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20 views60 pagesNotes 1
Combustion Generated Pollution
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HIMANSHU JANGIDCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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/ 60
INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF IC ENGINES: COMBUSTION ENGINES DEVELOPMENT
Energy has become an essential component of human beings for meeting the requirements in day-
to-day life. The lifestyle of modern days cannot be thought of without energy. Among different
energy sources, fuels have been explored majorly to develop power, motive power, heat, etc. Motive
power is essentially met by automobiles, trains, and aircraft. Automobiles are predominantly
powered by petroleum-derived liquid fuels for around 200 years. These liquid fuels have been
extracted from the crude obtained from the earth’s crust. As the demand for mobility has
increased, so also the automobile population has seen tremendous growth in its population. India
is one among the fastest growing cconomics in the world, meets its fuel requirement for
transportation sector majorly from liquid fossil sources and marginally through gaseous fuels. The
situation exists among other nations too. The exponential growth in the automotive population
undoubtedly brought a large market for the industries which would be supplying to the auto or
transportation sector. Energy is synonymous with the consumption of fossil fuels. So for meeting
energy demand in the transportation sector; the automobile is synonymous with fossil fuel. So
also, the population has become synonymous with pollution. Energy is a basic need to survival for
any living being on the earth. However, the required energy is either be directly used or is
transformed from one form to another for better and efficient usage. Energy consumption has
become a yardstick to rate country a developed or an under-developing one. In general, the
transformation of primary into secondary energy through a technical process in an energy
conversion plant. Here, the energy conversion plant is the engine. For making an engine, firstly,
the energy is derived from fuel (available as stored energy in the form of chemical energy) and is
first burnt or combusted to release thermal energy and finally, thermal energy is converted to
mechanical energy.
Figure 1: Primary Energy to Secondary Energy
FIGURE: 2 Pyramid depicting representative conversion efficiencies.
‘The primary energy is obtained from sources such as liquid fuel and its derivatives, natural gas,
etc. Similarly, hydro cnergy or solar energy, wind cnergy, cte. are used to obtain mechanical
energy. But our main concern is from fuel energy to mechanical energy (Figure 2).
In general, the process of thermal energy conversion is done adhering to the laws of
Page 1 of 60 thermodynamics and can be described formally. The internal combustion engine (ICE) and the gas
turbine are specialized energy conversion units, in which the chemical energy bound in the fuel is
at first transformed into thermal energy in the combustion space or chamber, this being then
transformed into mechanical energy by the electric motor. Preferably, for electrical energy
production, the stationary gas turbine plants are normally used in addition to or in combination
with steam turbines. Here, it can be said that owing to conversion losses, the quantities could be
represented with the help of pyramid (Figure 2). The sizes are representative of conversion
efficiencies. The conversion efficiencies are from thermal to mechanical; it can be regarded as
thermal efficiency or fuel conversion efficiencies. Moreover, these are based on fundamentals of
the first law of thermodynamics.
Basically, an engine is an energy conversion device that converts the chemical energy inherently
available in fuel upon combustion with an oxidizer (mostly air) into mechanical energy. The engine
used for powering automobiles called prime movers. Prior to the invention of ICE, external
combustion engines (ECE) were in use such as steam engines. ICEs are quite different from ECEs,
such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting
of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. ICEs are usually powered by energy-
dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many
stationary applications, most ICEs are used in the dominant power supply for cars, aircraft, and
boats.
The lifestyle of human beings has substantially changed with the invention of automobile. The
development of automobile has undergone a multitude of developments in design since its
discovery. This development is credited to the inventors and researchers who made available the
present automobile. Basically, the energy required for motive power by the automobile is obtained
from the heat engine or simply an engine. The engine performance is constrained by the second
law of thermodynamics. The engine develops mechanical energy at the expense of thermal energy
produced by combusting fuel with an oxidizer. The fuel could be either liquid or gas. Thus, engine
in an automobile is simply a thermal energy conversion device.
In the early stages, human civilizations, people were largely depending on mobility of either human
or goods on either human power or animal power. Subsequently, with the invention of steam
engines, the scenario has shifted to machine-driven mobility. The steam engine, which is an ECE,
is also a prime mover but it solely runs with steam as working fluid, for generating steam and
consequent expansion of high pressure, high temperatures had to done through steam generators
and steam engines respectively.
However, owing to the low power to weight ratio of ECEs and bulky, after the invention of ICEs
started emerging and were preferred over the years. The mechanical energy thus produced is
usually made available on a rotating output shaft. The name internal combustion refers also to
gas turbines except that the name is usually applied to reciprocating internal combustion (IC)
engines like the ones found in everyday automobiles. The chemical energy of fuel gets converted
into thermal with consequent exothermic reactions.
The real benefit of ICE was realized after the discovery of petroleum crude. The resources of liquid
fuels have been concentrated in limited pockets of earth, majorly dominated by OPEC nations.
Due to this, the countries which have limited or no sources are heavily dependent on OPEC nations
and thus, in tur, are losing their hard revenue in the import of petroleum-derived products.
Therefore, there exists a mismatch between demand and supply. Moreover, there were instances
Page 2 of 60 of oil embargo (crisis) of the early 1970s and industry recession of 2008, fluctuating barrel prices
in the international market. The studies by Hubbert sent shocks among many that supply of oil
has reached a peak, thereby the existence of liquid fuels has been under severe threat as the
demand is far more than supply.
Basically, the prime mover used in different sectors, does the job of energy conversion, considering
a prime mover, energy requirement is met for the engine is obtained from combustion of fuel and
air. Fuel has a large amount of chemical energy within it. This chemical energy is transformed into
thermal energy and then mechanical energy. Therefore, engine is primarily an energy conversion
device. In the process of developing mechanical energy, the engine loses some of its input energy
to coolant, exhaust gas losses, etc. Engine is a prime mover for automobiles and works under the
constraints of second law of thermodynamics due to which, by producing prime source of energy
i.e., propulsive power, it loses some of the energy in the form of exhaust.
‘The exhaust of the engine consists mainly of components which are obnoxious as the combustion
may not take place under stoichiometric conditions. The more details of formation of these
pollutant emissions and its control are primary objective of the present book which will be dealt
in the following chapters. Like thermodynamics encompasses about 3Es wiz; Energy,
Equilibrium, and Entropy), the subject of ICEs broadly deals with 4Es from energy conversion of
fuel energy to emissions.
The engine is primarily a heat engine, i.e., an ICE wherein power is produced by burning a fuel in
the presence of an oxidizer. The power stored in the fuel is released when it is burned. The word
internal means that the fuel is burned inside the engine cylinder itself. The most common fuels
are gasoline/petrol and diesel. If gasoline is to burn inside the engine, there must be oxygen
present to support the combustion. Therefore, the charge needs to be a mixture of gasoline and
air. When ignited with an external source (electric spark), mixture of gasoline and air burns
rapidly; it almost explodes, thereby producing mechanical energy. The engine is designed harness
this energy. From a small power to large value (0.01 kW to 20 MW) as per its swept volume
(displacement volume); the ICE competes with gas turbines and electric motors (Ferguson and
Kirkpatrick, 2001). This shows the versatility of ICEs in market share.
Historically, the IC engine was not fueled by liquid fuels. It was the compaction of gun powder in
a cylinder at atmospheric pressure led to explosion and rotation of wheels. This type of engine
represented as cannon. The first 4-stroke engine concept was credited to Nikolaus A. Otto even
though some similar effort was put in by Alphonse Beau de Rochas. Otto proposed systematically
four thermodynamic processes representing 4-strokes of the piston with two revolutions of the
crank shaft. In the process of making further simplification, 2-stroke idea was given by Sir Dougald
Clerk; a 2-stroke engine was popularly called as Clerk engine. The engines were largely marketed
and appreciated after the discovery of liquid fuels (petroleum-derived fuels) in Pennsylvania.
However, due to constraints on the ability of the gasoline (petrol) to high load operation, the
problem of detonation was noticed. The detonation was more pronounced at higher compression
ratios (CR). There was a limit on the CR for a gasoline-run engine and to overcome the difficulty,
an anti-knocking agent was invented. The first of its kind was tetraethyl lead (TEL). The gasoline
engines were further improved with the use of carburetor; a device that would help in preparing a
homogeneous mixture of air and gasoline (petrol). With the large-scale exploration of liquid fuels
and to use denser fractions, a novel idea was given by Sir Rudolph Diesel; led to development of
diesel cycle engine. The substance that enters during suction/intake stroke is called charge. The
Page 3 of 60 charge for the petrol run engine is air-fuel mixture whereas air alone is the charge for the diesel
fueled engines. In order to control the load/speed, the amount of fuel to be injected has to be only
varied in case of diesel engines whereas it is the mixture that need to regulated in petrol engines.
‘Therefore, there is a better control over fuel in diesel engines. The difficulty of high load operation
and restriction on CR was not faced by diesel engines. However, the problem of smog (smoke +fog)
was observed with increased use of diesel engines. With the scale of marketing of petroleum fuel
derived fuels, Henry Ford envisioned the threat for large scale availability of fuels for future
generations. Hence, attention was diverted to the home/backyard grown fuels such as alcohols,
to overcome difficulties with petroleum-derived fuels and such fuels are renewable in nature.
With the exponential growth in the use of automotive vehicles, the problem of automotive pollution
‘was recognized and stringent norms had been imposed to restrict the release of tail emissions
such as CO, HC, NOx, and soot or particulate matter. In order to reduce the problems with noise
pollution and tailpipe emissions, the emphasis is given on use of lightweight engine component
materials and alternate fuels (such as alcohols, vegetable oils, hydrogen, CNG, etc.). With the
development of the IC engine, there were also developments in allied fields that support the
manufacturing of ICEs. Many OEMs have also grown. The milestones in the development of ICEs
and its historical perspective in a chronological order are tabulated in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1: Milestones in the Historical Development of ICEs
1794 ‘An engine with a mixture of vaporized turpentine and air was tried out by an
Englishman, Robert Street, patented, but not built.
1857 ‘A major development of Free Piston Engine was by two Italians-Bugenio
Barsanti and Felice Matteucci. But observed to be large. noisy, and slow speed
engine.
1859 Discovery of Liquid Petroleum crude in Pennsylvania, gave a birth to petroleum
industry. Liquid fuels started emerging
1860 J.J. Etienne Lenoir-Belgian, developed a gas engine (without compression-
atmospheric engine), double acting type with gas-air mixture, yielded thermal
efficiency around 5%.
1851-1888 | Sadi Carnot and Alphonse de Rochas-French people, define thermodynamic
processes that laid the way for better understanding of ICE operation. They
explained the importance of compression before ignition.
1867 Germans-Nicholaus Augustiene Otto and Eugen Langen developed 4 kW tall
engines on the principles of Barsanti and Felice Matteucci produced more
efficiency ~11%, Otto was the first inventor to name four thermodynamic
processes-Suction, Compression, Expansion (power), and Exhaust.
1876 Oito developed a modern engine following 4-stroke principles and called it-
silent engine, Compression ratio - 2.5:1, thermal efficiency rose to 14%.
Efforts were made to reduce the number of rotations for developing power and thus gave
a birth to 2-stroke cycle concept.
1878-1881 | Duggald Clerk- first to use an air standard cycle analysis for engines and
adopted separate scavenging.
1877 Robson suggested scavenge compression and patented the principles.
1880 William Priestman and Hobert Acktroyed Stuart-Englishmen-developed a
engine that used vaporizer for injecting kerosene and claimed thermal
efficiency of ~15%
Page 4 of 60 1883
Gottlieb Daimler, German Engineer used a hot bulb concept and developed a
high speed engine ~ 700 rpm.
1886 Karl Benz developed a tricycle
1888 Tnvention of pneumatic tire by John B. Dunlop further improved the working
performance of automobile.
1892 Carburetor- Samuel Morey in 1826
1898 Robert Bosch invented a modern electric spark plug.
The principles of Carnot engine cycle made Rudolph Diesel to develop an engine with
high distillates and without mixing fuel and air before combustion.
Rudolph Diesel used a air-blast fuel injection system with a high pressure compressor (~7
Mpa)
Mechanical Piston Pamp with fine tolerances developed by McKechnie
‘Acktroyl Stuart developed a pre-chamber (IDI) concept
‘Anti-knocking Agent-TEL-
Cyde innovations-Atkinson cycle-Miller cycle.
1910 Henry Ford envisaged the importance of backyard grown fuels
Majority of the inventions were over and inventors started to improve the thermal
efficiency or
devised methods to overcome difficulties with gasoline/diesel run engines.
Early 1920 | Ricardo outlined the concept of Stratification and thus developed stratified
charge engine.
1920 Midgley developed a knock suppressant-tetraethyl lead for SI engine to
minimize combustion knock.
1930 Details of ignitions delay and diesel knock were related.
A study on thorough thermodynamic cycle analysis for engines was done by
Americans-Good enough and Baker
Fuel injection pump Robert Bosch
Felix Wankel-Rotary Combustion Engine
Opposed piston engines
Automobile with IC Engine
Increased automotive population led to the degradation of air quality in Los Angeles.
Researchers
understood that CO, HC, NOx, and SOx emissions were partial oxidized
compounds and started to mitigate the same. This has sprung up the new research for
reduction of
photochemical smog by NOx compounds.
19605 Reduction in air quality is linked to automotives
1960s CRDI-Common Rail Direct Injection by Robert Huber of Switzerland,
New combustion concepts-HCCI/PCCI/RCCI
Noise pollution
New materials started emerging with a view to reduce overall weight of an
engine.
1961 In California, positive crankcase ventilation was first introduced.
CARB-California Air Resource Board was formed.
Mid-1970s__| Japan, Canada, and Australia introduced emission controls
1986 Stringent emission controls were introduced by the USA and European
countries.
1973 Witnessed an oil crisis - Oil Embargo - emphasized the need for continuing
high level of fundamental research into engine operation. Efforts were focused
on simultaneous reduction of emissions and fuel consumption. Work started in
the use of alternative fuels.
Page 5 of 60 Variable compression ratio engine
1988
First production car diesel engines with direct injection (Fiat)
1989
First production car diesel engines with exhaust gas turbocharging and direct
injection (Car Audi 100D1)
1990
Catalytic converter.
Need for engine modeling studies was stressed.
D. F. Caris and E. E. Nelson-optimized the compression ratio
Fast burn combustion chambers,
Lean burn engines.
Improved control and optimization of influencing operating and geometric
parameters.
Gasoline direct injection (GDI) and DISI concepts were started. Fuel Injection
systems for SI engine-mechanical, electronic fuel injection and MPFI methods.
Reduction of engine size-variable displacement engine
Supercharging /Turbocharging and its other configurations.
Low heat rejection /thermal barrier coatings-semi adiabatic Engine concept
Sensors-clectronic controls
2000
First production car diesel engines with particulate filters (Peugeot)
ENGINE CLASSIFICATION
The versatility of ICE is that it can meet in any field power requirement and thus IC engine find
applications in various fields such as land (automobiles, gen-sets, etc.), sea (marine) and air (aero
planes). Though, the IC engines are classified in many aspects, prominently the engines are either
Spark-ignition engines or compression engines and 2-stroke and 4-stroke cycle engines. IC engine
do not undergo thermodynamic cycle, as the burnt gases again would not convert back to fresh
air-fuel mixture but undergoes mechanical cycle.
ICEs can be classified in a number of different ways:
1, Based on mode of ignition:
i. Spark ignition (SI);
ii. Compression-ignition (CI).
Based on working cycl
SI Engines are further classified based on method induction of charge (mixture) or
fuel:
* Carbureted;
* Multipoint port fuel injection;
* Throttle body fuel injection;
+ Gasoline direct injection.
CI Engines are also further classified based on method induction of fuel either:
© Direct injection; or
* Indirect injection (IDI type.
i, Four-stroke cycle;
ii, Two-stroke cycle.
+ Developmental trials were also made into operation of engines on 3-stroke cycles and
6-stroke cycles.
3. Based on basic engine design:
i, Reciprocating type;
Rotary type.
Page 6 of 60 + Reciprocating type also called piston engines.
4. Based on position and number of cylinders of reciprocating engines:
i, Single cylinder;
In-line;
V- engine;
iv. Opposed cylinder engine;
v. Weengine;
vi. Opposed piston engine;
vii. Radial engine.
5. Based on mode of charging: The substance that enter during intake stroke:
i, Naturally aspirated;
‘Supercharged /turbocharged;
iii, Crankcase compressed.
6. Based on type of fuel used:
i, Gasoline or petrol (SI type);
ii, Diesel;
iii, Gas (natural gas/ methane);
iv. Alcohols;
v. Dual fuel.
7. Based on application:
i, The IC engines find its place in automobile;
ii. Locomotive;
iii, Stationary;
iv. Marine;
v. Aircraft;
vi. Small;
Portable power;
Chain saw;
ix. Model airplane, ete.
8. Based on method of cooling:
i Air cooled:
Liquid-cooled, (Oil/Water-cooled).
9. Based on the method of governing:
i. Qualitative;
ii, Quantitative.
Invariably, one can find reciprocating piston engines as the common power source in
transportation, ie., in land, air, and sea, and largely for land vehicles including automobiles,
motorcycles, and locomotive ships. Moreover, if the power-to-weight ratios are required are very
high, rotary engines, or combustion turbines can be used. Combustion turbines are mainly used
in powering aircraft. Airplanes can also use jet engines and helicopters can also employ
turboshafts; both of these are types of turbines. As a stationary unit, ICEs are used to generate
electric power. ICEs play major a role in large-scale electric power generation in the form of
combustion turbines operated in combined cycle power plants with a power range of 100 MW to 1
GW. Ina smaller scale Diesel, generators are used for backup power and for providing electrical
power to areas not connected to an electric grid.
‘TYPICAL GEOMETRY OF THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (ICE)
ICEs also sometimes called as piston engines as distinguished between rotary and reciprocating
Page 7 of 60 type engines in which component of the engine mainly involved in development/production of
power.
Figure 3(a) shows a principal sketch of general type single cylinder reciprocating engines being
built. The full description of engine details can be seen in Heywood Text Book. The engine
transforms the reciprocating or oscillating movement of the piston into the rotating movement of
the crankshaft, see Figure 3(a).
‘Spark plug or Fuel injector
Top
dead cents
Stroke|
Dead center
FIGURE 3 (a) Piston-cylinder assembly, (b) reciprocating type internal combustion engine with
piston cylinder configuration.
ENGINE GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS
For an engine with bore B (Figure 3(a)), crank radius a, stroke length L, turning at an engine speed
of N:
L=2a
Average piston speed is: S, = 2LN
where, N = Engine rotational speed, in RPM (revolutions per minute), S, in m/sec, and a, and Lin
m.
Piston speed is an important parameter which helps in creating pressure differences to draw the
charge and let the burnt gases out of the cylinder. Normally, the average piston speed for all
engines will be in the range of 6 tol5 m/sec, with large diesel engines on the low end and high-
performance automobile engines on the high end. Automobile engines usually operate in a speed
range of 500 to 5000 RPM, with cruising at about 2000 RPM. Under certain conditions using
special materials and design, high-performance experimental engines have been operated with
average piston speeds up to 25 m/sec.
Page 8 of 60 s=a cos@+¥VR?* —a’ sin? @
Normally, to allow higher flow rates with larger valves, high piston speeds are desired. Generally,
the size of inlet valve is larger than exhaust valve. Cylinder bore sizes vary in the range of 0.5 cm
(low) to 0.5 m (high) and bore to stroke ratios vary between 0.8 and 1.2. Larger ratios are used in
SI engine and smaller ratios for Cl engines (Figure 4).
FIGURE 4 IC engine cylinder arrangement.
Based on the stroke to bore ratio, the engines are categorized as:
1. Square engines (bore = stroke);
2. Under square engines (bore < stroke);
3. Over square engines (bore > stroke).
It is customary to assume a square engine concept to initiate the design process. Under square
engines are used in very large engines where in the stroke length is about 4 times the bore.
COMPRESSION RATIO (CR)
The compression ratio (CR) is an important parameter, which is normally expressed in terms of
cylinder volumes at BDC and TDC, is used to relate the theoretical performance of engines in
terms of thermodynamic efficiency.
r- Vs+ Ve
Ve
Since the above definition of CR is given in terms of cylinder volumes, it is generally called as
geometrical or static CR. However, in actual practice, engine's effective CR is taken into account
and is given as at which the intake valve closes and continues either spark starts or fuel injection
begins. As an engine runs, the static CR becomes secondary to the effective CR because
compression cannot begin to build in the cylinder until the intake valve closes. Therefore, closing
the intake valve later lowers the effective CR. It is obvious that the effective CR is considerably
lower than the static CR.
‘The normal ranges of CRs for spark-ignition (SI) engines are 6.5 to 12, while Cl engines have CRs
in the range 12 to 24. The minimum value of CI engine is the maximum limit for ST engines.
However, supercharged or turbocharged engines with work with lower CRs than respective
naturally aspirated engines. The reasons may be attributed to use of limitations in engine
Page 9 of 60 materials, technology, and fUel quality. To derive maximum benefit from the fuel supplied to
engines, attempts have also been made to develop engines with a variable CR.
Ranges of Compression ratios: SI engine: 6.5 to 12 and CI engine: 12 to 24.
The piston reverses its movement at the top-dead-center (TDC) and at the bottom dead center
(BDC). These dead centers are two extreme positions or point within which piston makes its
motion. At both of these dead point positions, the speed of the piston is equal to zero, whilst the
acceleration is at the maximum. Between the top-dead-center and the underside of the cylinder
head, the compression volume V. remains (also the so-called dead space or clearance volume in
the case of reciprocating compressors)
Combustion is different from burning in a sense that when the burning of fuel-air mixture
occurs inside the container (in which the mixture is contained). Burning of any material
may also happen in an open atmosphere such as burning of firewood or dry leaves. The
combustion may be initiated with the help of ignition source such as spark, etc. or by
virtue of self-ignition upon attaining suitable conditions. Thus, in an ICE, the burning of
fuel-air mixture happens inside the engine cylinder and thus it derived its name as
internal combustion engine. This explanation brings a clarity in the terms-Combustion,
Burning, and Ignition.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH ENGINE
The basic terms or terminology associated with engine components, operation, and geometrical
features are detailed below and should be well versed in the better understanding of engine
working:
1, Internal Combustion: Burning of fuel-air mixture or contents, which forms the working
medium, takes place in a confined space in general or more specifically inside the engine
cylinder in producing thermal for subsequent conversion to mechanical energy. The burning
of cylinder contents in a confined space is called combustion. The burning could be initiated
with an external source of ignition i.e., a spark plug or by virtue of self ignition of fuel upon
compression.
2. Spark-Ignition (SI): When combustion process is initiated in each cycle by a spark plug,
such an engine is called spark assisted engine or spark ignited or simply spark-ignition
engine. Since the external source is used, such ignition is called forced ignition. Since the
external source is used for initiating combustion, such ignition is also called forced ignition.
Typically, SI engines use gasoline or petrol/gasoline as a fuel. Popularly SI engines are
known as gasoline or petrol engines. Essentially, in SI engines, combustion is caused by an
electric spark-ignition.
3. Compression-Ignition (CI): In each cycle, owing to high CR of engine, the fuel at times
could auto-ignite or self-ignites, by mixing with air with the attainment of high pressures
and temperatures. Such engine is termed as compression ignited or Cl engine. Cl engines
are often called diesel engine as mostly commonly diesel fuel is used. Therefore, in Cl
engines, combustion is initiated by self-inflammation due to compression heat.
Page 10 of 60 ‘Components
Description
Head
‘The component that exists at the top of the cylinder, usually containing
part of the clearance volume of the combustion chamber. The head is
usually cast iron or aluminum, and bolts to the engine block. In some
less common engines, the head is one piece with the block. The engine
head houses the spark plugs in SI engines and the fuel injectors in CI
engines and few SI engines. Most moder engines have the valves in the
head, and many have the camshaft(s) positioned there also (overhead
valves and overhead cam).
Piston
The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the
cylinder, transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to
the rotating crankshaft. The top of the piston is called the crown and the
sides are called the skirt. The face on the crown makes up one wall of the
combustion chamber and maybe a flat or highly contoured surface. Some
pistons contain an indented bow! in the crown, which makes up a large
percent of the clearance volume. Pistons are made of cast iron, steel, or
aluminum. Iron and steel pistons can have sharper corners because of
their higher strength. They also have lower thermal expansion, which
allows for tighter tolerances and less crevice volume. Aluminum pistons
are lighter and have less mass inertia. Sometimes synthetic or composite
materials are used for the body of the piston, with only the crown made
of metal. Some pistons have a ceramic coating on the face.
Piston Rings
Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston and
form asliding surface against the cylinder walls. Near the top of the piston
are usually two or more compression rings made of highly polished hard
chrome steel. The purpose of these is to form a seal between the piston
and cylinder walls and to restrict the high-pressure gases in the
combustion chamber from leaking past the piston
into the crankcase (blow by). Below the compression rings on the piston
is at least one oil ring, which assists in lubricating the cylinder walls and
scrapes away excess oil to reduce oil consumption. Their length as part
of a pressurized lubrication
system.
Push Rods
These are rod mounted between cam and rocker arm used to actuate the
valves in 4-s cycle engines
Valves
Used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in the
cycle. Most engines use poppet valves, which are spring-loaded closed
and pushed open by camshaft action (Figures 1-12). Valves are mostly
made of forged steel. Surfaces against which valves close are called valve
seats and are made of hardened steel or ceramic. Rotary valves and sleeve
valves are sometimes used, but are much less common. Many two-stroke
cycle engines have ports (slots) in the side of the cylinder walls instead of
mechanical valves.
Head Gasket
Gasket which serves as a sealant between the engine block and head
where they bolt together. They are usually made in sandwich
construction of metal and composite materials. Some engines use liquid
head gaskets
Bore
Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston top face.
Cylinder
This is a major component in which piston is housed wherein contents or
fuel-air mixture undergoes different variations in pressure, temperature,
and composition. Cylinders The circular cylinders in the engine block in
which the pistons reciprocate back and forth. The walls of the cylinder
have highly polished hard surfaces. Cylinders may be machined directly
in the engine block, or a hard metal (drawn steel) sleeve may be pressed.
into the softer metal block. Sleeves may be dry sleeves, which do not
contact the liquid in the water jacket, or wet sleeves, which form part of
the water jacket. In a few engines, the cylinder walls are given a knurled
surface to help hold a lubricant film on the walls. In some very rare cases,
Page 11 of 60 the cross section of the cylinder is not round.
‘Cylinder Block
Body of engine containing the cylinders, made of cast iron or aluminum.
In many older engines, the valves and valve ports were contained in the
block. The block of water- cooled engines includes a water jacket cast
around the cylinders. On air-cooled engines, the exterior surface of the
block has cooling fins.
(Crankease
Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crank-shaft. In many
engines, the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.
‘Clearance Volume
‘The space between cylinder head inner side and TDC where the cylinder
contents occupy minimum volume during upward motion of piston. At
this volume, called the clearance volume the whole cylinder contents are
momentarily compressed in such a small space, also called cushion
volume, i.e., when the piston is at TDC. This is a minimum volume in the
combustion chamber.
Top-dead center
(TDC) or Top Center
In a vertical cylinder engine, the extreme position a piston reaches during
its upward motion and near to the cylinder head beyond which no further
movement to go up. This piston reaches a top most point and stops there.
Bottom Dead Center
(BDC) or Bottom
Center
In a vertical cylinder engine, the extreme position a piston reaches during
its downward motion and near to the crank beyond which no further
movement to go down. This piston reaches a bottom most point and stops
there. The cylinder contents would occupy maximum volume when piston
reaches BDC or BC
‘Stroke Length
The linear distance covered by piston between TDC and BDC or BDC to
TDe.
Stroke Volume or
‘Swept Volume or
Displacement
Volume
The volume occupied by cylinder contents between TDC and BDC. The
name is derived as the piston sweeps between TDC and BDC. Generally,
the engine’s capacity is mentioned in terms of displacement volume or
cubic capacity.
‘Compression Ratio
This is important parameter and is defined as the ratio of maximum
cylinder volume to minimum cylinder volume. Also, it is defined as the
ratio between volumes of cylinder contents at BDC to volume of cylinder
contents at TDC.
‘Combustion
Chamber
The end of the cylinder between the head and the piston face where
combustion occurs. The size of the combustion chamber continuously
changes from a minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a
maximum when the piston is at BDC. The term “cylinder” is sometimes
synonymous with “combustion chamber” (c.g., “the engine was firing on
all cylinders"). Some engines have open combustion chambers which
consist of one chamber for each cylinder. Other engines have divided
chambers which consist of dual chambers on each cylinder connected by
an orifice passage.
‘Connecting Rod
Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft, usunally made of
steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in some small
engines.
‘Connecting Rod
Bearing
Bearing where connecting rod fastens to crankshaft.
Cooling Fins
Metal fins on the outside surfaces of cylinders and head of an air-cooled
engine. These extended surfaces cool the cylinders by conduction and
convection.
Crankshaft
Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external
systems. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main
bearings. It is rotated by the reciprocating pistons through connecting
rods connected to the crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation. This
offset is sometimes called crank throw or crank radius. Most crankshafts
are made of forged steel, while some are made of cast irot
Direct Injection (DI)
Typically, CI engines are classified as a DI type engine in which fuel is
directly injected onto the top of the piston or into the main chamber. Such
engine is also called open chamber engines
Page 12 of 60 ‘Camshaft Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine
cycle, either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push
rods, rocker arms, tappets). Most modern automobile engines have one
or more camshafts mounted in the engine head (overhead cam). Older
engines had camshafts in the crankcase. Camshafts are generally made
of forged steel or cast iron and are driven off the crankshaft by means of
a belt or chain (timing chain). To reduce weight, some cams are made
from a hollow shaft with the cam lobes press-fit on. In four-stroke cycle
engines, the camshaft rotates at half engine speed.
Indirect Injection [On the contrary to DI type, if the fuel injection commences into a
(pt) secondary chamber of an engine with a divided combustion chamber.
Indirect Injection [On the contrary to DI type, if the fuel injection commences into a
fio secondary chamber of an engine with a divided combustion chamber.
‘Square Engine ‘An engine in which bore is equal to stroke.
Under Square In this type, stroke is larger than the bore of the engine.
Engine
(Over Square Engine | In this engine bore is larger than the stroke of the engine.
‘Smart Engine Nowadays, modern automobiles are being equipped with electronic
controls assisted by sensors and actuators for precisely regulating air-
fuel ratio for control emissions and other parameters. Engine
management system (EMS) is designed to work with computer-controlled
systems.
Wide-Open-Throttle | Operation of the engine with fully open position of throttle valve. Normally
engines are operated under WOT for deriving maximum power or speed
‘Air-Fuel Ratio (AF) | Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.
Fuel-Air Ratio (FA) __| Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.
Maximum Brake | Maximum torque produced ata given speed at spark or injection timing.
Torque (MBT)
‘Overhead Valve ‘Valves are located on the head of the cylinder.
Intake Manifold Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders usually made
of cast metal, plastic, or composite material. In most SI engines, fuel is
added to the air in the intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or
with a carburetor. Some intake manifolds are heated to enhance fuel
‘evaporation. The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called a runner.
Exhaust Manifold | Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
Exhaust System Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the cylinders, treating
them, and exhausting them to the surroundings. It consists of an exhaust
manifold which carries the exhaust gases away from the engine, a
thermal or catalytic converter to reduce emissions, a muffler to reduce
engine noise, and a tailpipe to carry the exhaust gases away from the
passenger compartment.
Fan’ Most engines have an engine-driven fan to increase airflow through the
radiator and through the engine compartment, which increases waste
heat removal from the engine. Fans can be driven mechanically or
electrically, and can run continuously or be used only when needed.
Flywheel Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft
of the engine. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish
a large angular momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power
strokes and smooth out engine operation. On some aircraft engines, the
propeller serves as the flywheel, as does the rotating blade on many
lawnmowers.
ADDITIONAL ENGINE COMPONENTS
The following is a list of major components found in most reciprocating ICEs (see Figures 1-15):
1, Carburetor: It consists of a Venturi flow device which meters the proper amount of fuel into
Page 13 of 60 the airflow by means of a pressure differential. For many decades, it was the basic fuel
metering system on all automobile (and other) engines. It is still used on low-cost small
engines like lawnmowers, but is uncommon on new automobiles.
2. Catalytic Converter: Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytic material that
promotes reduction of emissions by chemical reaction.
3. Fuel Injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air on SI engines or
into the cylinder on CI engines. On SI engines, fuel injectors are located at the intake valve
ports on multipoint port injector systems and upstream at the intake manifold inlet on
throttle body injector systems. In a few SI engines, injectors spray directly into the
combustion chamber.
4, Fuel Pump: Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from the fuel tank
(reservoir) to the engine. Many modern automobiles have an electric fuel pump mounted
submerged in the fuel tank. Some small engines and early automobiles had no fuel pump,
relying on gravity feed.
5. Glow Plug: Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the combustion chamber of
many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber enough so that combustion will occur when
first starting a cold engine. The glow plug is tumed off after the engine is started.
6. Main Bearing: The bearings connected to the engine block in which the crankshaft rotates.
The maximum number of main bearings would be equal to the number of pistons plus one,
or one between each set of pistons plus the two ends. On some less powerful engines, the
number of main bearings is less than this maximum.
7. Oil Pan: Oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine block, making up part of
the crankcase. Acts as the oil sump for most engines.
8. Oil Pump: Pump used to distribute oil from the oil sump to required lubrication points. The
oil pump can be electrically driven, but is most commonly mechanically driven by the
engine. Some small engines do not have an oil pump and are lubricated by splash
distribution.
9. Oil Sump: Reservoir for the oil system of the engine, commonly part of the crankcase. Some
engines (aircraft) have a separate closed reservoir called a dry sump.
10. Radiator: Liquid-to-air heat exchanger of honeycomb construction used to remove heat
from the engine coolant after the engine has been cooled. The radiator is usually mounted
in front of the engine in the flow of air as the automobile moves forward. An engine-driven
fan is often used to increase airflow through the radiator.
11. Spark Plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by creating a high-
voltage discharge across an electrode gap. Spark plugs are usually made of metal
surrounded with ceramic insulation. Some modern spark plugs have built-in pressure
sensors which supply one of the inputs into engine control.
12, Speed Control-Cruise Control: Automatic electric-mechanical control system that keeps
the automobile operating at a constant speed by controlling engine speed.
13, Starter: Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are started by use ofan electric
motor [starter) geared to the engine flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric batte
On some very large engines, such as those found in large tractors and construction
equipment, electric starters have inadequate power and small IC engines are used as
starters for the large IC engines. First, the small engine is started with the normal electric
motor, and then the small engine engages gearing on the flywheel of the large engine,
turning it until the large engine starts. Early aircraft engines were often started by hand
spinning the propeller, which also served as the engine flywheel. Many small engines on
lawnmowers and similar equipment are hand started by pulling a rope wrapped around a
pulley connected to the crankshaft. Compressed air is used to start some large engines.
Page 14 of 60 Cylinder release valves are opened, which keeps the pressure from increasing in the
compression strokes. Compressed air is then introduced into the cylinders, which rotates
the engine in a free-wheeling mode. When rotating inertia is established, the release valves
are closed and the engine is fired.
14, Supercharger: Mechanical compressor powered off of the crankshaft, used to compress
incoming air of the engine. Throttle Butterfly valve mounted at the upstream end of the
intake system, used to control the amount of airflow into an SI engine. Some small engines
and stationary constant -speed engines have no throttle. Turbocharger Turbine-compressor
used to compress incoming air into the engine. The turbine is powered by the exhaust flow
of the engine and thus takes very little useful work from the engine. Water jacket System of
liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders, usually constructed as part of the engine
block and head. Engine coolant flows through the water jacket and keeps the cylinder walls
from overheating. The coolant is usually a water-ethylene glycol mixture.
15, Water Pump: Pump used to circulate engine coolant through the engine and radiator. It is
usually mechanically run off of the engine.
16. Wrist Pin: Pin fastening the connecting rod to the piston (also called the piston pin).
SPARK-IGNITION AND COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES (CI ENGINES): COMPARISON,
GEOMETRY, AND VALVE TIMING DIAGRAMS
‘The most commonly used engine for person mobility is spark-ignition engine for either in 2-wheeler
or 4-wheeled vehicles. The SI engine uses fuel- highly volatile and low viscous fuel. On the
contrary, relatively high viscous fuel is employed in CI engines. Typically, the CRs adopted in SI
engines are lower than that used in CI engines, an external source of ignition is used in SI engines-
spark plug, and the fuel should have a high auto-ignition temperature that is the fuel would not
take part in combustion effectively owing to compression pressure and temperatures alone.
Therefore, the SI engines are also called as forced ignition engines. Mostly, gasoline or petrol is
used for SI engines and also CNG, LPG, bio-gas, etc. are widely being used in SI engines.
On the other hand, fuel of relatively low self-ignition temperature is employed in CI engine. The
pressure and temperatures prevailed at the end of compression would just be enough to undergo
combustion. Normally, all such fuels that have low auto-ignition temperature are used in
compression ignition engines (CI engines). Fuels such as diesel, vegetable oils (Biodiesel) are
commonly used in CI engine.
Typically, in a 4-stroke cycle engine, the piston makes reciprocating motion 2 times from TDC to
BDC and 2 times from BDC to TDC and so is 4-stroke engine. During these 4-strokes, the crank
makes two revolutions to develop power. Therefore, in 4-stroke cycle engine, the cycle of operations
is completed in 4-strokes of the piston or 2-revolutions of the crankshaft. Alternatively, in a two-
stroke cycle engine, the cycle of operations are completed in 2-strokes of the piston or in one
revolution of the crank shaft.
Also, during these physical 4-strokes, piston completes the working processes such as suction,
compression, expansion (power) and exhaust to develop power. The 4-processes/operations are
diagrammatically represented in the form of valve timing diagram (VTD) and port timing diagram
(PTD) in the case of 4-stroke and 2-stroke cycle engines respectively.
Theoretically speaking, a two-stroke engine develops double the power that of an equivalent 4-
stroke engine. 2-stroke engines are mostly found in compact applications such as two wheelers,
portable gen sets.
Page 15 of 60 However, due to overlapping of processes, the combustion would not be complete and there will
be more fuel consumption and there by 2-stroke engines are less fuel efficient are also cause of
more pollutant emissions compared to 4-stroke engines. Nowadays, 2-wheelers are also being
incorporated with 4-strokecycle engines. In this text book, only 4-stroke cycle engines are
discussed (Table 1.2).
TABLE 1.2: Comparison between 4-Stroke Cycle and 2-Stroke Cycle Engines
Four Stroke Cycle Engine ‘Two Stroke Cycle Engine
1 Tt completes 4-strokes of piston or 2|It undergoes Q-strokes of piston or 1
revolutions of crankshaft and develops | revolutions of crankshaft and develops
‘one power stroke. one power stroke.
2. Since the power developed in non uniform, | Lighter flywheel is required and turning
it employs a large size heavy flywheel. moment is more uniform to one power
stroke for each revolution.
3. Engine is heavy, Engine is light
a Mechanical valves are used to allow|Since piston covers and uncovers the
charge into engine and let out the burt | ports, no such mechanism is used and
gases; an extra valve mechanism is used. | hence an engine operation is simple.
Ss It is relatively expensive. It is economical.
6. Engine mechanical efficiency is low due to | More mechanical efficiency due to less
more friction on many parts. friction on a few parts.
7 Since dedicated strokes are provided for | Less output duc to mixing of fresh charge
engine operation, engine __develops | with the hot burnt gases.
practically more output due to full fresh
charge intake and full burnt gases
exhaust.
8. Engine runs cooler. Engine runs hotter,
o. Mostly Engine is water cooled. Engine is air cooled.
10. The Specific fuel consumption of engine is | More fuel consumption and fresh charge
low due to near complete combustion of | is mixed with exhaust gases.
fuel.
1 Engine is bulky. Engine is compact.
12. Complicated lubricating system. ‘Simple lubricating system.
13. Less noise is created by engine. More noise is created by engine.
1. Engine consists of inlet and exhaust valve. | Engine consists of inlet and exhaust ports,
15. More thermal efficiency. Less thermal efficiency.
16. Relatively less consumption of lubricating [There is continuous development of
oil power, engine is always subjected to high
temperature and hence it consumes more
lubricating oil.
1% Less wear and tear of moving parts. More wear and tear of moving parts.
18. ‘Used in cars, buses, trucks, etc. Used in mopeds, scooters, motorcyclist.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:
It is better to get aquatinted with the terms of engine performance parameters as they commonly
used while describing an engine performance and comparing different engines. The engine
performance is specified in terms of parameters and is therefore called the metrics that are used
Page 16 of 60 to characterize or compare performance of one engine with another.
WORK
The primary objective of an engine is to obtain work and is the work out which is produced by the
gases in the combustion chamber of the engine cylinder. It is the result of an object is moved
against a resistance or opposing force. Work is measured in watts. In the metric system, work is
measured in Newton-meters or joules. Work is spent or produced by the gases (working substance
in an engine) and are represented four different strokes of a naturally aspirated (NA) engine:
1, Intake Stroke: Work is donc on system of gases (mixture) to get it into the cylinder (NA
type).
2. Compression Stroke: Work is done on the mixture when it is compressed.
3. Power Stroke: The expanding air-fuel mixture produces work on the piston and crankshaft.
4. Exhaust Stroke: Work is performed as the exhaust gas is expelled from the engine.
As the piston moves from one dead center to other, in an engine cycle, force due to gas pressures
on the moving piston is expressed as:
IF dx =|PAp dx
where, P = pressure in the combustion chamber; A, = piston surface area, on which the gas
pressure acts; x = distance the piston moves.
On the other hand, Energy is the ability to do work, or the ability to produce a motion against a
resistance. Inertia is the tendency of a body to keep its state of rest or motion. The larger the mass,
the more it is affected by inertia. Inertia and energy are stored in the engine’s flywheel. When a
body is in motion, it has momentum. Momentum is a product of a body’s mass and speed.
POWER AND TORQUE
It is how fast work is done or how fast motion is produced against a resistance.
Torque: It is the ability to malce power. It is defined as the tendency of force to rotate a body
on which it acts.
The definitions for torque and work are similar; both are a force being multiplied by a distance.
However, torque and work are very different quantities. Work is force times the distance moved,
and torque is force times leverage, which is the distance from a pivot point to the applied force.
When distinguishing work from torque, the metric unit of measurement for torque is the Newton-
meter (Nm) and the metric work unit is the joule (J)
Engine torque varies with rpm. The pulling ability of a car from a standing start depends on its
engine's torque. This means that torque should be high at lower speeds.
Page 17 of 60 Horsepower is a familiar term associated with engine/vehicle performance. is the
measurement of an engine's ability to perform work. James Watt described 1horsepower
as 33,000fect-pounds of work per minute or the amount of power described by a horse
pulling a weight of 330 pounds across a distance of 100 feet in 1 minute. One horsepower
is the amount of work required to lift 550 pounds 1foot in 1 second. In the metric system,
horsepower is measured as watts. One watt is the power to move 1 Nm per second. Because
this is so small a measurement, kilowatts (kW) are used. One horsepower equals 0.746 kW.
Horsepower is a measure of work performed in a straight line in a specified time. Torque measures
force in a rotating direction. Power produced at the crankshaft is called gross horsepower.
Accessories that absorb power include the alternator (charging system), air conditioning, coolant
pump, cooling fan, power steering, etc. These absorb about 25% of the power available at the
crankshaft. The power that remains for use is called net horsepower. Power is also lost through
friction in the driveline (transmission and differential) and due to wind resistance, vehicle weight,
tires, and weather.
DYNAMOMETER
An engine's output can be measured using a dynamometer, commonly called a dyno or dyne. The
engine must be loaded to measure the torque it can produce. Depending on the type of
dynamometer, braking can be done by electricity, hydraulics, or friction. A simple dynamometer
that uses friction is called a prony brake. An arm pushes on a scale to provide a reading in pounds.
When the length of the arm is known, the measurement can be converted to foot-pounds or
Newton-meters.
1, Engine Dynamometer: An engine dynamometer measures horsepower coming out of the
engine. The horsepower measured is called brake horsepower because the dynamometer
acts as a brake on the engine’s crankshaft.
2. Chassis Dynamometer: These are used when a complete vehicle is needed for the
measurement of fuel consumption, noise, or emissions. A chassis dynamometer measures
horsepower available at the vehicle’s drive wheels. This is called road horsepower. It is
always less than brake horsepower because of friction losses through the driveline.
Chassis dynamometers can be driven by the wheels or connected directly to the hubs. Wheel-
driven dynos have a single or double roller. A dual roll dynamometer, with smaller rollers (typically
11” diameter), is sometimes called a cradle roll. One roller is attached to the power absorption unit
(covered later) and the other is an idle roller.
MEASURING TORQUE AND POWER
To make an engine perform work during a dynamometer test, the engine is put under load using
a power absorption device. Automotive dynamometer power absorption units are one of two types:
electromagnetic [eddy current} or water brake (hydraulic), controlled by the amount of water that
enters the device.
Water brake units are more popular in the engine performance field. An EC, or eddy current,
dynamometer has a magnetic eddy current brake like those used on the brakes of many municipal
busses. The EC power absorber is used in emissions and research because it is more efficient at
Page 18 of 60 low rpm and is easier to control accurately than a water brake. Eddy current engine dynos are
water cooled and precise but expensive. Water brake dynamometers deal with higher loads
effectively. With higher power and speed requirements, the water brake is a more economical
alternative to the eddy current dynamometer.
A fluid power absorption unit is a fluid coupling consisting of two members: a turbine and a stator.
The turbine tries to move the water, but the stator prevents it from moving. The load unit is like a
torque wrench that measures the load applied. The load is varied by the amount of water that is
put into the fluid coupling.
Torque can be measured at the flywheel or the rear wheels, but horsepower is a calculation made
from the torque measurement. The amount of load put on the engine and the amount of torque it
produces are used to calibrate horsepower. A typical dynamometer control panel that displays
torque.
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
To rate an engine in terms of efficiency, both the output and the input must be expressed in a
common value. There are three types of engine efficiency measurements: mechanical efficiency,
volumetric efficiency (VE), and thermal efficiency.
An efficiency measurement is a value less than 100%. The difference between efficiency
measurement and 100% is the amount of loss.
The term thermal efficiency gross indication of how much the supplied fuel energy is utilized to
develop brake power. This is sometimes called first law efficiency or fuel conversion efficiency.
Power developed
Heat supplied
Thermal efficiency =
If instead, indicated power is used in place of brake power, it is indicated thermal efficiency.
Mechanical efficiency describes all of the ways friction is lost in an engine. Horsepower is a value
that can be used to compare the mechanical efficiency of two engines. Brake Power divided by the
indicated power gives the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
‘The formula is:
Braki
‘Mechanical efficiency = 7, - = POWST
Indicated power
The difference between indicated power and brake power is friction power. The smaller the
difference between indicated power and brake power, the lower is the friction power and the higher
is the mechanical efficiency.
Air-Fuel Ratio (AF): The AF of the engine is measured by the ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel
‘The actual AF how different from theoretical or stoichiometric air-fuel is the equivalence ratio.
Mass of air
(A/P), iE
of fuel
actual
Page 19 of 60 Equivalence ratio = = Actual fuel-air ratio /Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio
Actual fuel-air ratio
Equivalence ratio = 6=——————__—________
" Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio
Page 20 of 60 Volumetric Efficiency (VE): It shows the relation between the amounts of charge drawn into
the cylinder at intake conditions relative to engine displacement. Thus, the measurement
comparing the mass of airflow actually entering the engine with the maximum that theoretically
could enter it corresponding to its displacement is called VE. It is indication of engine’s
breathing capacity or represents the effectiveness of engine’s induction process.
m,
Volumetric efficiency = 7, BN
where, p.,. = inlet air density; Va = engine displacement volume; N = Engine speed.
VE determines the engine’s maximum torque output. The speed at which the engine does its best
breathing usually determines its maximum torque. Engine is just like a big air pump.
Theoretically, the engine should draw charge or air equivalent to its displacement volume. This
represents a horizontal line on the coordinates of VE versus speed. However, in practice, it doesn’t
follow this trend. VE is a strong function of engine speed. As the speed increases, the amount of
air drawn into engine also increases. Due to higher speed, friction also increases and thereby due
to rubbing friction, the amount of charge drawn into decreases.
Engine performance maps provide a means of representing complete engine characteristics over a
wide range of speed, power, and torque. The general nature of these curves can be ascertained
from relations developed.
ICE power is directly related to its fuel-air mixture and, for particular engine geometry and specific
fuel-air ratio (FA), the ideal charge per cylinder per cycle should be independent of speed. The ideal
and actual induction processes were related by the use of a VE qv. VE is strongly influenced by
heat transfer, fuel parameters, the thermodynamic state of both intake charge and residual gases,
and engine parameters such as intake and exhaust manifolds and valve design. For a particular
condition of engine load, valve timing, and fuel-air input, the actual VE versus engine speed yields
the characteristic curve. At low engine (piston) speed, an incoming charge has little kinetic energy
influence on the intake process, i.e., ramming. At higher speeds, inertial ramming will increase
the charge input to a maximum valve but, as speed is, increased, frictional effects will tend to
reduce the magnitude of qv from its mid-speed optimum valve. Changing the engine operational
regime may shift the VE curve.
Specific power or power-to-weight ratio is a measure of performance for an engine in a vehicle or
in a power plant. It is defined as the power output by it divided by its mass, typically in units of
W/kg. This value allows for a clear metric of the power that is independent of the vehicle or power
plant ‘s size.
‘SPECIFIC EMISSIONS AND EMISSION INDEX
Specific Emission: It is the amount of pollutant emitted per unit amount power developed by the
engine. It is expressed in g/kW-h or kg/kW-h.
Specific emission of Carbon monoxide = SPco = mass flow rate CO emitted /Brake Power
Emission Index: It defined as the amount of emissions released per unit of fuel consumed
Emission Index of Carbon monoxide = Mass flow rate of Carbon monoxide emitted/Mass flow rate
of fuel.
Page 21 of 60 In earlier days, the quantification of pollutant emissions used to express in ppm or ppb or
“v/v. This practice fails to condition of engine loading, etc. Hence, engine emissions are
being given in terms of g/kW-h or kg/kW-h. Moreover, the use of Emission Index is even
better as it relates directly the amount of fuel consumed.
Specific Power
It is an important normalized parameter is a measure of use of available piston areas to develop
power independent of cylinder size.
MM Sy Quv Pai f
Specific Power = P/A, P/A, 7
Besides relating power with piston area, it also reflects the important parameter that affect to
obtain higher power. The parameters that directly proportional are density of charge, heating
value, piston speed, rich mixture and thermal and VE.
Specific Power = Engine Power /Piston face area = bp/Ap
Turbines typically have the largest specific power for an engine, which makes them useful for
airplanes in order to achieve sufficient lift. Sports car engines will also typically have a fairly high
specific power, allowing them to have increased acceleration and handling.
The power-to-weight ratio (Specific Power) formula for an engine (power plant) is the power
generated by the engine divided by the mass (“Weight” in this context is 2 colloquial term for
“mass.” To see this, note that what an engineer means by the “power to weight ratio" of an electric
motor is not infinite in a zero-gravity environment).
A typical turbocharged V8 diesel engine might have an engine power of 250 kW and a mass of 380
kg, giving it a power-to-weight ratio of 0.65 kW/ kg.
P25, Qi Pas FA)
A, 4
It can be seen that as the adoption of high calorific value fuel, rich mixtures, dense charge and
efficient induction process and efficient energy conversion process all leads to higher power from
a given size of piston area.
Examples of high power-to-weight ratios can often be found in turbines. This is because of their
ability to operate at very high speeds. For example, the Space Shuttle‘s main engines used
turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the propellants
(liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine’s combustion chamber. The original liquid
hydrogen turbopump is similar in size to an automobile engine (weighing approximately 352
kilograms and produces 54 MW) for a power-to-weight ratio of 153 kW/kg (Figure 1.5).
Page 22 of 60 ‘Themal Etceney Bake Pow oincedPovertet spid
el De
SFEEDN pein)
FIGURE 1.5 (a) Definitions of non-dimensional parameters, (b) Performance characteristics of a
typical engine.
The performance parameters which are defined and described above can be grouped into three
broad categories as detailed below:
‘The performance parameters are classified as:
+ practical parameters;
+ normalized parameters; and
* non-dimensional or dimensionless parameters.
1. Practical Parameters: These are generally or most commonly used one even by the
customer.
e.g., Brake power, Torque, piston displacement (cubic capacity), etc.
2, Normalized Parameters: These arc the parameters which normalized with respect to brake
power:
€.g,, Specific fuel consumption (brake or indicated), mean effective pressure, brake specific
emissions, etc.
3. Non-Dimensional or Dimension Less Parameters: The parameters are non-dimensional
Page 23 of 60 in sense that majority of the parameters or ratios.
©.g,, Brake thermal efficiency (fuel conversion efficiency), VE, mechanical efficiency, swirl ratio,
equivalence ratio, emission index, etc. While ordering a vehicle equipped with an IC Engine, within
the operating range of engine, generally a customer of an engine aims at the following factors:
i, The engine's performance within the allowed operating range;
ii, The cost of fuel and the fuel consumption rate within this operating range;
iii. The air pollutant emissions and noise levels within this operating range;
iv. The initial cost of vehicle with the engine and installation charges;
v. The maintenance requirements, reliability, and durability of the engine,
Thermal efficiency is generally defined as the ratio of output (power) and heat supplied:
bmep(brake mean effective pressure )=77,7, OQ; 2... (fuel
/air ratio)
‘THERMODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF ENGINE-BASIC ENGINE CYCLES
‘THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES-CLOSED CYCLES
For producing mechanical work from the engine, a sequence of operations is required to follow.
For example, in a 4-stroke engine, the engine operations -suction, compression, expansion, and
exhaust are to be related with basic thermodynamic processes.
The simplest models for the actual engine process are closed, internally reversible cycles with heat
supply and removal, which are characterized by the following properties:
The chemical transformation of fuel as a result of combustion is replaced by a corresponding heat
addition or heat supply. The charge changing process is replaced by a corresponding heat removal.
Air, seen as an ideal gas, is chosen as a working medium.
An ideal engine is assumed to undergo closed cycle with instantaneous heat addition and rejection.
All processes are allowed in a reversible manner. Thus, the ideal engine undergoes a
thermodynamic cycle. However, not all real engines undergo reversible processes as dictated by
laws of thermodynamics, practical engine undergo mechanical or open cycle. However, for arriving
at the evaluation of a particular, the knowledge of thermodynamic is used to obtain the maximum
efficiency of an engine. The operation of engine are related with thermodynamic processes and
assumed to take place in a closed cycle. Most ICEs both spark-ignition and CI; operate on either
a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle. These basic cycles are fairly standard for all engines, with
only slight variations found in individual designs.
THE CARNOT CYCLE-THE PROCESSES OF THE PERFECT ENGINE
‘As described above, if engine operations are sequentially related with the help of thermodynamic
Processes, an engine cycle is obtained. The Carnot cycle, represented in Figure 1.6, is the cycle
with the highest thermal efficiency and thus represents combination of the ideal processes
arranged in a cyclic manner.
Page 24 of 60 AIPA) ag,
& s Sh
FIGURE 1.6 Carnot cycle on p-v and T-s plots.
‘The Carnot cycle represents following four processes:
TiTz _ Isothermal heat addition at Ts (highest temperature)
12-T3 _Isentropie expansion
13-T4 Isothermal heat rejection at T; (lowest temperature)
T4-Tl _ Isentropic compression
On T-s coordinate system, the Carnot cycle represents a rectangle. Thermodynamically, Carnot
Cycle sets a limit on the highest possible efficiency when it is defined in terms of source
temperature and sink temperature alone.
Titetest
i
Highest
Neanot
The Carnot cycle cannot, however, be realized in ICEs, because. The isothermal heat addition at
T, and isentropic expansion, are not practically feasible. The highest possible temperature could
be adiabatic flame temperature (AFT) and the lowest possible are ambient. However, due to
metallurgical considerations, thus, the temperature cannot be attained.
IDEAL AND ACTUAL THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES FOR SI ENGINE
Nicholaus A. Otto invented the 4-stroke engine and has been in practice in the form of
gasoline/petrol-fueled engine. The Otto cycle represents the following 4-processes:
DP, entropic compression, pv’ = constant
PoP, Constant volume heat addition
PP, Isentropic expansion, pv’ = constant
PP, Constant volume heat rejection
Extending the similar way calculations for obtaining expression for Otto cycle efficiency, the
ratio of work output to the heat supplied and making use of expressions using knowledge of
thermodynamics (Van Wylen and Sonntag, 2008) and making use of CR, r. (Figure 1.7),
Page 25 of 60 Q, Isentropics
Pressure, P
Pressure, P
‘Specific volume, v Specfic Volume, v
Specific volume, v
FIGURE 1.7 (a) The thermodynamic cycle for ideal or Otto cycle and actual cycle for
SI engine, (b) the thermodynamic cycle for Ideal cycle and actual for CI engine, (c) The
thermodynamic cycle for Ideal cycle and actual for Cl engine.
WORKING OF A TYPICAL FOUR-STROKE SI ENGINE CYCLE
Four-stroke SI engine cycle (Figure 1.8):
1, Suction Stroke or Intake Stroke or Induction Stroke: Suction stroke is the first operation
than an engine undergoes to induct charge into the engine cylinder. During this, intake
valve kept open and exhaust valve closed and the piston traverses from TDC to BDC. As
piston descends, low pressure (vacuum-in case of naturally aspirated engines) is created
due to which charge (charge is air in case ideal engines) flows into the cylinder thus create
an increasing volume in the combustion chamber. The resulting pressure differential
through the intake system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the
inside causes charge to be pushed into the cylinder.
Practical engines induct mixture of air-fuel mixture prepared by carburetor.
Page 26 of 60 Intake stroke
Power stroke
Exhaust stroke
FIGURE 1.8 Scquence of actual SI engine operations in a cycle.
2
3
4
Compression Stroke: Second Stroke: The intake valve closes as the piston travels back to
TDC with valves closed. During the upward movement of the piston, the inducted charge
the air-fuel mixture gets compressed, raising both the pressure and temperature in the
cylinder. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired and combustion is
initiated.
Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of time with the
piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion). It starts near the end of the
compression stroke slightly bTDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly aTDC.
Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust products and
increases the temperature in the cylinder to a very high peak value. This, in turn, raises the
pressure in the cylinder to a very high peak value.
Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke or Third Stroke: With both (or all) valves closed, the
high pressure created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This
is the stroke which produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from
TDC to BDC, cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.
Exhaust or Blow Down Stroke: Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and
exhaust blowdown occurs. Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative
to the surroundings at this point, and a pressure differential is created through the
exhaust system which is open to atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes
much of the hot exhaust gas to be pushed out of the cylinder and through the exhaust
system when the piston is near BDC. This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of
enthalpy, which lowers the cycle thermal efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve before
BDC reduces the work obtained during the power stroke but is required because of the
finite time needed for exhaust blow-down.
Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke: By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown
is complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric
pressure. With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC
in the exhaust stroke. This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder
into the exhaust system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the
Page 27 of 60 clearance volume when the piston reaches TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC,
the intake valve starts to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke
starts the next cycle. Near TDC, the exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed
sometime aTDC. This period when both the intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called
valve overlap (Figure 1.9).
Isentropics
Specific volume, v Four stroke Valve Timing Diagram
Pressure, P
a
/ oe
FIGURE 1.9 Theoretical p-0 diagram and typical valve timing ofa 4-stroke cycle engine.
The following calculation shows the typical value of air-standard Otto cycle efficiency.
From the information of above sections:
Airstandard efficiency =
Thermal efficiency
Relati effi = ———_—_—_
Stauve ettieteney ~ “Ajr-standard efficiency
'. Indicated thermal efficiency = 0.6 x 0.5647 = 0.3388
Also,
Indicated thermal efficieney = ———
ISFCx CV
1 3600
©. Calorifie value of fuel (C.V)=-————— =
ISFCx1, 0.3%0.3388
5.417 ki kg
WORKING OF A TYPICAL FOUR-STROKE CI ENGINE CYCLE
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke: The same as the inteke stroke in an SI engine with one major
difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that only air is
compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature.
Late in the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, where
it mixes with the very hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing
combustion to start.
+ Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant pressure until fuel
injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.
3. Third Stroke: Power Stroke: The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the
piston travels towards BDC.
+ Exhaust blowdown same as with an SI engine.
4. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke: Same as with an Sl engine (Figure 1.10 and Table 1.3).
Page 28 of 60 Fal!
Intake stroke
Fuel injected near TDC
Power stroke
Combustion
Fuel air mixture
Compression stroke
products
Exhaust stroke
FIGURE 1.10 Sequence of CI engine operations in a cycle,
mixture
If o