MODULE 7

Cellular Structure and Function

1 Cell Discovery and Theory
BEFORE YOU READ WHAT YOU’LL LEARN
Have you ever looked at anything through a magnifying glass or a • the principles of the cell
microscope? Describe on the lines below how the magnifying theory
glass or microscope changed the object. In this lesson you will • how compound light
learn about some important discoveries made using microscopes. microscopes differ from
electron microscopes
• how prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells differ

READ TO LEARN ⊳ FOCUS

History of the Cell Theory As you read, underline or
highlight the main ideas in
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living each paragraph.
things. The human body consists of trillions and trillions of cells.
But cells are too small to see with the human eye. The invention
of the microscope allowed scientists to discover that cells existed.
In 1665, an English scientist named Robert Hooke made a
simple microscope. He used the microscope to look at a piece of
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cork, which is the dead cells of oak bark. Hooke saw small, box-
shaped structures in the cork, which he called cellulae. Today, we
call them cells.
In the late 1600s, Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY vun hook), a
Dutch scientist, made another microscope. He examined pond
water, milk, and other substances. He was surprised to find living THINK IT OVER
organisms in these substances. 1. Compare What is one thing
that plants and animals
What discoveries led to the cell theory? have in common?
In 1838, German scientist Matthias Schleiden studied plants
under microscopes. He concluded that all plants are composed of
cells. Another German scientist, Theodor Schwann, declared that
animal tissues were made up of cells.

Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function

69
 What is the cell theory?
Get It? Scientists continued to learn more about cells. Scientist
2. Explain Can cells appear
spontaneously without Rudolf Virchow proposed that cells divide to form new cells. He
genetic material from suggested that every cell came from a cell that already existed.
previous cells? The observations and ideas of the various scientists who studied
cells are summarized as the cell theory. The cell theory is a
fundamental idea of modern biology and includes the principles
listed in the table below.

The Cell Theory

Principle Explanation
1. A
 ll living organisms are An organism can have one or
made up of one or more many cells. Most plants and
cells. animals have many cells.
TAKE A LOOK
3. Highlight the principle in 2. The cell is the basic unit of Even in complex organisms
the cell theory that resulted organization in living such as humans, the cell is the
from the discoveries of organisms. basic unit of life.
Matthias Schleiden and
Theodor Schwann. 3. A
 ll cells come from living Cells contain hereditary
cells. Cells pass copies of information that passes from
their genetic material on to cell to cell during cell division.
their daughter cells.

Microscope Technology
The development of the microscope made the discovery of cells
possible. Improvements made to early microscopes have helped
scientists learn much more about cells.

What is a compound light microscope?

The modern compound light microscope uses a series of glass
lenses to magnify, or enlarge, an object. When visible light passes

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through each lens, it magnifies the image of the previous lens.
For example, two lenses that each magnify an image 10× result in
a microscope that magnifies the object 100×, as shown in the
figure below.

Object is magnified 10 × 10 = 100×

TAKE A LOOK
4. Calculate If each lens in
this example magnified the 10 x
image 20×, what is the total
magnification? (Show your
work.)

10 x

Light Magnification
Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function
70

Diagram1-A
 What is an electron microscope?
The best compound light microscopes only magnify an image
Get It?
5. Compare and contrast 
about 1000×. Scientists needed more powerful microscopes to a TEM and a SEM.
learn more about cells. The electron microscope was invented in
the 1940s. It doesn’t use lenses. Instead, the transmission electron
microscope (TEM) uses magnets to aim a beam of electrons at the
image to be magnified. Some TEMs can magnify an image
500,000×.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was a further
improvement in technology. It produces a three-dimensional
image of the cell. One problem with both the TEM and SEM is
that only nonliving cells can be examined. A more recent
invention, the scanning tunneling electron microscope (STM), THINK IT OVER
can magnify living cells. 6. Draw Conclusions What is
an advantage of viewing
living cells?
Basic Cell Types
Cells have different sizes, shapes, and functions, but all cells
have a plasma membrane. A plasma membrane is a boundary
that helps control what enters and leaves the cell.
Some basic functions are common to most cells. For example,
most cells have some form of genetic material that provides
instructions for making substances that the cell needs. In
addition, all cells break down molecules to generate energy. Get It?
7. Compare and contrast
What are the two categories of cells? eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells.
Scientists group cells into two broad categories based on their
internal structures. These categories are prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells.
Simple cells that have no specialized structures are known as
prokaryotic (pro kar ee AW tik) cells. Cell functions in these
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simple cells occur in the plasma membrane. Most unicellular

organisms, such as bacteria, are prokaryotic cells. Thus, they are
called prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells are believed to be similar to
the first cells on Earth. THINK IT OVER
Eukaryotic (yew kar ee AW tik) cells are the other category of 8. Compare Which cells are
cells. They are usually larger and more complex. Eukaryotic cells more complex? (Circle your
contain a nucleus and other structures called organelles. answer.)
Organelles are specialized structures that carry out specific a. prokaryotic cells
functions. The nucleus is the central organelle that contains the b. eukaryotic cells
genetic material for the cell. Organisms that are made up of
eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes. Eukaryotes can be
unicellular or multicellular.

Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function

71
 2 The Plasma Membrane
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN BEFORE YOU READ
• how the cell’s plasma A window screen in your home allows air to pass through while
membrane functions keeping insects out. In this lesson, you will learn about a cell
• the role of proteins, structure that has the same basic function. On the lines below, list
carbohydrates, and some things you think would be allowed to pass into a cell and
cholesterol in the plasma
membrane
some things that would be kept out.

FOCUS ⊲
Make a flash card for each
question heading in this
lesson. On the back of the
flash card, write the answer to
the question. Use the flash
cards to review what you have
learned.

Get It?
1. Describe the benefit of the READ TO LEARN
bilayer structure of the
plasma membrane. Structure of the Plasma Membrane
You have learned that lipids are large molecules made
up of glycerol and three fatty acids. A phospholipid
(fahs foh LIH pid) is made up of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a
phosphate group. The plasma membrane is made up of two layers
of phospholipids arranged tail-to-tail in what is called a
TAKE A LOOK phospholipid bilayer. The phospholipid bilayer allows the
2. Identify Circle one plasma membrane to survive and function in its watery
phospholipid. Label its environment.
head and tails.

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Nonpolar
tail groups

Cholesterol molecule

Polar head groups

Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function

72
 What is the structure of the phospholipid bilayer?
Each phospholipid has a polar head and two nonpolar tails. The
phosphate group in the phospholipid makes it polar. The polar
head is attracted to water because water is also polar. The
nonpolar tails, made of the fatty acids, are repelled by water.
The phospholipid bilayer is arranged so that the polar heads
can be closest to the water that is inside and outside the cell.
Likewise, the nonpolar tails are farthest from the water because
they are inside the phospholipid bilayer, as shown in the figure on
the previous page. This bilayer structure is important for the
formation and function of the plasma membrane.

How does the phospholipid bilayer function?

The phospholipid bilayer forms a barrier that is polar on the
surface and nonpolar in the middle. Substances that can dissolve
in water will not pass through the plasma membrane because
they are stopped by the nonpolar middle. This allows the plasma
membrane to separate the environment inside the cell from the
environment outside the cell.
What else is found in the plasma membrane?
Cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates move among the
phospholipids in the plasma membrane. Proteins are found on
both the inner surface and the outer surface of the plasma
membrane. Proteins on the outer surface are called receptors
because they send signals to the inside of the cell. Proteins
on the inner surface anchor the plasma membrane to the
cell’s internal support structure. These proteins give the cell
its shape.
THINK IT OVER
What are transport proteins? 3. Define the role of transport
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Proteins also create tunnels through the plasma membrane. proteins.

These proteins, known as transport proteins, move needed
substances or waste materials through the plasma membrane.
Transport proteins contribute to the selective permeability of the
plasma membrane.

How does cholesterol help cells?

Cholesterol molecules are nonpolar. They move among the tails
of the phospholipids. Cholesterol helps prevent the fatty-acid tails
from sticking together, keeping the plasma membrane fluid.
Cholesterol also helps maintain homeostasis in a cell.

Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function

73
 What substances help identify chemical signals?
Carbohydrates and proteins might stick out from the plasma
membrane. They help the cell identify chemical signals from the
environment. For example, carbohydrates in the plasma membrane
might help disease-fighting cells identify and attack a potentially
THINK IT OVER
harmful cell.
4. Name three substances
that move among the
phospholipids of the plasma
What is the fluid mosaic model?
membrane. All the components of the plasma membrane are in constant
motion. Phospholipids can move sideways within the plasma
membrane. Proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol molecules
move among the phospholipids.
The phospholipid bilayer creates a sea in which all the other
molecules float. As the individual molecules move around, a
pattern, or mosaic, is formed on the surface of the plasma
membrane. This organization of the plasma membrane is called the
fluid mosaic model. It is fluid because the molecules are moving
and being rearranged. It is called a mosaic because scientists can
observe clear patterns on the surface of the plasma membrane.

Function of the Plasma Membrane

A cell’s survival depends on maintaining balance, called
homeostasis. The plasma membrane is the cell structure primarily
responsible for homeostasis. It is the thin, flexible boundary
between the cell and its watery environment. Nutrients enter the
cell and wastes leave the cell through the plasma membrane.
Selective permeability (pur mee uh BIH luh tee) of the plasma
membrane allows some substances to pass through while keeping
others out. The figure below shows selective permeability of the
cell’s plasma membrane. The arrows show common substances

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that enter and leave the cell. The plasma membrane controls how,
when, and how much of these substances enter and leave the cells.

Plasma
membrane Outside
the cell
Oxygen
Glucose Wastes

Wastes
Carbon
Water Inside dioxide
the cell

Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function

74
 3 Cellular Transport
BEFORE YOU READ WHAT YOU’LL LEARN
Describe on the lines below how you would move a large box that • the processes of diffusion,
weighs more than you do. Then read the lesson to learn how large facilitated diffusion, and
active transport
particles move in and out of cells.
• effect of hypotonic,
hypertonic, or isotonic
solutions on a cell
• how large particles enter and
exit a cell

READ TO LEARN ⊳ FOCUS

As you read this lesson, write
Diffusion quiz questions based on what
Substances dissolved in water move constantly and randomly. you have learned. After you
write the questions, answer
Imagine you place a drop of red ink on the left side and a drop of them.
blue ink on the right side of a dish of water. The ink moves
randomly through the water and turns the water purple as the
colors mix. The ink has diffused in the water. Diffusion is the net
movement of particles from an area where there are more particles
of the substance to an area where there are fewer particles.
Diffusion does not require additional energy because the particles
are already in motion.
Concentration is the amount of a substance in an area.
Diffusion continues until the concentrations are the same in all
areas of the water. The dish of water has reached dynamic
equilibrium, in which the particles continue to move randomly,
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but the overall concentration does not change. Make a layered-look book
using the titles shown. Use
What affects the rate of diffusion? it to organize your notes on
cellular transport.
Concentration, temperature, and pressure affect the rate of
diffusion. Diffusion occurs more quickly when the concentration,
temperature, or pressure are high because the particles collide
more often. The size and charge of a substance also affects the Cellular Transport
rate of diffusion.
Diffusion
What is facilitated diffusion? Osmosis
Water can diffuse across the plasma membrane. However, other Active Transport
ions and molecules that cells need to function cannot diffuse across
the plasma membrane. Molecules such as sugars and chlorine need
help to move from outside the cell’s environment to inside the cell.
C07_002A-145262
Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function
75
 Facilitated diffusion uses transport proteins to help move some
ions and small molecules across the plasma membrane. One type
of facilitated diffusion is shown in the figure below.

Outside
the cell

Concentration gradient
Channel
protein

Plasma
Membrane

Inside
the cell
Facilitated diffusion
by channel proteins

Diffusion of water and facilitated diffusion of ions and small

molecules occur without additional energy because the particles
are already moving. When no energy is added, the transport is
referred to as passive transport.

Osmosis: Diffusion of Water

Water passes in and out of the cell through the plasma
membrane. The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane is called osmosis (ahs MOH sus). Osmosis helps the
cell maintain homeostasis.

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What is the result of osmosis?
Most cells undergo osmosis because they are surrounded by
watery solutions. These solutions have different concentrations than
Get It? the inside environment of the cell. Before osmosis, the concentration
1. Compare and contrast inside and outside the cell have not reached dynamic equilibrium.
diffusion and osmosis. After osmosis, the concentrations are the same on both sides of the
membrane, and dynamic equilibrium has been reached.

What happens to a cell in an isotonic solution?

A cell in an isotonic solution has the same concentration
in its cytoplasm as its surrounding watery environment. Water
continues to move through the plasma membrane, but water
enters and leaves the cell at the same rate. The cell is at
equilibrium with its surrounding environment.
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76
 How do hypotonic solutions and hypertonic
solutions differ?
If a cell is placed in a solution that has a lower concentration
of dissolved substances, the cell is in a hypotonic solution. There
Get It?
is more water outside the cell than inside the cell. Osmosis moves 2. Compare and contrast the
water into the cell. three types of solutions.
As water moves into an animal cell, the plasma membrane
swells. If the solution is too hypotonic, pressure builds inside the
cell, and it might burst.
In a plant cell, the cell wall keeps it from bursting. As the
central vacuole fills with water, the plasma membrane pushes
against the cell wall. The plant cell becomes firmer.
In a hypertonic solution, the concentration of dissolved
substances outside the cell is higher than inside. There is more
water inside the cell. During osmosis, more water moves out of
the cell than into it. Animal cells shrink in hypertonic solutions.
The loss of water in plant cells causes wilting.

Active Transport Get It?

3. Compare and contrast
Substances might need to move from an area of lower active and passive transport
concentration to an area of higher concentration. Transport across the plasma
proteins help move substances across the plasma membrane membrane.
against the normal flow. This movement against the normal flow
requires energy and is called active transport.

Transport of Large Particles

Some substances are too large to move by diffusion or active
transport. Endocytosis is the process by which a cell surrounds a
substance in the outside environment with a portion of the
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plasma membrane, then pinches off the membrane, bringing the

substance inside the cell.
Exocytosis is the reverse process by which large substances exit
the cell. Both processes, as shown in the figure below, require
energy. As with other forms of transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis help cells maintain homeostasis.
Endocytosis Exocytosis
Outside Outside the cell
TAKE A LOOK
Vacuole
the cell
Protein
4. Label the cell structure
through which substances
pass as they leave the cell
during exocytosis.

Vesicle
Inside the cell Inside the cell

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77
 4 Structures and Organelles
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN BEFORE YOU READ
• differences in the structures For cells to function correctly, each part must do its job. Members
of plant and animal cells of families have jobs or chores that help the whole family. On the
lines below, list your family members and their jobs.

FOCUS ⊲ READ TO LEARN

Highlight each cell structure as
you read about it. Underline Cell Structures
the function of each part. All chemical processes of a typical eukaryotic cell take place in
the organelles, which move around in the cell’s cytoplasm.
Proteins are produced, food is transformed into energy, and
wastes are processed in the organelles. Each organelle has a
unique structure and function.

Cell shape and movement

The environment inside the plasma membrane is a
semifluid material called cytoplasm. Scientists once thought
the organelles of eukaryotic cells floated freely in the cell’s
cytoplasm. As technology improved, scientists discovered
more about cell structures. They discovered a structure within
Get It?

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1. Summarize the structure
the cytoplasm called the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is a
and function of the network of long, thin protein fibers that provide an anchor
cytoskeleton. for organelles inside the cell. The cell’s shape and movement
depend on the cytoskeleton.
Two types of protein fibers make up the cytoskeleton.
Microtubules are long, hollow protein cylinders that form a
firm skeleton for the cell. They assist in moving substances
within the cell. Microfilaments are thin protein threads that
help give the cell shape and enable the entire cell or parts of
the cell to move.

Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function

78
 Cell membrane
Mitochondrion
Ribosomes
Compare plant and animal cells
Lysosome
The figure below shows a typical plant cell and a typical animal
Vesicle
cell. Note how many organelles are found in both types of cells.
Also, note a few differences, such as the chloroplasts that appear
only in the plant cell. Observe that the vacuole in the plant cell is
much larger than the vacuole in the animal cell.
Golgi
apparatus B Plant Cell
Nucleus Nucleolus

mooth Central vacuole

doplasmic Nuclear Mitochondrion
iculum pore
Ribosomes

Microtubule
Cytoplasm
Chloroplast
Vesicle
Cell membrane
Smooth Golgi
Cell wall (cellulose)
Rough endoplasmic apparatus
endoplasmic reticulum
reticulum

A Animal Cell
Nucleus
Nuclear Nucleolus
pore Cell membrane
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Mitochondrion
Ribosomes
TAKE A LOOK
Lysosome
2. Highlight the names of
Vesicle structures found in both
plant cells and animal
cells. Circle the names of
structures that are found
only in plant cells. Underline
the names of structures that
Centriole Golgi are found only in animal
cells.
apparatus B Plant Cell
Microtubule
Nucleus Nucleolus
Cytoplasm
Rough Smooth Central vacuole
endoplasmic endoplasmic Nuclear Mitochondrion
reticulum reticulum pore
Ribosom
Reading Essentials • Cellular Structure and Function
79
 What makes up a centriole?
Centrioles are organelles made of microtubules that function
THINK IT OVER during cell division. They usually are found near the nucleus of
3. Recall Other than providing the cell. Plant cells do not contain centrioles.
support, what is another
function of microtubules? What are cilia and flagella?
Some animal cell surfaces have cilia or flagella that extend
beyond the plasma membrane. Cilia are short projections that look
like hairs. They move back and forth, similar to the motion of the
oars of a rowboat. Flagella are longer, whiplike projections that
Get It? propel cells. Both cilia and flagella are composed of microtubules.
4. Compare and contrast the They move cells through their watery environments. Cilia also
cell walls of prokaryotic and move substances along the surface of the cell.
eukaryotic cells.
Cell wall
Plants have cell walls. The cell wall is a mesh of fibers that
surrounds the plasma membrane. It protects and supports the
cell. Plant cell walls are made of a carbohydrate known as
cellulose. Prokaryotes, such as bacteria, also have a cell wall. The
functions of a prokaryotic cell wall are similar to the functions of
the plant cell wall. The prokaryotic cell wall is made of a material
called peptidoglycan.

What structure manages cell processes?

The nucleus is the cell’s managing structure. Most of the cell’s
genetic material (DNA) is in the nucleus. DNA defines the cell
and controls protein production. A nuclear envelope surrounds
the nucleus. Substances pass through the nuclear envelope to
Get It? move in and out of the nucleus. Ribosomes are produced in the
5. Describe the role of the
nucleus. nucleolus, a structure located inside the nucleus.
Which organelles process energy?

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Cells need energy to survive.
Mitochondrion
The organelles that convert fuel
particles such as sugars into usable
energy are called mitochondria
TAKE A LOOK
(mi tuh KAHN dree uh).
6. Explain why the
mitochondion’s inner A mitochondrion has an outer
membrane has many folds. membrane and an inner membrane
with many folds, as shown in the Outer
figure. The membrane provides a membrane
large surface area for breaking the
bonds of sugar molecules. Energy Inner
membrane
is produced when the bonds are
broken.

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80
 How do plant and animal cells differ?
In addition to mitochondria, plant cells contain chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are organelles that capture light energy and convert it
to chemical energy through a process called photosynthesis. Plants
can use light energy from any light source—usually the Sun.
Animal cells do not have chloroplasts and cannot use solar energy
as fuel for cell processes.
THINK IT OVER
Which organelle produces proteins? 7. Explain What is the role of
DNA?
Ribosomes produce proteins and are made of two
components—RNA and protein. Some ribosomes float freely in
the cytoplasm. They produce proteins that will be used by other
cells. Other ribosomes attach to an organelle called the
endoplasmic reticulum.

What attaches to rough endoplasmic reticulum?

The endoplasmic reticulum, (en duh PLAZ mihk •
rih TIHK yuh lum) also called ER, is a membrane system of
folded sacs and channels to which ribosomes are attached. There
are two types of ER. The first type is called rough endoplasmic
reticulum. This is the area where ribosomes attach to the ER’s
surface. The ribosomes appear to create bumps or rough places
on the membrane. The second type, smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, has no ribosomes attached. Smooth ER produces
complex carbohydrates and lipids.

What is the purpose of the Golgi apparatus? Get It?

Once proteins are created, they move to another organelle, the 8. Explain the role of
lysosomes in cells.
Golgi (GAWL jee) apparatus. The Golgi apparatus modifies,
sorts, and packs the proteins into sacs called vesicles. The vesicles
fuse with the cell’s plasma membrane. There the vesicles release
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the proteins, which move through the plasma membrane to the

environment outside the cell.

What is stored in vacuoles?

Cells have vesicles called vacuoles that act as temporary storage
for materials in the cytoplasm. Vacuoles can store food and other
material needed by a cell. They can also store wastes. Plant cells
normally have one large vacuole. Animal cells might or might not
have a few small vacuoles.

What are lysosomes?

Lysosomes are vesicles that contain substances that digest
excess or worn-out organelles and food particles. Lysosomes also
digest bacteria and viruses that enter the cell.

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81
 Comparing Cells
TAKE A LOOK The table below summarizes the structures of eukaryotic plant
9. Highlight the organelle to
and animal cells. The function of each structure is described. Note
which ribosomes attach.
that prokaryotic cells lack most of the organelles found in
eukaryotic cells.

Present in
Cell Structure Function
Plant/Animal Cells
Cell wall protects and supports plant cells plant cells only

Centriole important in cell division animal cells only

Chloroplast site where photosynthesis occurs plant cells only

Cilia aids in moving the cell and moving substances along the some animal cells
surface of the cell

Cytoskeleton a framework for the cell within the cytoplasm both

Endoplasmic site of protein synthesis; where ribosomes attach both

reticulum (ER)

Flagellum aids in moving and feeding the cell some animal cells

Golgi apparatus modifies and packages proteins for distribution outside the both
cell
Lysosome contains digestive enzymes for substance break down animal cells only

Mitochondrion supplies energy to the rest of the cell both

Nucleus directs the production of proteins and cell division both

Plasma membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell both

Ribosome produces proteins both

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Vacuole stores materials temporarily plant cell—one
large; animal
cell—a few small

Organelles at Work
Get It? The structures in the cell work together to perform cell
10. Infer Justify the statement, functions. The synthesis of proteins is a major cell function,
“Cells are the most which begins in the nucleus. Protein synthesis continues with the
important units in all living
ribosomes on the rough ER and the ribosomes that float freely in
organisms.”
the cytoplasm. Most proteins made on the rough ER are sent to
the Golgi apparatus. There they are packaged in vesicles and sent
to other organelles or out of the cell. Like each member of a
soccer team, each cell structure has a specific task to do to make
the cell function properly.
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