CONDUCTORS , INSULATORS AND SEMLCONDcTOR

CLASSIFICATION >
) ON THE BASIS OF CONDUCTIVITY () oy RESISTviTY G)
have vey low senishudy i Be
n-m)
() Semi conducrs Range lö 1on-n
ii) Tnsulators :’ Maximum xes)sh viky ond nge
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS :. A Lold cenauns an
enonoLs nunber of alons packed closely toqeler.
d
Each atem , ohen 'solaled, ha a dosTelo ae
elecren eneog levels mamed as 1s, 25,2P, 35, 2P, ---. ..34
ue magnie all the N alons af the sold to be tsdotd
Ahom one aneter, hen they soould Jaue conplcely
colncitig sel cf encogy leel. Thal i ,ech te
lovels o lis N- alem yslem oeuld have an
encgy degeneaey The elechrona þel the entogy levby
N-fold
i each tom ndepenclty As the aens appxpach
Gne nba do form tho solrd,
eiteraehon ocws behueen them uhec
toues each of the levels to 'split' nb Nclshnct
levels n fracte, howev N vey lage
lovels tecsne
SD nemesas ancd s0 else
an almost conhnueus"energy band."
 Nele The leue uels ae cplet leos th cn tha
huder levels TAe lsest leuels senaining almos
nsplu. he aeasen
loeer levels aw tho innex elecre of he alems.

VALENCE BAND The encgt bad toned fen

tese energy leiels of th aren shich cortaua
dho valenc elochen is called VALENCE BAND (Ve-)

CoNDUCTION BAND he lowest ntled ergt bal

fermed just above the V"b. s Callcd CoNDUCT I0N

eAND.
FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP 1he answal lehiee the Voe
and te cercduchion bord (C-B) caled bengt Gop
ar FoRe IDDEN BAND.
 AMI LEVEL:’ The highest enegy evel, ahich a
lcohen can OCCupy in tle valence band Ve. ot
JOk Jeng is called FERMI LEVEL

b) ON THE BASIS OF ENERGY BAND DIAÇRAM i

VeB nd C"B

is seqwred byy Valence elechen to juip

trom he cemplekly telled Vi8 to the conduch'on bad

(ö) SEM1CONDUCTOPS : Fr belden encgt s less than 3el.

Due to Smaller Er , tte elechon en V"B fencd et
easier to shiyt to the C"Be
cemçerahiely
n case f, Ge
cONDUCTORS 5 Thete is an eveslappig beheen te
C" B. So shen eleonc tield is applied

CONDUCTION BAND

CONDUCTJDN GAND

Frsdden Erent
cONDUCcTION B

VALENCE BAND VALENCE BAND

Overlop VALENCE BAND
and ('B
ZNSULATORS Semi'cencuckr CONDUCTORS
 adduk enal engp
v"B. ea sily acqute
eleehens in any enqy gOp
rheut cressing
dm6e to the C"b. INTRINSIC SEmICONDUCTOR
BAND Diç. oF
ENERGY

coNDACT1ON
BAND E

Ey
VALENCE
GAND

at T= 0K
Senenduc and p-type
n-hype
ENERGY 8AND Diç. OF
cONDUeTION
GAND

DONDR LEVEL
LEVEL
AcCEPTOR

VALENCE BAND
Pype at TOK
n-bype at T>oK
" Accepkr leel lastust
Dener level les gest aleo blcuo te Valerce bardt
He Cenduch'en bat
Slcetrens asce ajonty change " Helos e
majcsity Cavks
Cartes whele hees an Lstele eltehcns ant nnoly
miioyits arues Caniens
ne >>n hole cotetah' Dh>e.
EGehtw cencenhehtm
 P-n JUNCTION DHODE

le cryelel oy Ge or se dopecd n Sucha

mainer hat one hal pohon o et acts as
anlsnduder and the sther hall, as m-type semicondu
Tha bondaoy or egion o hansikon behwcon
ond p- type semicorduc is cclled p-n JuNCTIE
MPORTANCE 1> s a huy to all seni corduck devitos.
Eg’ p-n uchon canbe wed cu sechfyuig dioda hursi
WAFERS ;> A p-ype a n-type st crystal tan be ob/auict
by adduig aeceper or donor inpuiy utbo stican melk
shde qusng a cryslal. These cryatals ce cut ento
Bun Leupu (seices) callod WAFERS.
6 DEPLETION REGION AND POTENTIAL BA RAIER tN a
p-n untion ibde ; The too inpordert prores ivelred
the tornahon of pn gunchen

in p-0 tunchion, hale concetsahen is hizhere (n ne)

and eleehon csncerbai on (nen,) is
mde- Due to contetsahen geackient,
hdes bagin to noe fom Cpn) scle ad electo
tron (n-’ p) de lecuig behid ACCEPTOR and suOE
ION. Thes se up
2itlo- No Cenduchon eloehons ad hsles Qo preDens
measL the jurhon. Ihe mohon of chaMge canu'ens gue rtse
 VB P-n JuNLTION
ACCEPTOR DONOR Iod
tON

ELECTRDN

HOLE

P-ype DEPLETION
n-ype
RÆGIDN
b ditusen curret ccross be uncon
ho small seglon in the wcinity he tunchon
ncd Jas nmobile Bons called DE PLETIOA
LAYER CREGION)
)DRIFT: Ihe baoo important orocess u ddft. The
drit of chage Caes Occuo due to elecrit
Aeld. Due to Relan buth n potential bauer

to p-regior as deeloped across te junchisn

This field cowsen mohon ob eleetrons on p- n and'
moh'on f heles on
curreat shasts. This dritt ent is oborite to
ELECTRON dallus ten
olo o

HOLES HoLE DHfuatbn ELECTRONS

HoLE Dri
 nehen Diode undor ursad Bosi 4 te basi
is connecked to the prs
Eiel. a babey n-s'dle, Hhen
Jenihal b te
and He megahve be FoRNA RD BIASED
p-n guncion a satd to V
be
p

daplehen Ragcon: Jhe direchen

opite
applied Velkage "V Va (built
Velkage -in pokenial Ye) - Due to te
do te banier 'W' decreaes and te baler
idth Va-)
fechve bavier Valtage
zcducad . (due to
heLgih s pskenhal theut
1 Baries
batlony
2 Banuer potential
wath Lew
baou veltage baBey.
high veloge
3 Vg sith tb)
elechons trom n sidle
veltage ,
to te applied seen Sujilaxky
Due
deplehen and eah pAMle .
CTCSS
e funchon and each he
the
heles Arem p-stde cross forwad bihs i knonot
Thea ces unde
n sede TNSECTl oN.
MINORTY CARRIER
V exend Va, te
When Cavubs
majarity chage eaaly, Lyjeeled helcs
sBant flecng. ala and set
aeTOSS Be unchen FoRW ARD CURREN T

arge cuTret (&mn) callod

up a
 þosihie termnal of a
EVE RSE - BIASI NG:- 4 he
he n-ade and negahie
then to pn guchon
&ard to bi SlUerse blassc.
W

. the applied veltage v' mosty

dxeps acres the doplehon

"thi direchen of applicd velta_e

. Due to this te honzh
baier veltoge Va
"v' and chcrease (V+ Ve) and he depleeron ;
scGen widen 2

supprese the oo the

" huis Thus dihuson
caiess
majoity deerases enomeusl CEmpard
curent btas.
b fenuad Sesistance mo uent louss
to wouy age
acToss he jurchen olt to majoy carers.
kemprahe thee ae alcays present
" A holes in n-xegb
CaUuevs ike
Sene minorthy chaxge
and eleehs h p Tegien Tne scevense biàug pestea
yunchcn, seting a cunet, Callad REVERSE
dem Joeiards
A)
cT LEAKAÇE CURRENT. (

V uplo breakdaon valtege Vy

 -I Chanachenishts o a p-n junchon Dlodeto A
behucen ca cwoent fousig teoug a p-n gnchen
chasackessht
and the applied velage s called V-I

mA
Suteh
I (mA)
b)

Sc ciale

Cut-in Ye v(V)

20

REVERSE BIAS
FORW ARD IAS I(MA)
) We lse mA as Zoxge cument
bi'as

Cureat as very small

) Curret ticreases voy sleuly amest l) (w ) and almost
negtizebly. kll he vollage acroSs vemains conatat lh
Be diode ß THRES HOLD VoLTACE a Cur-IN in bàs. REVE`E
vOLT AGE (o"2V Ge, oVi S) Change
SATURATION CLIRRENTAL
3) AJer Ve te clcle cunent hcIGAS Var Current suddeny
expenehaly eien r avey bmall increser
 he satir Smali clange in Velha_e (a V) to
asmaii thge a Cunrent (a1) Às calicd yman'e
KCOLchant (a ) .
aV

JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIEA_: "The xcCes

CÜat (ac) nto dict cRet
cenuen0ig calle
alknatig
RECTIEICATIDN nd tht diuce 4scd
RECTIFIER

a) HALF -NAVE RECTI FICATION :+

TRANSFCRmE R

fRmAR)

hall cycle then the vsihçe A ` peshve

In be posikve FrRNaRD BIASED
dicde s in
the p-n gunchisn thngl lad icky R and e
Cunet
suput velhruçe n posihre dvechen.
get an
cycle hin A s at regahve pskoti.
L de ncgahve ha!
REVERSE 61ASED and i dnot contuct.
i ccle 4s

rext posihie hatt cycie l

Tho veCkoge s kestick
 hnce
at
A
Velhage

CuTRT vLTAGE

CF INPUT
CF OUTPUT = FAEGUENCY
OFRE GU ENCY
FUL WAVE RECTIFIER :>
( TUNCTICN DICDE AS A

Cre- Tp
Transtr D

Taf
CuTPUT
D2

usn 2 dedes, ques cuiput ictjed

The crcit b lets be peslwe
Veltage coespendig cycle. HeKe, it s krcusn as
neçabve hait of he ac

ycle hen thi npt vecYage to A

") In pesihve hall Tap, Ben at
-7.t cenre
25 pCsihve Tap- & Diede D1 ç
reghe poleial o7-t cendre
at in Ruesed Bb. Dids D.
Diccde D2 s
Foruard Bras and
 Condecs ehle D, deeonot. and We get an ouwput (2
vellage acvOSS R due to Di
INPUT

SNPUT gwen to D

De to lDue to put to
D Dz oUTPUT WAvE FOR

A hoceme
b) In negahve haly eycle :> hen tho veltage atLoGuld
Cehe tap , e vollage at B be
negahive T.
Positwe . Now, the diode Di s ago Teversed Bibsed and
D s Gud Besed. 9o Da conduct but DË doesnot.
Ths soe get autp volge duoug
hob the posihive os wel as negahve e halt the
cyele To get seody de sutput a mootuing capabuler
es cenneetd aeroshe outpt lemials.
* Inducr à seues wct RL can he used to get seol
vetlege
Smotthing capacuhr ond Snduchr llen sut the ac
upple and guie a pne dc
Called FILTERS
FREQU ENCY OF OUT PUT 2XFREQUENCY OF 2N PUT