QUESTION ONE

a. Describe the three main methods of laying of underground cables giving

advantages and disadvantages of each methods

Laying of underground cables

Underground cables are, of course, meant to be installed or laid under the ground. The
reliability of underground cable network highly depends upon proper laying of cables, quality
of cable joints and branch connections etc.
There are three main methods of laying underground cables, which are - (i) direct laying,
(ii) draw-in system and (iii) solid system. These three methods are explained below with their
advantages and drawbacks.

Direct laying of underground cables

This method is the most popular as it is simple and cheap. The cables to be laid using this
method must have the serving of bituminised paper and hessian tape so as to provide
protection against corrosion and electrolysis. The direct laying procedure is as follows.

Laying procedure

 A trench of about 1.5 meters deep and 45 cm wide is dug.

 Then the trench is covered with a 10 cm thick layer of fine sand.
 The cable is laid over the sand bed. The sand bed protects the cable from the moisture
from the ground.
 Then the laid cable is again covered with a layer of sand of about 10 cm thick.
 When multiple cables are to be laid in the same trench, a horizontal or verticle spacing
of about 30 cm is provided to reduce the effect of mutual heating. Spacing between
the cables also ensures a fault occurring on one cable does not damage the adjacent
cable.
 The trench is then covered with bricks and soil to protect the cable from mechanical
injury.

Advantages

 Simpler and cheaper than the other two methods

 Heat generated in cables is easily dissipated in the ground.

Disadvantages

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  To install new cables for fulfilling an increased load demand, completely new
excavation has to be done which costs as much as the new installation.
 Alterations in the cable network are not easy.
 Maintenance cost is higher.
 Identifying the location of a fault is difficult.
 This method cannot be used in congested areas such as metro cities where excavation
is too expensive.

Draw-in system

In this method, cast iron or concrete pipes or ducts are laid underground with manholes at
suitable positions along the cable route. The cables are then pulled into the pipes from the
manholes. Usually, an additional pipe/duct is also provided along with the three cable ducts
for carrying relay protection connections and pilot wires. Distance between the manholes
should be such that pulling in the cables is easier. At corners or while changing the direction
of route, radius of the corners must be longer. The cables that are to be laid in this way need
not be armoured but must be provided with the serving of hessian and jute in order to protect
them when being pulled.

Advantages

 Repairs, additions or alterations to the cable network can be easily made from
manholes without re-excavation.
 In this method, as the cables need not be armoured, the cable jointing procedure
becomes simpler.
 Maintenance cost is quite lower.
 Fewer chances of fault occurrence due to the strong mechanical protection provided
by the system.

Disadvantages

 The initial cost is very high.

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  Due to unfavourable conditions for dissipation of heat, current carrying capacity of
the cables is reduced.

Solid system

In this method, the cable is laid into troughing of cast iron, stoneware, asphalt or treated
wood. When the cable is laid into the position, the troughing is filled with a bituminous of
asphaltic compound and then covered over. Cables to be laid in this manner could be just lead
covered as the troughing provides a good mechanical protection.
This method is very rarely used nowadays as it is more expensive and requires skilled labour
and favourable weather conditions.

b. With equations, explain the advantages and limitations of high transmission

voltage
Advantages of High Transmission Voltage:

The Advantages of High Transmission Voltage at high voltages due to the following reasons:
(i) Reduces volume of conductor material: Consider the transmission of electric power by a
three-phase line.

Let

P = power transmitted in watts

V = line voltage in volts

cos Φ = power factor of the load

l = length of the line in metres

R = resistance per conductor in ohms

ρ = resistivity of conductor material

a = area of X-section of conductor

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It is clear from exp. (i) that for given values of P,l,ρ and W, the volume of conductor material
required is inversely proportional to the square of transmission voltage and power factor. In
other words, the greater the transmission voltage, the lesser is the conductor material
required.

(ii) Increases transmission efficiency

Assuming J to be the current density of the conductor, then

As J, ρ and l are constants, therefore, transmission efficiency increases when the line voltage
is increased.

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(iii) Decreases percentage line drop

As J, ρ and l are constants, therefore, percentage line drop decreases when the transmission
voltage increases.

Limitations of high transmission voltage:

From the above discussion, it might appear advisable to use the highest possible voltage for
transmission of power in a bid to save conductor material. However, it must be realised that
high transmission voltage results in

 The increased cost of insulating the conductors

 The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and other terminal apparatus.

Therefore, there is a limit to the higher transmission voltage which can be economically
employed in a particular case. This limit is reached when the saving in cost of conductor
material due to higher voltage is offset by the increased cost of insulation, transformer,
switchgear etc. Hence, the choice of proper transmission voltage is essentially a question of
economics.

c. Explain the assumption used in comparing the relative amounts of conductor

material necessary for different systems of power transmission (4mks)

It is clear from exp. (i) that for given values of P,l,ρ and W, the volume of conductor material
required is inversely proportional to the square of transmission voltage and power factor. In
other words, the greater the transmission voltage, the lesser is the conductor material
required.

QUESTION TWO

a. The electric power can be transmitted either by AC or DC. Explain the technical
advantages and disadvantages of the two systems for transmission of electric
power.
Advantages of dc transmission system
(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c. transmission.
(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems
in d.c. transmission.

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 (iii)Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c. transmission line
is less than the a.c. line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason,
a d.c. transmission line has better voltage regulation
(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the
line conductor is utilized.
(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in
case of d.c. system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c. line requires less
insulation.
(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication
circuits.
(vii) The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric losses,
particularly in the case of cables.
(viii) In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing
difficulties.
Disadvantages of dc transmission system
(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to commutation
problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high
voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.

Advantages of ac transmission system

(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease
and efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at
safe potentials.
Disadvantages of ac transmission system
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c.
transmission line.
(iii)Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is
increased.
(iv) An A.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of
power due to charging current even when the line is open

b. Define both Electrical Installation and Maintenance with relevant examples.

(5mks)

Electrical Installation with relevant examples

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An electrical installation is a group of items of electrical equipment that are permanently
electrically connected together and can be supplied with electricity from the works of an
electricity entity or from a generating source.

Examples of an electrical installation:

The switchboard, wiring, lighting, socket outlets and other electrical equipment permanently
connected for a shop in a shopping centre , residential unit

Maintenance with relevant examples

Electrical maintenance is the process of ensuring that electrical equipment is kept in good
working order.

It includes inspecting, testing, and repairing electrical equipment as necessary to prevent

problems that could lead to a loss of power or an electrical fire.

c. In most cases, our electricians monitor the condition of the electrical System and
equipment. Occasionally, what are the Common Electrical Maintenance Techniques? (5mks)
 Preventive maintenance includes testing the electrical components of your system.
This is done to ensure that the system is performing well. I.e. Predictive maintenance
involves checking parts of the system that are bound to break down in the near future.
 Failure finding maintenance. Here, the electrician will try and find flaws/faults that
might compromise the safety of the electrical system.
 Corrective maintenance deals with any breakdowns that may come up at random. The
electrician will repair the system to get it back on operation.
 Time-based maintenance is where the electrician follows a routine to replace or renew
an item.

Summary: When deciding how to maintain an electrical system, the electrician first analyzes
the system and its assets. This involves checking which equipment are priorities and which
have a history of breakdowns. Every year, the electrician will review the electrical schematics
of a building.

After checking all assets, the electrician will determine assets in which failures are
preventable.

QUESTION THREE

As the project engineer for Soroti 20MWp solar power plant, you are required to set up a new
substation:

a. Steps followed in designing a substation (5mks)

 Establishing the need for substation facilities

 The project scope document: what it is and what it should contain

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  Site selection and environmental issues
 Engineering design: equipment specifications and drawings
 Construction
 Testing, start-up, and commissioning

b. How do you Design a Substation (5mks)

When building an electric substation, there is a very specific design process that every
engineering team must follow. These steps can also be applied when retrofitting an old
substation. While it’s difficult to narrow down this complex engineering process to just a few
steps, it can serve as a guideline while developing a new substation.

Switching station:

The first step in the process is to select the switching station that would be most appropriate
for your location and the existing electrical system. This involves selecting the breaker, ring
bus, and other parts of the switching station.

Key plan:

The next crucial step is to prepare a detailed key plan of the substation. To indicate where
each component of the station is going to be, as well as how they are going to be connected.
The plan should also show the location of items such as the driveway and fence.

Equipment:

Once the plan is in place, it’s time to select the type of equipment for your substation.
Licensing and permitting:

Engineers are a crucial part of the licensing process for a substation. This phase includes
presenting information about the substation at public hearings and conducting studies about
the public impact of the station.

Structural design:

This is the process of designing the structure that will contain the electrical components. This
includes the foundation of the substation, the control house, and the steel structures that will
house the electrical connections.

Electrical design:

This is the most crucial part of the design process. This step involves designing the layout of
the electrical components in the substation and designating where they will go. This includes,
but is not limited to, designing the AC power system, the DC batteries, the manhole system,
and the entire positioning of the electrical equipment.

Relay protection and remote control:

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This step essentially involves designing the relay wiring between electrical components. At
this point, the remote control aspects of the design should also be addressed.

Construction support:

During this step, the engineering team supports the construction team to make sure the station
is accurately built. This also includes correcting any design issues that come up during the
construction process. It also may include ordering additional materials, including SCADA
software.

c. Step in Planning a Substation Layout (5mks)

a. Design Diagrams

The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-line diagram, which
shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the
incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. (Lines, switches, circuit
breakers, transformers).

In a common design, incoming lines have a disconnect switch and a circuit breaker provide
isolation and protection fault currents automatically.

b. Automation

As the complexity of distribution networks grew, it became economically necessary to

automate supervision and control of substations from a centrally attended point, to allow
overall coordination in case of emergencies and to reduce operating costs.

Remote control substations use dedicated communication wires and have been all been
applied to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) for substations.

d. Key Factors to Consider In Substation Design (5mks)

FACTORS THAT NEED TO BE CONSIDERED DURING THE SUBSTATION

DESIGN PROCESS.

1. Substation Physical location

It is usually favorable to locate distribution substations as close to the load center of its
service area as possible. Locations that are ideal from a cost and engineering point of
view are occasionally restricted due to aesthetic, neighboring, electrical, or physical
considerations.

2. Substation Standardization

Guides, recommended practices, and standards are used in communicating requirements

for the maintenance, operation, installation, and substation design process. This also
allows vendors to prepare several solutions in the knowledge that many customers will be
able to specify them.

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 3. Site Planning

Once the substation location and standardization has been finished, a scaled site plan will
be made in order to establish the right of way access for distribution lines, transmission
lines, roads and other utility access, including telecommunications, gas, sewer, and water
supplies.

4. Restricting Access

Not all of these people will be aware of the potential imperceptible (invisible) electrical
hazards in the environment that aren’t identified by fencing or labels. In this case,
Restricting site access will limit the movement of people in and out of the substations,
which will reduce the likelihood of accidents occurring.

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