisition of social skills: Learning and mastering social and interpersonal
skills such as maintenance of eye contact, turn- taking in conversations,
assertiveness or anger control.
 Cognitive change: The modification or replacement of irrational beliefs or
maladaptive thought patterns associated with self- destructive behavior.
 Behavior change: The modification or replacement of maladaptive or self-
destructive patterns of behavior.
 Empowerment: Working on skills, awareness and knowledge that will enable
the client to take control of his/her own life.
 Restitution: Helping the client to make amends for previous destructive
behavior.
 Generativity and social action. Inspiring in the person a desire and capacity to
care for others and pass on knowledge (generativity) and to contribute to the
collective good through political engagement and community work.

Purpose of Counseling:

 To help students gain an insight into the origins and development of emotional
difficulties, leading to an increased capacity to take rational control over feelings
and actions.
 To alter maladjusted behavior.
 To assist students to move in the direction of fulfilling their potential, or achieve
an integration of conflicting elements within themselves.
 To provide students with the skills, awareness and knowledge, which will enable
them to confront social inadequacy
 To make students aware of the consequences of the experiences and situations
they have been/are going through.

117
 BED= 15202

 To reduce worry, anxiety or any other negative emotions.

 To improve study habits and skills.
 To make suitable career choice.
 To study the aptitude and abilities of students.
 To give the information to the students on matters important to his success.
 To get information about the students which will be of help in solving his
problems
 To help the students know their interests, abilities and right attitudes.
 To assist the student in planning educational and vocational choices
 To assist clients in exploring their problems and guide them to solutions.

7.3 Steps Involved in Counseling:

Counseling is a process, organized in a series of steps, which aims to help people

cope (deal with or adapt to) better with situations they are facing. Counseling is an
approach for assisting people to reduce initial distress resulting from a difficult situation,
and to encourage short and long-term adaptive functioning (positive coping). There are a
countless number of factors to consider in any overall discussion of counseling. Although
counseling is the most important function in the guidance movement, it makes use of
materials and practices borrowed from many other functions. Counseling theories are for
the most part borrowed from behavioral sciences, social sciences, learning theories, and
growth and development data. Established practices are largely borrowed. Some of it
comes from psychotherapy, some from psychodynamics, and a considerable amount from
vocational education. Counseling uses information from other sources, too, such as
personnel management. The subject can be approached from one or several directions—
for example, from the work of the rehabilitation counselor, the veteran administration
counselor, the counselor in private practice, the pastoral counselor, the social worker, and
the school counselor. Counseling practice is an empirical phenomenon based on an
eclectic set of principles and theories.

118
 BED= 15202

In simple words, just like, in the case of a bread baker one should follow some
steps in baking a bread, so is the case of a counselor who must follow a process in order
to solve the problem of a client. Process in counseling is defined as series of stages gone
through by the counselor to help the client understand and or solve a problem. The
process of arriving at a solution may take some time (sessions) before the desired goal is
achieved. The whole of the counseling process takes place in four phases or stages—
Interviewing phase, Working phase, Termination phase and Follow-up phase:-
1. Interview Stage/Phase:

Any counseling process, be it individual or group, starts with the interview stage.
This stage could also be referred to as the familiarization, orientation or introductory
stage. This stage is very important because for you as a counselor to start well determines
the success of other stages and the entire counseling relationship. The counselor and the
client meet for the first time. The place of meeting should be calm and attractive place.
There should be no noise or distraction in and around the counseling place. The counselor
makes deliberate effort to get acquainted with the client by establishing rapport. This is
done by asking the client to sit down, so that he or she would be emotionally relaxed in
the counselor’s office. The counselor inquires about the client’s name, class, parents,
friends, progress in school and his mission to the counselor’s office. This should be done
with caution so that the client does not feel as if he or she is being interrogated. The
counselor further assures the client that whatever is discussed will be kept confidential.
This is to win the client’s confidence and make him or her open up to say his purpose for
coming to the counselors’ office. The client may or may not present his problem during
this stage. The counselor should not be in a hurry to make him/her disclose his mission.
During this stage, the counselors’ needs to display in his behavior all the qualities of an
effective counselor by being patient to listen carefully show empathy, show unconditional
positive regards that is treating his clients with respect, warmth, irrespective of his age,
sex, race, color, religion and socio-economic status. This is very important as counselors
are not expected to be segregational or discriminative.

119
 BED= 15202

2. Working Stage/Phase:

This is the second stage/phase of the counseling process. As the title suggests, it is
the stage where the counselor fully engages the client in discussion about what to do and
how it will be done concerning the problem of the client. If the client has not disclosed
his/her mission in the first stage, the counselor now asks the client. He uses questioning
techniques to make the client open up. Questions such as: Are you okay? Can I help you?
What is the matter? What has brought you to my office? The client now responds. The
counselor having listened to the client will suggest different techniques depending on the
nature of the problem presented on how the problem can be handled. The counselor uses
techniques such as responding, exploring, restatement, interpretation, confrontation,
unconditional positive regards, empathy, silence and catharsis to diagnose the problem.
Also it is during this stage that the goals for counseling are set by the client and
counselor. The counselor here tells the client that counseling aids such as cassettes, radio,
video, and tape recorder may be used and the purpose for using them will be explained to
the client. The counselor should also tell the client the number of sessions that the
counseling relationship may cover. This will depend on the nature of the problem. If the
problem is a simple one, it may take fewer sessions but if it is a complicated one, it may
take a longer period to solve especially problems bordering on change of behavior or
breaking of habit. If the counselor needs to contact an “outsider” who may be responsible
for the problems faced by the client, the permission and consent of the client must be
sought. The counselor also takes the client through the methods to be used in solving the
problem. All these are done in the working stage of the counseling process.
3. Termination Stage/Phase

This stage is the third stage in the counseling process. Termination means
bringing an end to the counseling relationship between the counselor and client. Different
reasons have been given by many authors on why a counseling relationship may end or
terminate. Some of these reasons are given below for you to understand. It is important to

120
 BED= 15202

stress here that termination of counseling relationship may be a temporary or permanent

one. The following reasons are given by different authors.
(1) Counseling Goals are achieved as discussed earlier in this unit, you were told that
the client and the counselor would set the goals for counseling. When these goals have
been realized to the satisfaction of the client and counselor, the relationship can be called
off temporarily or permanently. Temporarily because the counselor may want to follow
up the client to see if he is doing well or putting into practice what has been discussed and
suggested, permanently if client’s problem is solved and he may not need to see the
counselor again. The client should be told that if he has problem in future, he should be
free to see the counselor.
(2) Un-cooperative Attitude from the Client The counselor may discover that the client
(s)he is dealing with is not cooperating with him, especially when the client is a referred
person, the counselor should still try his best to make the client understand why he or she
needs counseling. If after several attempt nothing good is coming out of the relationship,
the counselor can terminate the relationship temporarily and ask the client to think over
his behavior and may decide to come back if convinced to continue.
(3) Client may decide not to continue the counselor and client may enter into a
counseling relationship without any problem. After some time, the client may decide not
to continue for reasons best known to him. Sometimes it may be due to the fact that the
client is not honest in the relationship and when his attention is drawn to this fact he may
decide to stay away and remain with his problem. The reasons for the behavior may not
be given to the counselor. The best thing to do is to allow the client go as counseling is
not by force.
(4) Referral to an Expert/Specialist The counselor may discover that the client has
problem that is beyond his competence, area and experience, when this happens the client
should be referred to the appropriate quarters for specialized treatment. For instance, the
client may approach the counselor with a problem that is both medical and educational,
such as having bad eye vision and his inability to read comprehension passage during
English language lesson. The counselor should handle the educational aspect if he is

121
 BED= 15202

competent in English or make referral to English teacher and a medical doctor. He should
not start to prescribe glasses or drugs for the client because that is not his area of
specialization. The counselor should get the client prepared before referring him or her.
The client should know why he is being sent to another person.
(5) Practicum/Internship may end before the Counseling Goals are achieved There
are instances when the counselee in question is a student, either undergraduate or post
graduate, posted to a school for practicum exercise. There may be instance when the
practicum period will end without the counselor achieving his purpose or the school may
close for holiday, when this happens the relationship can be terminated temporarily or
permanently. As far as the school calendar is concerned, that may be permanent
termination, but if the counselor picks interest in a student’s case and wants to help in
solving the problem, he may decide to visit the student at home and continue on personal
basis.
(6) Death of Counselor or Client Counseling relationship may be terminated
permanently when the counselor or client dies. If it is the counselor that dies, the client
may seek for counsel from another counselor.
Note: There may be other reasons for terminating a counseling relationship not
mentioned here.
4. FOLLOW-UP STAGE/PHASE

This is the stage in a counseling process that you the counselor will want to know
what is happening to your client after termination. The follow up aims at finding out
whether the client is carrying out the decisions arrived at before you ended the session
and what problems are being experienced. However this stage may not be necessary for
every client so you the counselor determine with the client whether the stage of follow-up
will be necessary.

122
 BED= 15202

7.4 QUALITIES OF A COUNSELOR:

The counselor plays an important role in the overall counseling process. Owing an
important position in the whole process also demands to have the "right" person executing
the role of a counselor. The literature suggests a plethora of characteristics for a good
counselor, but they are very common and, therefore, not particularly convenient. The
problem seems in harmonizing on specific characteristics and then in devising methods to
assess these characteristics in counselors and to develop those characteristics. Usually a
person with widely-varying backgrounds, personality systems and attitudinal patterns can
be termed as successful counselors. The American Personnel and Guidance Association
Statement of Policy, under the heading “The Counselor as a Person”, identifies the
following personal characteristics for a good counselor:
1. Belief in Each Individual: The counselor believes in the worth inherent in each
individual, in his capacity for growth and change, and in his ability to cope with life
situations.
2. Commitment to Individual Human Values. The counselor has a primary concern
for the individual as a person whose feelings, values, goals, and success are
important.
3. Alertness to the World. The counselor is interested in the world.
4. Open-mindedness: The counselor has respect for a wide range of interests, attitudes
and beliefs.
5. Understanding of Self: The counselor has an understanding of himself and the ways
in which his personal values, feelings and needs can affect his work.
6. Professional Commitment. The counselor feels a commitment to counseling as a
profession and as a means of assisting individuals in the development of their
potentialities (Loughary, 1965, pp. 78-79).
Kazienko and Neidt (1962) testified that the "good counselors" are serious,
earnest, patient, soft-spoken, aware of personal self-centeredness, more domestic than

123
 BED= 15202

social, while the "poor counselors" did not see themselves as serious, patient, and tended
toward loudness of voice, and so forth. Other differences were found in motivation,
values held, and feelings about others. According to Truax (1966) successful counselors
exhibited the following traits: sensitivity, understanding, warmth, caring, acceptance,
genuineness, non-defensiveness, maturity and congruence.
All of the characteristics described above are certainly commendable, but are these
characteristics (qualities or traits) obligatory and sufficient to certify counseling to be
success or are there other less socially acceptable characteristics that, when possessed by
the counselor, may serve the client well?

7.5 Characteristics of Directive Counseling:

Directive counseling is also known as counselor centered or prescriptive

counseling. E. G. Williamson is said to be the chief exponent of directive centered
counseling. The main characteristics of directive counseling are summarized as below:
1. Counselor plays an important role in the whole process.
2. The counselor is very active.
3. Counselor leads the interview process.
4. The client is always sub-ordinate to the counselor.
5. The point of focus is the problem and not the individual.
6. This type of counseling stresses more on the person’s intellectual aspect than
the emotional aspects.
7. The counselor owns entire responsibility of solving the problems of his or her
client.

Procedure/Steps involved in Directive Counseling

1. Analysis—Collection of the data
2. Synthesis—summarizing and organizing the data.
3. Diagnosis—Interpretation of the data.
4. Prognosis—Prediction about future process.

124
 BED= 15202

5. Counseling—Treatment given by the Counselor.

6. Follow up—Evaluation of the effectiveness of the counseling.

Advantages:
1. This method is very economical and accumulates less time.
2. Counselor perceives the client more objectively than the client him or herself.
3. Emphasis is always on the problem and not on the individual.
4. Intellectual aspects are on priority than the emotional aspects.

Disadvantages:
1. Here the client is more dependent and is not able to solve his own problems.
2. It fails in saving the client to commit the mistakes in future, as the counselee
remains ever—dependent.
3. It kills the initiative of the client.
4. Scarcity of information regarding the client can create the possibility of
wrong counseling.

Main characteristics of Non-Directive Counseling:

Non-Directive counseling is also known as Client centered or permissive counseling. Its

chief exponent was Carl Rogers (1961). According to this theory, people are what they
choose to become. The theory holds the view that people are always fighting the
forbidding environment to express their good by perpetually striving towards self-
actualization. Using this theory, the role of the counselor is to provide a warm atmosphere
characterized by empathic understanding, concern and friendship as well as the
development of a trustworthy relationship that provides the unconditional positive regard
that catalysis the client to strive towards self-actualization. Counselors are required to
demonstrate effective utilization of client-centered approaches while counseling which
involves use of principles that guide counseling. Counselors are required to be competent
in the use of principles that guide counseling such as being empathic, genuine, concrete,

125
 BED= 15202

unconditional regard, upholding client confidentiality among other principles. Rogers has
used this method of counseling in solving educational, vocational and many other
problems. The main characteristics of Non-directive counseling are summarized as
below:
1. The client is the epicenter of this type of counseling.
2. The conversation is led by the client himself or herself
3. The role of the counselor is very passive.
4. Open-ended questions are asked.
5. No use of diagnostic instruments.
6. Clients can act with his intellect
7. The entire responsibility is of the client

Procedure/Steps involved in Non-Directive Counseling

1. Defining the problematic situation

2. Free expression of feelings
3. Classification of positive and negative feelings
4. Development of insight
5. Termination of counseling situation

Advantages:
1. Development of the problem solving ability
2. Unwanted testes can be avoided
3. Removes the emotional blokes, help individual to bring out repressed
thoughts and reduces tension
4. Leaves its impression for a longer time

Limitations:
1. Slow and time consuming process
2. If Client is immature it is not suitable

126
 BED= 15202

3. All the problems cannot be solved orally

4. Sometimes due to the counselors passiveness, the client hesitate in expressing
his feelings
5. Not successful always.

7.6 Let us Sum up:

In this unit, you have learned about counseling its meaning and purpose. We have also
gone through various steps to be followed while imparting counseling to the clients. You
have also learnt about the directive and non-directive types of counseling, their process of
execution and the qualities of a good Counsellor. With this knowledge you as a student of
guidance and counseling would be capable of handling a comprehensive counseling
session for your students.

7.7 Check your Progress:

1 Define counseling as a technique why and when is it needed?
2 Enumerate various qualities of a successful counselor?
3 Explain various steps involved in the process of counseling?
4 Differentiate between directive and non-directive counseling?

7.8 Suggested Readings:

Flaman, K. (1995). School Counselors Perceived Roles, Needs and Feelings of Efficacy.
One Credit Masters of Education Project, Faculty of Education, University of
Lethbridge.
Kazienko, L., & Neidt, C. (1962). Self-Descriptions of Good and Poor Counselor
Trainees. Counselor Education and Supervision, 1. 106-123.
Loughary, J. (Ed.). (1965). Counselling: A Growing Profession, Washington, D.C.:
American Personnel and Guidance Association, p. 78-79.
McLeod, J. (2013). An Introduction to Counseling. Open University Press, Mc-Graw-
Hill Education, Berkshire

127
 BED= 15202

Sprinthall, N., Whitely, J., & Mosher, R. (1966). Cognitive flexibility: A focus for
research on counselor effectiveness. Counselor Education and Supervision. 5.
188-197.
Truax, C. (1966). Empathy, warmth, genuineness. Rehabilitation Record. 7. p. 10.

128
 BED= 15202

UNIT IV

LESSON NO: 08 THEORIES OF COUNSELLING

Lesson Structure
8.0 Introduction

8.1 Objectives

8.2 Rational Theory of Counselling

8.3 Counsellor-Oriented or Directive Theory of Counselling

8.4 Counselee-Oriented or Non-Directive Theory of Counselling

8.5 Psychoanalytical Theory of Counselling

8.6 Behavioural Theory of Counselling

8.7 Let Us Sum Up

8.8 Check Your Progress

8.9 Suggested Readings

8.0 Introduction

It is the psychology of the student which is helping for selecting appropriate

method tool and technique of counselling. The psychology plays a significant role in the
diagnosis of the causes of the problems. Human being is very complex to study. The
behaviorists say that behaviors and environment are major aspects of a person but
psycho- analysis have entirely different approach to study the psychology of a person.
They say that unconscious aspect and heredity are the main sources to know about a

129
 BED= 15202

person. The real problems are suppressed in his unconscious; these may be cause of his
problem. It is the depth study but not easy to understand his unconsciousness. In this
lesson, the following approaches of psychology to counselling have been discussed in
order to highlight the theories of counselling.
1. Rational Theory
2. Behaviorist Theory
3. Psychoanalytic Theory
4. Existential Approach to Counseling
5. Eclectic Approach to Counselling.

8.1 Objectives

Dear students after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
 Discuss in detail the Psychoanalytical theory of counselling;
 Differentiate between Directive and Non-Directive Counselling; and
 Explain the Behavioural theory of Counselling.

8.2 Rational Theory of Counselling

Rational theories of counselling emphasize that the client must be made to see
himself the reason why taking a decision or making a choice is right for him. In order to
develop in him this reason or insight logic and reasoning are used while discussing the
problem with the client. These approaches use various methods and techniques for this
purpose. They use, generally, the medical model for counselling which emphasizes
diagnosis or appraisal of the individual before treatment or technique to be used is
decided. They use explanatory, persuasive, logical and directive strategies with a view to
convince the client of the appropriateness of the final decision or choice to be made just
as a teacher does while teaching in the class. These approaches consider counselling as a
cognitive process involving, by and large, manipulation of thought processes of the client.
They emphasize use of reasoning and logical argument for making the client understand

130
 BED= 15202

his problem and the ways in which it can be solved. Leading the client, through rational
arguments, and bit by bit to a point where he himself is in a position to find a solution to
his problem is the all-important feature of these approaches to counselling.
Major theorists who made significant contributions to this approach are Thorne
(1961), Ellis (1962), Witz (1964) and Williamson (965). There are differences in what
they emphasize here and there in their individual approaches. But, putting together their
theories can very well be classified under the heading, rational approach to guidance and
counselling.
Rational approach is analytical in nature. Through analytical procedures attempts
are made to enable the client to recollect and realize the experiences, factors and
conditions that really trouble him or confuse him. In case of personal problems and
treatment of maladjusted behaviors attempt is made to bring the subject or "patient" to
retrieve from his sub-conscious memories of experiences that trouble him and that may be
affecting his current behaviour. The therapist probes the subconscious of the patient and
through transfer so his suppressed aggressions and restments, i.e., some of his blocked
basic urges and id-forces to the therapist himself attempts to put the patient on his own.
Through this process he brings him to such a state of confidence in his ability that he
handles things himself and rejects the therapist as an aid and thus becomes an
independent and free person again. This process releases the patient from forces that are
holding him back.

8.3 Counsellor-Oriented or Directive Theory of Counselling

Directive counselling is the process of listening to a client’s problem, deciding

what should be done, and then encouraging and motivating the client to do it. This type of
counselling accomplishes the function of advice and help in emotional release. In this
process of counselling, counsellor plays the major role. He focuses his attention more on
the problem than on the individual. The main exponent of this school of thought was E.G.
Williamson (1950) of Minnesota University.

131
 BED= 15202

Directive counsellors accept the principle that nobody can do his own study
impartially. It is for the purpose of an imparity. It is that a counsellor is needed. The
principle of directive counselling can be clearly explained on the basis of the following
points.
a. In this process, considerable responsibility is assumed by the counsellor. He leads
the interview, investigates the problem, defines it, diagnoses it and suggests
remedial measures.
b. The counsellor places more emphasis on the counselee’s intellectual aspect than
on his emotional aspect.
c. It is the counsellor who takes all the decisions about the counselee but it involves
the counselee’s consent also.
d. In directive counselling, study of the counselee’s past is equally important as his
present problems. Different means are used to study his past but his future is
determined by the counsellor.

Williamson's Contribution Towards Directive Counselling

Different approaches and theories of counselling have suggested different
techniques of counselling. Directive counselling happens to be the contribution of those
who supported rationals theories of counselling. Williamson (1950) is to be the chief
protagonist of this technique. His technique is based on rational approach but the effective
aspect of counselling is also taken care of. He defines counselling as an effective
relationship and emphasizes that while counselling involves discussion, analysis,
reasoning and intellectual approach it should never to impersonal and formal. Concern for
the whole individual while counselling is one of the major characteristics of his directive
counselling. His approach to counselling was developed from vocational counselling base
in which educational and vocational adjustment of the counsellee were considered
important. Integration of educational and vocational guidance with personality dynamics
and interpersonal relationships was also emphasized as part of counselling. He believed
that the development of adjustment potential of the human being could be possible only in

132
 BED= 15202

the group, or the community. Hence, counselling could be of value in helping individuals
to achieve effective interpersonal relationships.

Basic Assumptions of Directive Counselling

The assumptions of directive counselling are:
1. The goal of counselling is to help the individual achieve optimum development of
his personality leading to be a socially enlightened, self-understanding and self-
directing individual.
2. Each individual is unique and his unique qualities can be developed only in the
group through his interactions with others.
3. Counselling should be voluntary, not forced. It should be occasional by the
willingness and felt need of the individual himself. But it is also assumed by
Williamson (1965) that sometimes even non-voluntary and reluctant counsellees
may be benefitted by directive counselling.
4. Counselling is remedial in nature in the sense that it is resorted to when the
individual faces a problem which he cannot solve by himself.
5. Counselling is non-evaluative in the sense that the counselling does not have to
criticise client's ideas, feelings, and values. He remains neutral without showing
what he preferes or thinks right.
6. The focus of counselling is counsellee's own perception of his problem and the
totality of human development.
7. Counselling is a "thinking" relationship applying human reason to the problem of
development.
8. Respect for and keeping the worth and dignity of the client in tact is essential. He
should be accepted with all that he is potentially capable.
Williamson as the chief exponent of directive counselling in guidance holds that
the counsellor has the similar role to perform as the salesman does. He attempts to sell the
student certain ideas about himself, certain plans of action or certain desirable changes in
attitudes. He states his point of view "with definiteness attempting through exposition to

133
 BED= 15202

enlighten the student" (Williamson, 1950). Williamson views vocational guidance as a

process through which the significance and implications of the data collected are
explained to the counselee logically and in simple everyday language. The counsellor
himself integrates and interprets the information available about the counsellee and draws
conclusions from that. He presents evidence for and against the client's educational and
vocational choice, social habits and attitudes. He describes both favourable and
unfavourable phases of diagnosis, balances them or sums up evidence for and against and
explains why certain suggestions are given. According to Williamson the role of the
counsellor is to help the individual learn to understand and accept himself in terms of
capabilities, attitudes and interests; to identify his own motivations and techniques of
living, to evaluate them and adopt more adequate behaviour which may be more
satisfying in terms of achievement of his life goals. The following are the six steps in his
procedure of counselling:
Step 1. Analysis : This is concerned with the appraisal of the individual. At this stage the
counsellor collects information and data about the counsellee. For this purpose he uses
various methods such as cumulative, records, interview, records of various kinds and
psychological tests. He uses three methods of using the test data : (i) clinical, (ii)
psychometric profile method, (iii) psychometric index and method. In the clinical method
the results of each test are interpreted singly and in relation to other tests and other
personal and social data. Their importance is judged subjectively and a judgement is
made on the basis of that. In case of psychometric profile method test scores are
compared with occupational groups to ascertain which he resembles most clearly. In the
psychometric index method an individual's scores are converted into one total score or
index. This shows how the compares with members of the occupation in question
Step 2. Synthesis : It is defined by Williamson as the process of summarizing and
organizing the data or information collected about the individual. The purpose of this is to
bring out the assets, liabilities, adjustments, maladjustments, etc. so that a coherent and
clear picture of the individual is obtained. For achieving this purpose case conference,
discussion with the client and interviews with the client are frequently used.

134
 BED= 15202

Step 3. Diagnosis : This is the state where the problem of the counsellee is finally
identified and established. The problem is not only stated and described. Its causes and
dynamics, too, are interpreted and described.
Step 4. Prognosis : This is prediction of the consequences or outcome of the identified
problem and its dynamism. It is, generally, in the form of a hypothesis, which is for the
consideration of the client. Williamson (1950), Meehl (1954) and Pepinskys (1954) have
all discussed the appraisal function as one in which the counsellor formulates and tests
hypotheses on the basis of a variety of facts, taken together which construct a picture of
the client. Meehl calls this "a conception of man", Pepinskys refers to this as a
"hypothetical man". It is a "clinical construct".
Step 5. Couselling : This is the final stage of counselling at which all the possible ways
of solving the problem, i.e., all the possible hypotheses are discussed with the client who
with the help of the counsellor analyzes his problem and finally, selects the most probable
or most appropriate way of helping himself.
Williamson has described several methods of counselling such as :
i) Forcing conformity which emphasizes adjustment and accepting certain
norms of a group or community.
ii) Changing the environment. Change in the environment in which an
individual lives changes the individual also and his problem is
automatically solved.
iii) Selecting the appropriate environment.
iv) learning needed skills ; and
v) changing the attitude of the individual If the problem is due to certain
irksome environmental conditions and environment cannot be changed,
conditions or environment making it more favourable.
Depending upon the nature and the factors that underly the problem, one of these
methods of methods in combination can be used. No one of these methods can be found
applicable in all cases and in all situations.

135
 BED= 15202

The process of counselling interview according to Williamson consists of the

following steps:
1. Establishing rapport.
2. Developing self-understanding in the client. For this purpose the client is provided
through test data about his potentialities, asserts ad liabilities.
3. Advising and persuading the client to choose or select a course of action. The
counsellor directly suggests what may be most suitable course of action. Direct
advising and persuasive method both are used. He discusses pros and cons of
client's views and his own suggestions and tries to convince the client of the
propriety of his views and suggestions.
4. The counsellor uses explanatory method.
5. Referral to other personnel workers: If need be the case is referred to other
specialist sometimes.
Disadvantages of Direct-Method of Counselling
The greatest critique of directive counselling is Rogers who expounded the non-
direction counselling technique. He says that directive counselling is wrong because it
implies that the counsellor knows everything about the client’s problem and their
solutions. The counsellor under directive counselling poses himself as an expert who can
solve any problem of the client which is impossible. Rogers was against even appraisal
and testing which was considered a hindrance to counselling whose purpose, according to
him, was to release growth forces present within the client. He also added that even in
those situation in which diagnostic use of tests was considered useful, the significance
and implications of test-data should be worked out by non-directive methods.
The active direct method is common to Williamson, Ellis and Kelly. They all
employ the technique of questioning, suggestion, test interpretation, referral to
occupational files for information and selection of tests. The counsellor is most active in
this whole process. It is basically a rational process. Diagnostic and interpretative
techniques are used in this kind of counselling as the most important tools.

136
 BED= 15202

8.4Counselee-Oriented or Non-Directive Theory of Counselling

The main advocate of non-directive or client-centred or permissive counselling is

Carl R. Rogers. This principle was developed in many years. Hence, various areas got
included in such type of counselling, such as, the development of personality, group
leadership, education and learning, creativity, interpersonal relations and the nature of an
entirely active person. This theory was developed in between 1930 and 1940. This theory
believes that the sufficient means of solving a person's problem are present within the
person himself. The function of the counsellor is to provide such an environment in which
the client is independent to grow so that he may become what he likes to become. This
school of thought gives importance to the emotional aspects of vocational and emotional
problems and disapproves the diagnosis information as a part of counselling process.
The client-centred counselling revolves around the client. In this, the client is
encouraged to lead in conversation and to express his own attitudes, feelings and ideas.
The counsellor mostly remains passive. He never interferes the client's ideas, thoughts,
feelings, flow of expressions. The counsellor helps the client in completing his
conversation basically the counsellor makes his efforts to develop rapport and mutual
In this approach, open-ended questions are asked. These questions are loosely
structured. In the answers of these questions, the person projects his own personality. The
main concern of the counsellor is with the sumarization of emotional contents told by the
client.
When the client is answering, he should be encouraged to speak in detail through
proper methods. The client feels that the counsellor really respects the client's ideas. He
gets the impression from the types of questions which a counsellor takes from the client
and the interviere is taking interest in this client. The counsellor does not ask the
questions merely to explore the facts. In the non-directive counselling, every person has
the right to be independent as a specialist psychologist. In such type of counselling,
diagnostic instrument are used either infrequently or completely not used. This
counselling is a growth experience. In this, he client can act with his own intellect or

137
 BED= 15202

understanding. In this emotional of affective aspects are more emphasized than the
intellectual aspects.
Non-directive counselling is the process of skillfully listening to a client,
encouraging him to explain his problems, and helping him to understand those problems
and determine the course of action. This counselling focuses completely on the client,
thus, it is called “client-centered”. Carl Rogers followed this different approach as he
discovered that ‘client’ himself knew the answers to his problems. He realized that if he
could provide certain conditions to the client in non-judgmental way, creating a
relationship that was based on warmth, genuineness and empathy that those conditions by
themselves were sufficient to allow the client to get in touch with their own inner
resources.
The key objective of non-directive counselling is to help a client uncover and
express his true feelings. This counselling approach is based on a theory of personality
that views the individual as in a process of becoming, growing, achieving worth and
dignity, and seeking to actualize potential (Meader & Rogers, 1973).
The client-oriented counselling revolves round the client or the counselee. In other
words, in the non-directive counselling the focus is on the activities of the counselee.
Exponent of this school of counselling was Carl R. Rogers (1951).
According to this principle, an individual is adequately endowed with the prowess
to solve his own problems. A counselor’s duty is only to create a suitable environment so
that the counselee by recognizing himself can grow, develop and face the real life
situations. According to Rogers, directive counselling is non-psychological and
ineffective because the focus of guidance is the individual rather than his problem.
Rogers has pointed out some characteristics of non-directive counselling.
a. The objective of this counselling is to make the counsellor provide such
environment in which a counselee is free to grow and shape his genius according
to his will.
b. In non-directive counselling, emotional and sentimental aspects are emphasized
over intellectual aspects.

138
 BED= 15202

c. Importance is attached to current problems. It has nothing to do with past

problems. Hence, the counsellor does not study the counselee’s life history.
d. The therapeutic experiences provide the opportunity for the client and promote
growth of the client.
e. Non-directive counselling can be further elucidated on the basis of the following
concepts:
(i) Mutual relation of the counsellor and the counselee is emphasized, and this
is the essence of counselling. The progress and benefit accruing to the
counselee depend on these relations. The counsellor does not suggest any
specific decision. The final decision is to be taken by the counselee. The
counsellor generates an environment in which the counselee endeavours to
find a solution by himself.
(ii) In non-directive counselling, the counselee is given an opportunity to
express his feelings freely. He obtains exact knowledge about his feelings
and aptitudes which in turn helps in finding a realistic solution to the
problem. Here, significance is attached to the expression of feelings while
intellectual aspect is treated as secondary.
(iii) Such relations get established between the counsellor and the counselee that
the counselee feels relieved after giving vent to his suppressed feelings. This
gives him emotional strength and he feels secure. In short, the counsellor
generates such an environment that the counselee takes his own decisions.
He does not leave the job of taking decision to the counsellor. This way the
counselee is able to know himself properly.
(iv) In non-directive counselling, there is no place for any kind of opinion,
evaluation and diagnosis. Synthesis is given more importance.
William Schneider has expressed some extremely useful views to elucidate the
nature of non-directive counselling. They are as follows.
a. The counselee is free to determine his own life goals whatever be the opinion of
the counsellor.

139
 BED= 15202

b. For maximum satisfaction, the counselee chooses his objectives himself.

c. Through counselling he is able to freely take his own decisions.
d. Emotional conflict is the biggest hurdle in the way of proper adjustment.
According to Carl Rogers, there are some steps in the process of non-directive
counselling. They are as follows.
a) The counsellor defines the helpful situations.
b) He places the counselee in a proper environment to enable him to express his
feelings freely.
c) The counsellor reorganizes and clarifies the counselee’s acceptable and negative
feelings.

Basic Assumptions of Non-Directive Counselling

The following are the basic assumptions of Non-Directive Counselling
1. Belief in the dignity of man: Rogers believes in the dignity of the man. He
considers the person capable of taking decisions and he accpets his right to do so.
2. Tendency towards actualization: In the earlier writings of Rogers, it was
emphasized that the person's or client's growth and developmental capacity is that
person's characteristic on which the methods of counselling and psychotherapy
depend. Even after so many years, his this opinion got strength that a persons'
inherent tendency includes growth, adjustment, socialization, freedom etc. This
directional tendency was termed as 'Actualizing Tendency' those days.
3. Man is Trustworthy: Rogers considers the person basically good and reliable. He
also known that the person behaves in an unreliable manner too. A person is born
with some urges which must be controlled if healthy personality development is
desired.
4. Man is Wiser than his Intellect: When sonic organization is functioning
independently and effectively, then the 'awareness' is a very small part or
component of the entire process. When the organization feels some difficulty in its
system of functioning, this awareness becomes more sharpened and focused.

140
 BED= 15202

Snyder has also mentioned the following assumptions of non-directive

counselling:
i) The client has right to select the goals of his life.
ii) If the client is given an opportunity, he will select these goals which may possibly
provide him great happiness.
iii) In the counselling situation, one should reach very quickly at a point from where the
client may be able to start functioning independently.
iv) Emotional disturbance inhibits a person's proper adjustment initially.

Procedure in Non-Directive Counselling

Carl Rogers has given the following steps of this non-directive counselling—
1. Defining the Problematic Situation: First of all the counsellor should define the
problematic situation.
2. Free Expression of Feelings; After the first steps, the client is made aware of the
fact that he can express his feelings freely and the counsellor approves this
behaviour.
3. Classification of Positive and Negative Feelings: After the free expression of
feelings by the client, the counsellor identifies his negative and positive feelings
and he classifies them.
4. Development of Insight: The counsellor goes on thinking regarding the client's
new feelings along with the development of client's insight and he goes on
classifying all those new feelings.
5. Termination of Counseling Situation: The counsellor looks for a point where he
can terminate the counselling situation after all the above steps. According to this
school of thought, either the client or the counselor can suggest for such
termination of counselling situation.
Characteristics of Non-Directive Counselling

The following are the main characteristics of Non-Directive Counselling

1. It is a client-centred counselling.

141
 BED= 15202

2. It is based on the principle that a person has so much capacity and drive that he
can grow and develop so that he may face the situations in reality.
3. In this school of thought, the counsellor is passive to the maximum.
4. A person is accepted in his originally and he is free to express his any attitude.
5. Through this counselling, his psychological adjustment improves.
6. Its use reduces psychological tensions.
7. In this type of counselling, defensiveness falls down.
8. In this type of counseling, there is closeness between the picture of the self drawn
by the client and a desirable of ideal picture of his own.
9. Client's behaviour is considered more matured emotionally.
10. In his research Axluies (1947) has shown that the reading improvement speeds up
as a result of client-centred play way-methods in the primary schools even if
special reading instructions are not given.
11. The general aim of the counsellor in client-centred counseling is to bring changes
in the functioning of the client and the organization.
12. This school of" thought is just reverse to that of directive counselling.
13. In his counselling, the entire responsibility is of client or the person.

Advantages of Non-Directive Counselling

The following are the main advantages of NDC

1. The development of the problem-solving ability in the client through this school
of thought is definite.
2. Being client-centred school of thought, other unwanted activities and tests can be
avoided.
3. This school of fought shifts the person from his unconscious state of mind to the
conscious state of mind and releases tension.
4. This type of counselling leaves its impressions for a longer period.

142
 BED= 15202

Limitations of Non-Directive Counselling

The following are the limitations of NDC

1. This counselling is not so deep like psycho-analysis.
2. The client is allowed for the free expression of his present attitude but it is not
attempted to explain why these attitudes occur? There is no research regarding the
past, no suggestion, no attempt of re-education.
3. This counselling has a draw back of lack of permission for flexibility to the
counsellor.
4. The client-centred theory suffers the basic defect that it does not care how the
behaviour is affected by the stimulus-situation and the nature of the environment.
5. Many counselling situations do not arise successfully in this client-centred
counselling.
6. It is a time-consuming process. Once the client starts his conversation, he does not
cease to speak. This makes the other's turn for seeking counselling impossible.
7. The client cannot depend on his resources, decisions and intellect.
8. All the problems cannot be solved orally or verbally or by talks only.
9. It is not possible in all the schools because the counsellor has to attend many
pupils.
10. Sometimes, due to the counselor’s passiveness, the client hesitates in expressing
his feelings.

8.5 Psychoanalytic Theory of Counselling

The psychoanalytic approach first used by Sigmund Freud forms the basis of the
counselling relationship for all the dynamic approaches. His theory views the personality
divided into three systems: id, ego and superego. The id is believed to work on the
pleasure principle. The ego works on reality principle. The superego represents the
conscience of the mind and operates on principle of moral realism. Freud regarded the
unconscious level of awareness as having a powerful influence on behaviour. His theory

143
 BED= 15202

postulates a personality based on a biological drive concept, mainly sexual in nature, the
satisfaction of which is the goal to which all behaviour is directed.
Psychoanalysis mainly explores the unconscious mind. It applies specific techniques for
that purpose. Some of the techniques are:
1. Free association: The client is asked to lie down on sofa in a relaxed position and
speaks freely of anything that comes to his mind. The flow of his thought is free.
The counsellor takes a note of that and later identifies some relevant things for
discussion and help the client develop insight into his problem.
2. Dream interpretation: The counsellor can interpret dreams of the client to access
the unconscious. It has been stated that dreams express repressed wishes. Dreams
are interpreted on the object level, on the basis of the relationship of the client
with person or situation from his family or social life. Symbols occur in dreams
are also interpreted.
There is no one single method to which all psychoanalysis agreed. As there were
differences here and their in their theoretical approaches, so there were differences in
their approaches to practise of psychotherapy.
Freud in the early stagers of his practice, used first two methods : (i) abstraction
and (ii) catharsis. Then he used hypnotic suggestions, i.e., giving suggestions to feel cured
during hypnotic state. But, later on this was dropped by him. He, then, substituted Free
Association for hypnosis. He, afterwards, depended on (i) dream-analysis, (ii) free
association psychoanalystic hour and (in) transference. The fundamental aim of his
therapy was "restructurization of personality" by bringing repressed experiences into the
conscious mind. In other words, it would mean "relieving of the experiences" so that their
real value rather than imagined emotional value was perceived. The client was made to
see his past in his past in the light of reality principle through reorganization of
personality.
Jung differed widely from Freud. He discarded the concept of infantile fixation of
libido, and emphasized "treatment by confession". He said people conceal things and in
so doing they alienate themselves from the community. They conceal things which are

144
 BED= 15202

bad, dark, imperfect and stupid in themselves. Then, they develop feelings of guilt
leading to behavioural subterfuges. Confession, thorugh talking, leads to the release of the
suppressed emotion. About transferece, he said, that it is not enough that transfer occurs
in the cause of analysis and is marked by the disappearance of the resistance and hostility.
He says that the patient may become aware as "the split off" part of the personality and
yet finds a great difficulty in integrating it. At this point, analyst's sympathy and presence
are all important. The patient should feel that "he does not stand alone in the battle, but
someone whom he trusts reaches out a hand leading him to moral strength to combat the
tyranny of uncontrolled motion. Hence, to him, counsel-for-counseelee relationship is
very important aspect of his therapy. Technique is not so important as the personality of
the counsellor. The counsellor should not impose Ms views on the client. Jung said that
psychotherapy should come freed from its clinical origin and should cease to be a mere
method for treating the sick. It should be of service to the healthy as well.
Adler, another pschoanalyst and a disciple of Freud stressed the following steps of
counselling:
1. Engourage the client to be frank and free to talk.
2. Discover "family styles" leading to client's "life-styles".
3. Discover client's goals and exaggerated characters.
4. Show to the client the subterfuges where by he is evading the challenges life and
the functions which he is mentally substituting for reality.
5. Build up a "benevolent comradeship" with the client while talking to him.
6. There is no need to put an embargo on physical medicines and reedit. They can be
used along with psychological treatment.
The neo-analysts give great emphasis to cultural determinants of behaviour and
show deeper concern with the client's present circumstances in counselling. The sexual
needs and aberrations are not considered important. On the other hand, certain other
needs and feelings such as love and hostility are considered more important. According to
Homey the process of counselling should be at making the client aware of his basic
conflicts and his unknowingly alineating himself from people. Adler emphasized making

145
 BED= 15202

the client aware of his unique style of life and his ego-ideal. Sullivan adopted
"communication approach" to counselling emphasizing the need for examining the
client's interpersonal relations which provide both satisfaction and security. Yet, they all
conceive counselling, like Freud, more or less a directive process.
A few more methods and techniques used in psychoanalytic counseling by some
other people are discussed in the following section:
Persuations in Counselling : Treatment by persuation is an appeal to reason. Its
purpose is to design and convince the counsellee of the irrationality of his symptoms or
undersirable behaviours so that he may be able to counter to forces which make for these
disorders. It consists in getting rid of false intellectual difficulties and preconceptions. It
sets out to explain to the client how his problem arose and what were the motive forces
underlying them. The client has to be convinced that his psychological problems are a
kind of an escape from responsibility and that the solution lies in the exercise of his will
and in the release of his emotions. It helps the client to see the reason for his ailment and
to realize that it due to his inner weakness.
Some therapists feel that persuasion is superficial as it does deal with the deep-
seated causes which is necessary to the radical treatment. It gives only temporary relief.
But, others feel that even temporary relief is of great value in many cases.
Suggestions for Counselling: It is implanting in the mind of the counseilee some
idea evoking an emotional response and creating a state of psychic dependence. The
client is put into a state of mental positively, dependence and receptivity. It is only a way
of making the client realize the falsity of his ways and helping him to a proper
readjustment. The psychotherapists assume that the over strained man is wanting ease and
relaxation from the tyranny of his super ego, and if by suggestion we can induce him to a
greater tranquility it may save a break down. The sim of therapeutic suggestion is (i) to
help the client to get rid of his morbid auto suggestion and replace them with healthy
ideas and desires, (ii) to arouse In him new emotions and confidence instead of fear,
quietness instead of anxiety, (iii) to break morbid associations between emotions like fear
and the objects to which they have become attached.

146
 BED= 15202

Many psychotherapist are to the opinion that suggestions are of great value in
milder cases where the complex is not too deeply rooted. It is of great value when the
problem is a present day difficulty which is causing anxiety, depression, sleeplessness,,
etc. As such the client needs support and suggestion provide the temporary splints by
giving him courage and confidence to carry on till he tides over the difficulty and can
carry on for himself. Encouragement does a lot as it provides relaxation. It is found to be
useful in case of clients who are anxious, nervous, highly strung over-sensitive to the
rebuff of life. It helps and brace them and reinforce their feeble courage. It is also helpful
in case of clients who get into a state of such unbearable distress that they feel they
cannot go on. It is, particularly, useful in simple psychosomatic disorders because many
of them are based upon simple worries of the present time and which may be allayed by
suggestion. It may be successfully used in cases of alcoholism and bad.
The technique of therapeutic suggestion has a weakness that while the client want
to be well he has an unconscious which to be ill which is not attempted to be rooted out
by it. It may bring temporary relief, but cannot eradicate the conflict between for-bidded
desires and symptoms.
Analytical Methods of Counselling: Knowledge of the predisposing, i.e.,
childhood experience are far more important than precipitating causes in counselling the
individuals suffering from mental disorders. In psychology it has been found necessary to
devise special means recovering these early experiences since they cannot be recalled by
ordinary efforts as they are painful and are actively repressed. The original method used
for this purpose was hypnosis. Carcot, Janet, Breuer all used this method for reviving the
original cause of hysterical conditions and other symptoms. Hypno analysis being
difficult and not possible in case of all individuals the therapists began to use
hypnoanalysis, the use of drugs such as nembutal, evipan, pentothal, etc., for this purpose.
But, this is done by psychiatrists in the mental hospitals only. In educational, vocational
and personal counselling it is not used.
Most commonly used method in psychotherapy is Freud and Jung's dream-
analysis, but, the use of dream-analysis and its symbolic interpretation is highly

147
 BED= 15202

subjective. Yet, psychoanalysts do not completely discard them. But, they do not solely
rely on them. As an adjunct they are considered useful. Free association and word
association method, too, are used by psychoanalysts quite frequently as "gateways to the
forgotten past". These have been found useful in delinquency for discovering complexes
and knowing the unconscious determinants of delinquent behaviour.
Free association devise, originally, by Freud is universally applicable. When free
associations in full swing the client goes off into a semi-dissociated hypnoidal state
detached from Ms present surroundings living in the original experience with all its
emotional force. Bringing out the feeling element is more important than mere
recollecting the past experiences. Hence, free association works on the principle that if
you give a man enough rope he will hang himself; if you give his thoughts free play, it
wall imavitably lead to his complexes. Thus, free association is nor free; it is fatally
determined by the underlying and often unconscious complexes. Free association method,
generally, employs the following procedure,
1. Getting the client to concentrate upon some definite experience.
2. By taking a certain symptom or dream as a starting point getting the client's
3. Without taking a theme at all to instruct the client to tell whatever comes into
mind.
Some psychoanalysts use directive reductive analysis instead of Freudian
transference and dream analysis method. The method as elaborated by Hadfield is called
reductive because these therapists using this method analyze back to the deep-seated and
predisposing causes as well as to the more recent precipitating causes. It is directive in the
sense that it deals directly with those experiences and not primarily by the symbolic
interpretation of dreams, nor by mans of transference. The steps involved in the procedure
are:
1. First, they go back to childhood by way of free association.
2. Then, they try to break up the complexes then formed.
3. After this, attempt to release the repressed emotional tendencies.
4. Then, they attempt to direct them to the higher of the personality.

148
 BED= 15202

Thus, it is not merely diagnostic, it is therapeutic also. It not only abolishes

symptoms but permits them to develop, and hence, to restore the whole personality to
health and happiness. Starting point, in case of this method also, is the symptom, a royal
road to the deep-seated causes of the disorder, the epitome of the disorder in the
personality. But, it takes only the symptom of which the disorder in the personality. But,
it takes only the symptom of which the client complains and not what we may see to be.
In this way, it proceeds from recipitating to predisposing cause.
For therapeutic purposes, users of this method aim particularly at discovering and
analyzing what they call Nuclear Incident, i.e., those experiences in which the individual
makes a complete change in his attitude of mind from aggressiveness to docidle, the
turning point of his life, points where the client represesses one attitude and adopts
another durerent one. The value of nuclear incident lies in the fact that it reveals (1) what
was repressed, (2) why it was repressed, (3) by what it was repressed, (4) in favour of
what it was repressed and most important, (5) it brings about therapeutic result as
emotions are, thus, released and cure is brought.
A breaction and Catharsis were the methods originally used by Freud. He, first,
gave the name to his method as catharsis, i.e., a process of purging of the personality of
the noxious experiences. Later, he called it abreaction, i.e., reacting to the original
experience as one should have reacted and with the emotion which was previously denied
expression and so releasing the same "strangulated effect". Freud assumed that repressed
ideas were beset with a charge of emotional energy or "libido" .and that catharsis or
abreaction could discharge that energy from the system making it free from what had
been a sort of irritant like a foriegn body hi a living tissue. Some psychologist think these
are principles of mental hygiene rather than principles of therapy. In his latter writings,
Freud did not make a mention of these and tacitly dropped them. But, some authorities
continued to attach great importance to these.

149
 BED= 15202

8.6 Behavioural Theory of Counselling

One of the modern methods of treating disorders of behaviour is behavioural

counselling. Overt symptoms are considered important in it. Symptoms are determined
individual differences. Faulty learning is considered the cause of maladjustment. Cure is
achieved by treating symptoms without going into the past.
Behavioural counselling is based on conditioning for describing behaviour and
specifying the conditions under which it is acquire, maintained and eliminated. Behaviour
disorders are not symptoms of hidden emotional conflicts that must be under covered and
resolved. Behaviour disorder is the problem not a symptom of the problem. If a therapist
can teach a person to respond more appropriately he has "cured" him.
Behaviour therapies are based on the assumption that all behaviour, normal and
abnormal, is learned. The typochondriac has learned that he gets attention when he is
sick. The contaution has learned that he is safe when he with draws entirely. The therapist
has to extinguish such inappropriate responses and teach the person more satisfying ways
of behaving. He does not need to know how or why the person learned to behave as he
does.
The technique of behavioural counselling is based on the principle of learning.
The most important contribution to behavioural counselling has been made by Pavlov,
Skinner, Wolpe and John D. Kumboltz who believed that neurotic behaviour is acquired
and is subject to the established laws of learning. The goal of behavioural counselling is
to change particular behaviour efficiently and specifically.
According to this theory most human behaviour is learned and can be modified.
Behaviourism is a school of psychology founded by psychologist John Watson.
Behaviourists show little concern about unconscious process. They believe that all the
behaviours are learnt after birth. Behavioural counselling is the application of learning
theory to counselling. The goals of behavioural counselling can be achieved by the use of
several approaches including the operant learning process, the use of imitative learning,
classical conditioning and emotional and cognitive learning (Krumboltz, 1965). The goals

150
 BED= 15202

of counselling must be defined in terms of specific behaviour so that these behaviours

may be recognized and reinforced when they occur.
Behavioural techniques are based on three major theories of learning: classical
conditioning, instrumental conditioning and observational learning theory.
 Classical conditioning: According to classical conditioning theory persons learn
through the association between stimuli. The origin of this theory is the classical
experiment of Pavlov with dog. The sight of food brings saliva in a dog’s mouth.
When a bell sound is associated with the food several times, the bell sound itself
brings saliva in the dog’s mouth. Sometimes an individual may develop
maladaptive behaviour because of association between two or more stimuli like
white dress of a nurse and fear of injection.
 Instrumental conditioning: According to this theory human learns by reward and
punishment. The origin of this theory is based on the work of Skinner. When a rat
pressed a specific lever in a cage food was served. Thus, whenever the rat felt
hungry pressed that liver. After several trials, when electric shock was given
instead of food when the rat pressed the lever, the rat stopped pressing the lever.
Thus, it is proved that when a behaviour is rewarded, it increases. When the
behaviour is punished it diminishes. This is also called operant conditioning.
 Observational learning: This theory was propounded by Bandura. He states that
one learns by observing others (models) behaviour. If the model is rewarded for a
specific behaviour, then the behaviour is repeated. If the behaviour is punished, it
diminishes.

Behaviour Therapy of Joseph Wolpe

Wolpe (1969) had a medical training was later on influenced by Pavlov's
conditioning and was led to develop a behavioural approach to therapy. He used anxiety
as his core concept. If something makes a person anxious while meeting other persons,
the feeling of meeting others gets attached to feelings of anxiety which he tries to avoid
and, in course of time, develops 'shyness1 or 'reservedness' or 'feeling of inferiority'.
Hence, he argues, the approach to cure should be to reintroduce the person, gradually, to

151
 BED= 15202

the thought of being anxious while meeting others. To achieve this the person is brought
to counselling interview through which he is, first, made to give a detailed account of
everything related to the problem. Many of these things, at first sight, may seem to be
unrelated. A detailed analysis made of the situations that are likely to lead to anxiety,
ranging from no reactions to those that produce the greatest anxiety and leading to the
hierarchy to anxiety— producing situations. This procedure is known as Systematic
Desensitizalion. First, the person is taught to relax. This may take several sessions, that is
first in the hierarchy and produces no anxiety at all. Then, he is asked to think of the
second hierarchical situation which produces some anxiety and he is made to think about
it till it loses its anciety producing effect. The procedure continues in this way until the
person is able to think about the previously anxiety-producing situation with no fear now.
Wolpe also suggested the use of assertive training in case of highly unexpressivc persons,
i.e., persons who would not express their emotion even through suffering from great
anxiety. He also suggested the use of aversive therapy in which case some unpleasant
sensation is induced in the person every time he indulges in undesirable behaviour.
Pepinsky and Pepinsky (1954) also hold that irrational behaviour is learned and
that is may be changed through relearning by applying the principle of reinforcement.
Their key concept is also anxiety which is supposed to underlies the irrational behaviour,
counselling, according to them, therefore, means creating conditions which can reduce
counselee’s anxiety through an interaction between the counsellor and the counsellee
based on the principles of acceptance and permissiveness. Counselling is effective only
when the counsellee willingly talks about his problem and seeks frequent sittings with the
counsellor. The counsellor must apply scientific method of investigation to counselling
using observations,' formulation of hypotheses, drawing of inferences, malting predictions
for future behaviour, and testing these hypotheses by further observations. Reinforcement
theory forms the basis of their counselling approaches.

Dollard and Miller's Behavioural Psychoanalysis

Dollard and Miller (195) developed their therapy by translating psychoanalytic
concepts into behavioural language and, hence, they are regarded as transitional figures in

152
 BED= 15202

therapeutic history. They had experience with psychoanalysis, first, but later on they
shifted to behaviouristic ground believing and "man is essentially a product of learning,
particularly emphasizing the principle of reinforcement". The deviant, according to them
is a "stupid" person in the sense that he does not understand how best he can avoid his
"repressed" feelings of basic anxiety. He is driven to do something. This arouses anxiety
in him which being painful he tries to avoid and in turn, is led not to do that thing.
Because of this approach avoidance behavioural conflict he becomes miserable. The
conflict is unconscious and is caused by previous repression. The deviant person acts out
his previously learned pattern of behaviour in an inappropriate way which is undesirable
and defines his as a deviant. In order to treat him, they hold, when he person shows a little
desirable behaviour, it is immediately reinforced. This reduces his anxiety and misery.
The method: Their method of counselling and therapy runs as follows: (i)
Talking Phase : During this phase efforts are made to examine, identify, and analyse the
undesirable habit patterns of behaviour by talking to the person as much as possible. The
second phase is (ii) Performance phase during which efforts are made to make the client
learn desirable behaviors by making them more rewarding. Along with these efforts are
also made to make the client verbalize his unconscious conflicts and look at them in the
light of reason and interpret his past behaviour patterns in a new light. This is the same as
developing an "insight" into his problem by the client. This is just an S-R translation of
Freudian concept of "insight" considered responsible for the desired behavioural change
via drive-reduction. But, it is not considered by Dollard and Miller an essential condition
of cure. The Dollard-Miller therapist does his best to help the client verbalize his past and
deal with his emotions; and the general caring attitude is considered necessary which
must support, the patient in his struggle with himself rather than with the therapist.

Process of Behavioural Counselling Process

Blackhom and Silvennan have suggested the following steps of behavioural
counselling.
1. The counsellor should specifically define the problem and identify all the
circumstances regarding the inappropriate behaviour.

153
 BED= 15202

2. Development and social history of the problem should be prepared.

3. Specification of the Counselling goals: The client and the counsellor should come to
an agreement as to what the problem actually is.
4. Selection of methods: The techniques used in the counselling need to be selected
consistent with the client's goals.
Techniques of Behavioural Counselling

The following are the main techniques of behavioural counselling

1. Operant conditioning: It is based on the idea that new behaviour is rewarded and
the old behaviour is ignored a person will learn to behave in a different way.
2. Desensitization : In this technique, for reducing irrational behaviour if a client has
described several anxiety producing situations, those are ranked from the lowest to
the highest in terms of disturbance. The client is instructed in relaxation technique,
after which each anxious situation is presented starting with the one that produces
the least anxiety. As the situation is recalled until there is no anxiety. This
technique has been to cure phobias about snakes, heights, closed rooms and sex.
3. Reciprocal Inhibition : There are individual who feel anxious and unhappy most
of the time. Here the therapist establishes a hierarchy, from the least to the most
anxiety provoking situations. Next he teaches the client to clear his mind, release
tense muslces and relax. Sometimes he may use drugs or mind hypnosis to
produce relaxation. Once the client has mastered the technique of deep relaxation,
the therapist asks the person to imagine the least threatening scene and to signal
when he begins to feel tense. At the signal, the therapist tells him to forget the
scene and concentrate on relaxing. After a short period, he instructs him to return
to the scene. This process is repeated until the person feels completely relax.
Gradually they move up the until the client is able to imagine the situation he most
feared without anxiety.

154
 BED= 15202

Advantages of Behavioural of Counselling

The following are the main disadvantages:
1. By concentrating only on behaviour, it presents an over-simplified version of
human psychology.
2. An individual's mental behaviour is just as important in therapy as his overt
behaviour.
3. The behavioural counselling is symptom-oriented. While effort is made to
smoother the neurotic symptoms no effort is made to remove the conflict that
caused them.
4. There is always a danger of the relapsing into his original condition.

8.7 Let Us Sum Up

In this lesson, an attempt was made to discuss the major theories of counselling in
detail. With regard to the nature of the counselling procedure and the role of the
counselor, there are three schools of thought in the counselling i.e., Directive or counselor
or prescriptive counselling, Non directive or client centered or permissive counselling,
Behavioural Counselling and Psychoanalytic counselling. It is the psychology of student
which is helping for selecting appropriate method tool and technique of counselling. The
psychology plays a significant role in the diagnosis of the causes of the problems.

8.8 Check Your Progress

1. How directive counselling is different from non-directive counselling?

2. Give a detailed description of Psychoanalytical theory of counselling?
3. Write a short note on the Behavioural theory of counselling?

8.9Suggested Readings

1. Borow, H. (1964). Milestones of Notable Events in the History of Vocational

Guidance. In Henry Borow (ed.) Man in a World at Work, pp. 45-64.

155
 BED= 15202

2. Brewer, J. M. (1918). The Vocational Guidance Movement: Its Problem and

Possibilities. New York: Macmillan.
3. Dave, I. (1984). The Basic Essentials of Counselling. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers.
4. Fuster, J. M. (2005). Personal Counselling (11th ed.). Mumbai: Better Yourself
Books.
5. Meador, B. D. & Rogers, C. R. (1973). Client-Centered Therapy. In Current
therapies, edited by Raymond Corsini Itasca, III: F. E. Peacock.
6. Nelson-Jones, R. (2000). Practical Counselling and Helping Skills. New York
7. Tyler, L. (1969). The Work of the Counsellor (3rd ed.). New York: Appleton
Century Crofts.

156