Module 1: Measuring & Investigating Development

TOPIC GENERAL OBJECTIVES SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Learners should be able to: Learners should be able to:
Development Explain the concept and practice - Explain the concept of development;
of development within the context
of their social, economic and - Explain the following divisions: First,
political environment. Second and Third world, Newly
Industrialised Countries, North, South, Least
Developed Countries and Developed
Countries;

- Give reasons for the differences in the

development levels in different countries;

- Identify and discuss different development

indicators including Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), Gross National Product (GNP),
health, life expectancy, education and energy
consumption.

- Show why political aspects of development

are difficult to measure;

- Describe the characteristics of the developed

and developing countries;

- Analyse and evaluate theories of

development: modernisation, dependency,
sustainable development and alternative
strategies;

What is development?

- Development is a process of change that makes people happier, freer, better fed, richer and take part in decision
making

- Development is a process of change and growth in societies which improves people’s quality of life.

- Development is when the economy grows, standards of living rise, quality of life improves, wealth is shared
more fairly and more people take part in decision making

THE ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

Societies develop when various systems interact to cause change. These systems are called aspects of life.

- Economic aspect of development is when a country produces more or enough for everyone and gets richer or
wealthier. This is characterised by more industries, better improved technology and higher income.

- Social aspect of development is when people’s basic needs are fully met. For example people will have better
and more shelter, access to clean water.
- Political aspect of development is when people have more freedom and justice in a country. This means that
all the basic human rights are guaranteed by law.

THE REASONS WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO MEASURE POLITICAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

- Political aspects of development are difficult to quantify because are intangible or immeasurable, for example,
they can neither be seen nor touched.

- Most countries prohibit independent human rights groups to monitor human rights violations.

- In developing countries most people are illiterate and unaware of their rights.

- Political aspects of development are affected by cultural or religious beliefs, for example, women being
marginalised or there are gender inequalities.

- The issue of sovereignty makes it difficult to measure political aspect of development because countries belief
that they are independent therefore nobody can tell them how to treat their citizens.

- Political aspects of development are affected by different political systems, for example, dictatorship prohibits
human rights because they are no voting, no freedom of speech.

DIVISION OF THE WORLD

The world can be divided into three groups based on the levels of development, namely;

1. Developed/ Industrialised countries/ Countries of the North

2. Newly Industrialised Countries (NIC’s)

3. Less Developed Countries/ Countries of the South/ Developing Countries

A MAP WHICH SHOWS THE DIVISION OF THE WORLD INTO COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH AND
COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH

Fig.1
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH ARE AS FOLLOWS:

-The geographical location of countries of the South is that there are found in Central America, for example,
Mexico.

-The countries of the South are found in South America or Latin America, for example, Brazil and Argentina.

-The countries of the South are mostly located in Africa, for example, Botswana, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Egypt,
Algeria, Tunisia, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, South Africa and Cameroon.

-The countries of the South are found in South Asia, for example, India.

-The countries of the South are located in Far East, for example, Malaysia.

-The countries of the South are found in East Asia, for example, China.

-The countries of the South are located in the Middle East, for example, Saudi Arabia.

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

They can be divided into two categories based on the ideology that they followed:

 First World Countries/ Capitalist Countries

 Second World Countries/ Communist Countries

These two categories are also known as Countries of the North or Industrialised Countries or High income countries.

Today the second category is almost non-existent because the countries have either ceased to be communist or they
have embedded capitalism in their mode of production, besides Capitalism has now become a world system.

Example are mostly found in Western Europe, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Spain etc
North America: USA and Canada
Japan, Australia, New Zealand.
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics

 High industrialised  High standards of living

 High employment levels  High levels of literacy

 High levels of income  Good and adequate social facilities, for

example, clinics/ hospitals and schools

 Highly developed infrastructure

 High calorie intake or food intake

 High GNP/ GDP

 Low birth rates and low population growth
rate
 High energy consumption

 High levels of urbanisation

THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ARE HIGHLY DEVELOPED

 Developed countries use advanced technology to produce goods and services.

 Developed countries have long history of urbanisation.

 Colonialism is the other reason why developed countries are highly developed.

 Developed countries are highly developed because of importation of raw materials at cheap rates from Less
Developed Countries.

 Developed countries are selling or exporting expensive manufactured goods

 In developed countries, there are highly skilled and productive work forces.

 Developed countries have control and domination of the World Trade.

THE ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH

-The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that there is high use of complex technology to produce
goods.

-The countries of the North have high development of transport and telecommunication networks or high
infrastructural development.
-The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that they dominate international trade or they have high
share of international trade.
-The countries of the North have high income or high wages.

-The countries of the North have high energy consumption because people own many electrical appliances such
computers, televisions and refrigerators.

-The countries of the North have high industrialization or mass production or high manufacturing of goods.

-The economic characteristic of the North is that they export finished goods and they import raw materials.

-The countries of the North have low percentage population depending on agriculture because few people practise
commercial agriculture.

-The countries of the North have high GNP because they have many industries that produce goods and services.

- The countries of the North have high GNP per capita.

- The economic characteristic of countries of the North is that they have high GDP.

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Also known as;

 Less Developed Countries
 Third World Countries
 Countries of the South
 Least Developed Countries
 Under Developed Countries
 Middle income or low income Countries

Example: Most African countries, for example, Botswana, Malawi, Zambia etc.

South American countries such as Peru, Colombia, Nicaragua, Chile, Bolivia etc.

Asian countries such as Iran, Iraq, Bangladesh etc.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics

 Developing countries depend on raw  Developing countries have low standards of
materials for export, for example, crop and living.
minerals.  They have high levels of illiteracy or low
 Developing countries have low levels of education levels.
industrialisation.  Developing countries have poor and
 They have high levels of unemployment inadequate social facilities, for example,
 Developed countries have low incomes and school and hospitals.
widespread poverty.  Developing countries have low life
 Developed countries have poorly developed expectancy..
infrastructure.  They have low urbanisation levels, for
 They have low GNP/GDP example, most people live in the rural areas.
 Developed countries have dependence on  Developing countries have few stable
subsistence agriculture. democracies.
  Oppression of women.

THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ARE UNDERDEVELOPED

 The slave trade which depleted Africa’s human resources.

 Colonialism /imperialism that exploited Africa, for example, took raw materials.

 Developing countries use backward or poor technology.

 Developing countries depend on cheap raw materials for export.

 Developed countries set unfair international trading terms that disadvantage developing countries.

 Developing countries have unskilled and less productive labour force.

 Huge foreign debts.

 Neo-colonialism, for example, domination of the economies by developed countries through Trans
National Companies.

NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES

These are countries that have achieved industrialisation in the last thirty years. They used to be less developed.

For example, Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong, India, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico etc.

THE MAPS WHICH SHOWS GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED

COUNTRIES (NICs)
 Fig.2

Fig.3

THE LOCATION OF THE NEWLY INDUSTRIALISING COUNTRIES IS AS FOLLOWS:

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in Southern Africa, for example, South Africa.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are located in the Far East countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore,
Philippines, South Korea and China.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in South of North America, for example, Mexico.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are found in Northeast of South America, for example, Brazil.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are found in South Asia, for example, India.
- Newly Industrialising Countries are located in the Middle East, for example, Saudi Arabia and Turkey.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWLY INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES

Economic Characteristics Social Characteristics

 NIC’s have fast growing industrial sector  NIC’s have rapid urbanisation
 NIC’s have greater dependence on exports of  They have improving standard of living.
manufactured goods.  NIC’s are having higher levels of education
 They have rapidly commercialised therefore high literacy.
agricultural sector, for example, from  They have improved provision of social
subsistence to commercial agriculture. services
 NIC’s have raising income levels.  NIC’s have rising life expectancy.
 They have emergence of new Trans National  They have falling birth and population
Companies, for example, Samsung, Daewoo, growth rate.
Kia, all from South Korea.

THE REASONS WHY THE NIC’s DEVELOPED SO FAST

 The NIC’s have heavy investment in science and technology education.

 They have large scale foreign direct investment, for example, Multi-National Companies/Trans National
Companies.

 Export Oriented Industrialisation based on the production of consumer goods for the world market.

 Foreign Aid from the developed western countries in an attempt to stop the spread of communism, for
example, South East Asia.

 NIC’s got loans from international financial institution, for example, World Bank and International
Monetary Fund.

 NIC’s have technology transfer from the Western countries

 They have cheap labour costs that helped to attract foreign investment.

 NIC’s had agricultural and land reform that helped to modernize and improve productivity.

 They have heavy investment in modern infrastructure.

THE CHALLENGES WHICH ARE FACED BY THE NEWLY INDUSTRIALISING COUNTRIES

- The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that of high inflation rates/ weak currencies/
high fuel prices.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries faces the challenge of having foreign debt or debt crisis.
 - The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that of the wide gap between the rich and the
poor or huge disparities of wealth.

- The Newly Industrialised Countries are faced with the challenge of dominance of the industrial process by
Multi-National Companies who move their investment of the country.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of depletion of their natural resources or damage
to the environment.

- The challenge faced by Newly Industrialising Countries is that of fast growth of the private sector which
makes it difficult to be controlled by the government.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of exploitation of workers by the employer.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of declining exports because of tough
competition from the mostly developed countries or in the world market.

- The challenge faced by the Newly Industrialising Countries is that of high expenditure on imports and less on
exports.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of declining real income.

- The Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of corruption.

- Newly Industrialising Countries are faced with the challenge of urban poverty.

THE REASONS FOR THE DIFFERENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT LEVELS IN DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES

Explain why there are differences in the levels of development between developed and developing countries.

- The differences in levels of development between developed and developing countries is that developed
countries export finished goods whereas developing countries export raw materials.

- Developed countries have skilled manpower because they have many educational institutions and developing
countries have brain drain because most of skilled people prefer working in developed countries.

- The difference in levels of development between developed countries and developing countries is that
developed countries dominate or control world trade whereas developing countries have less control over
world trade.

- Developed countries have many Multinational companies which contribute towards government revenue by
paying tax and developed countries have huge debts because they have only few companies that export
finished goods.

- There is peace in developed countries whereas developing countries are involved in political instabilities
caused by wars and civil strife.

- Developed countries policies are directed to high infrastructural development while developing countries
policies are directed towards poverty and disease eradication.

- The difference in levels of development between developed countries and developing countries is that
developed countries use advanced technology to produce goods whereas developing countries use simple
technology to produce goods.
- Developed countries have high skilled manpower whereas developing countries have shortage of skilled
manpower.

- Developed countries have created dependency syndrome in developing countries by giving them aid or
assistance, for example, foreign aid in the form of grants and loans.

THE FACTORS THAT SLOW DOWN DEVELOPMENT IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- The factor that slows down development in the developing countries is lack of funds.

- Developing countries have slow down development because of use of poor technology to produce goods and
services.

- The slowdown in development of developing countries is caused by lack of skilled labour because of poor
education.

- The factor that slow down development in developing countries is caused by wars and conflicts.

- Developing countries have slow down development because they have high populations.

- The slowdown in development in developing countries is caused by corruption and mismanagement of public
funds by most of the leaders for their own personal benefit.

- Developing countries have slowdown in development due to brain drain because many skilled people in
developing countries prefer working in developed countries.

- The factor that slows down development in developing countries is dependency syndrome. This means
developing depend on developed countries in order for them to develop.

- Developing countries are involved in foreign debts which slow down their development, for example, they get
loans from financial institutions such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and developed
countries.
 MEASURING DEVELOPMENT/ INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT

Fig.4

Economic Development Social Development Political Development

Indicator Developed Developing Indicator Developed Developing Indicator Developed Developing
GNP High Low Infant Low High Democracy
mortality
rate (IMR)
GDP High Low Life High Low Peace Civil
expectancy wars/strife
GNP per High Low Death rate Low High Women in More Few
capita managerial
positions
Energy High Low Birth rate Low High Elections More Few
consumption
 Doctor – Low High Human
patient rights
ratio
Employment/ High/less Low /more Teacher- Low High Justice
number of people in people in student
people in agriculture agriculture ratio
agriculture
Number of Low High Freedom
people per
telephone
Number of Low : High : few
people per Many houses with
tap houses with water
water
Dependenc Low High
y ratio
Literacy High Low
rate
Adult High Low
literacy rate
Calorie High Low
intake
Daily food High Low
intake

Fig.2

SOCIAL INDICATORS ECONOMIC INDICATORS POLITICAL INDICATORS

Infant Mortality Rate Gross National Product per Capita Number of political parties in a
country
Life expectancy Gross Domestic Product Percentage of people who vote
during elections
Adult literacy rate Gross National Product Freedom of expression

Number of people per doctor Energy Consumption per Capita Percentage of women in
managerial positions
Number of pupils per teacher Number of people employed in Number of wrongful imprisonment
agriculture
Birth rate Employment rate

Death rate Manufacturing production

Fig.3

SOCIAL INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. INFANT MORTALITY RATE

What is infant mortality rate?

- Infant mortality rate number of babies who die before their first birthday per thousand per year in a country.

- Infant mortality rate is the percentage of babies who die before their first birthday in a country
 THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES HAVE A HIGH INFANT MORTALITY RATE

- Developing countries have high doctor patient ratio/ inadequate access to health care because there are few
trained doctors and nurses.

- There is poor nutrition in developing countries leading to such health conditions as kwashiorkor

- In developing infant mortality rate is caused by teenage pregnancy which may lead to delivery complications.

- Infant mortality rate is caused by pandemic diseases such HIV/AIDS because some of the babies are born with
the virus.

- The reason why developing countries have high infant mortality rate is Poor sanitation / unhygienic conditions

- Developing countries have high infant mortality rate because of poor care / parent negligence

2. LIFE EXPECTANCY

What is life expectancy?

- Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is likely to live in a country.

What is life expectancy at birth?

- Life expectancy is the average number of years a new born baby is likely to live in a country.

THE REASONS WHY LESS DEVELOPED/ DEVELOPING /THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES HAVE
HIGHER INFANT MORTALITY RATE

- The reason why developing countries have high infant mortality rate is that of shortage of health facilities
where health care can be provided by doctors and nurses.

- High infant mortality rate in developing countries is caused by widespread of diseases and epidemics, for
example, cholera, malaria and HIV/AIDS.

- Developing countries have high infant mortality rate because of poor nutrition which may lead to kwashiorkor
due to high unemployment rate or poor farming methods.

- High infant mortality rate in developing countries is caused by poor sanitation and hygiene.

- Infant mortality rate is high in developing countries because of poverty which lead to low living standard.

THE REASONS WHY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE LOWER INFANT MORTALITY RATE

- Developed countries have adequate health facilities where health care is provided by trained doctors and
nurses.

- Low infant mortality rate in developed countries is caused by immunisation programmes that help to eradicate
child killer diseases, for example, cholera, malaria and polio.

- Developed countries have low infant mortality rate because of adequate and balanced nutrition.
- Low infant mortality rate in developed countries is caused by good sanitation and hygiene.

- Infant mortality rate is low in developing countries because of high living standard.

THE REASONS WHY WORLD LIFE EXPECTANCY IS RISING

- The life expectancy is rising in the world because cleaner water supplies to prevent waterborne diseases such as
cholera.

- The governments of the world provide better sanitation to their citizens to improve hygiene.

- The world life expectancy is rising due to provision better health care whereby there is enough trained medical
personnel such as doctors and nurses.

- Countries provide primary health care to citizens which focuses on the prevention of diseases and giving
assistance to the sick, for example, provision of clean water, health education and immunisation programme.
- In the world some of the countries provide citizens with better nutrition for example, in Botswana children are
given supplementary feeding such as Tsabana.

3. CALORIE INTAKE

What is calorie intake?

- Calorie intake is the energy value of the food eaten in a country.

THE REASONS FOR LOW CALORIE INTAKE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- The reason for low calorie intake in developing countries is that there is high unemployment so less money
to buy food

- There is lack of purchasable food in some areas

- Developing countries have quality and quantity food shortage because of drought

- The high illiteracy rate in developing countries lead to inability to determine food quality

- Developing countries have low calorie intake because of low productivity in agriculture.

- Low calorie intake in developing countries is caused by drought and famines.

- Developing countries have low calorie intake due to wars and political instability.

THE REASONS FOR HIGH CALORIE INTAKE IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

- Developed countries have high calorie intake because of high income because most of the people are
employed.

- High calorie intake in developed countries is caused by surplus food production.

- Developed countries have high calorie intake due to high levels of education.

- Calorie intake is high in developed countries because of the use of advanced technology to produce food.

4. LITERACY RATE

Define literacy rate

- The percentage of the population / average number of people who are able to read and write in a country.

What is the importance of literacy to development?

- The importance of literacy to development is that when people are able to read and write they are able to
learn / acquire new skills easily

- They can better participate in decision making and national campaigns e.g. elections, immunisation
programmes

- They can read and understand environmental issues/conservation better

- Reduces dependency on those who are literate and promotes privacy e.g. reading own letters or mail

- Literate mothers can access information on childcare leading to better hygiene and lower IMR

- Improved nutrition when the mother is literate

- They can easily find out and fill themselves application forms e.g. at the post office, credit facilities forms
and can even write application letters for jobs etc.

5. ADULT LITERACY RATE

Define adult literacy rate

- Adult literacy rate is the percentage of people or number of people 18 years and above who can read and
write in a country.

Male literacy rate is higher in most countries than female literacy rate

HE REASONS FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE LITERACY RATES

- The reason for the difference between male and female literacy rate is that girls are denied the chance to go
to school and are expected to stay home and help their mothers

- The girls drop out of school because they marry or get pregnant which lead to the difference between male
and female literacy rate.

- Girls are neglected for cultural/traditional reasons

- It is believed a girl child has a smaller brain than their male counterpart (and this makes them less
intelligent) and so sending them to school is a waste of time and money

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS LOW SCHOOL ENROLMENT CAN HAVE ON A COUNTRY’S

DEVELOPMENT

- The negative effect of low school enrolment can have on a country’s development is low literacy rate

- The low school enrolment can have negative effect on a country’s development because it can lead to fewer
skilled personnel
- Increase the gap between the educated rich & the uneducated poor

- The negative effect of low school enrolment may lead to fewer people will be involved in decision making

- Low school enrolment may lead to high birth rates because of lack of knowledge on how to use
contraceptives.

- The negative effect of low school enrolment on country’s development lead to High Infant Mortality Rate
or death rates because of lack of knowledge on how to take care of their babies.

THE CHALLENGES FACED BY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN TRYING TO IMPROVE THEIR

CITIZENS’ EDUCATION

- The challenge faced by developing countries in trying to improve their citizen’s education is that they have
shortage of funds which lead to inadequate educational facilities.

- The challenges faced by developing countries in trying to improve their citizens’ education is shortage of
trained personnel, for example, teachers.

- Developing countries inaccessible educational facilities because of shortage of funds, for example, students
have to walk long distances to access educational facilities.

- Uncooperative, unruly & bad behaved students

- Corruption and bribery

- Developing countries have high unemployment rate which makes parents to be unable to pay school fees.

THE CAUSES OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUT RATES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- The cause of high school dropout rates in developing countries due to teenage pregnancy.

- Developing countries have high school dropout rates because domestic responsibilities e.g. looking after
livestock
- Poverty causes high school dropout rates in developing countries because of inability to pay school fees by
some parents

- In developing countries, there is high school dropout rates because of early marriage.

- Family disputes / divorce / lack of parental guidance

- High school dropout rates in developing countries is caused by diseases, for example, HIV/AIDS, TB, etc. /
accidents leading to disability

- Developing countries have high school dropout because of civil wars e.g. Ethiopia/Eritrea, Sudan etc.

- High school dropout in developing countries is caused by long distance to educational facilities or school

6. BIRTH RATE/ POPULATION GROWTH RATE

What is birth rate / Population growth rate?

Birth rate is the number of babies per 1000 born in a year in a country.
Population growth rate is the speed at which the population grows in a year, and it is expressed in percentages
in a country.

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES HAVE HIGH BIRTH AND POPULATION GROWTH RATES

BECAUSE OF:

- Large family seen as a symbol of social prestige, for example, proves ones virility.

- Ignorance of the use of family planning and contraceptives.

- Low levels of education.

- Children are regarded as a source of social security

- Early marriages.

- Polygamy

- Desires for sons if girls are born first to continue family name because girls get married and change the
surname.

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE LOWER BIRTH AND POPULATION GROWTH RATE

BECAUSE OF:
- Widespread of use of contraceptives and also family planning is done.

- High levels of education.

- Social security as they have pension schemes in place.

- High standards of living that make a large family expensive to have.

- Banning of child labour.

EXPLAIN HOW SOCIAL INDICATORS ARE USED TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT

- When infant mortality rate is low it means that development is high and when infant mortality rate is high,
it means that development is low.

- High literacy rate means that a country is developed whereas low literacy rate means that a country is less
developed or developing.

- High Birth Rate means that a country is less developed and a low Birth Rate means that a country is
developed.

- When there is a high doctor-patient ratio it means that the country is less developed and a low doctor-
patient ratio means that the country is developed.

- High life expectancy shows that the country is developed and a low life expectancy shows that the country
is less developed.

- High calorie intake shows that a country is developed whereas a low calorie intake shows that a country is
less developed.
 ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT

Define Gross National Product

- Gross National Product is the total value of goods and services that a country produces in one year including
earnings from abroad or outside the country.

Define GNP per capita

- GNP per capita is the proportion / share of a country’s wealth each individual is entitled to if the country’s
money is shared equally / evenly amongst the population

- GNP per capita is the total money value of goods and services produced within and outside the country
divided by the total population

THE ADVANTAGES OF GNP PER CAPITA

- GNP per capita is a standard measure, therefore, allows easy comparison between countries and years.

- The data on GNP per capita is available from the World Bank.

- GNP per capita highlights international wealth differences.

- GNP per capita is better than raw GNP measurement, which ignores the size of the population, or GDP, which
does not include investments abroad.

- GNP per capita helps to estimate productivity capacity of country’s economy.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF GNP PER CAPITA

The reasons why GNP per capita is not a good measure of development

- The reason why GNP per capita is not a good measure of development is that few people might own most of
the land, farms, shops, factories, etc. leaving the majority very poor i.e. it ignores the difference between the
rich and the poor within the country

- GNP per capita ignores the informal sector and illicit trades; economists only count goods and services
marketed openly and recorded by government.

- Production/income statistics may be inaccurate / concealing of actual earnings to avert tax or Business officials
hiding information

- Population statistics may be inaccurate and/or outdated

- There is official biasness of statistics to score a political mileage

- GNP per capita assumes that everyone is working and benefiting from the economy and ignores the quality of
life, social & environmental consequences of wealth/ignores happiness

THE REASONS WHY COUNTRIES OF THE NORTH/DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE A HIGHER

GNP THAN THOSE OF THE SOUTH/DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- The countries of the North have mass production due to use of complex and many industries whereas countries
of the South have low production because of use of simple technology and few industries.
- Countries of the North export a lot of high value / expensive goods & services while countries of the South
export low value goods and services.

- The reason why countries of the North have high GNP is because they price the commodities themselves while
the prices of raw materials from the countries of the South are determined by the North.

- The countries of the North have favourable terms of trade whereas countries of the South have unfavourable
conditions of trade because are determined by the countries of the North.

- Most Multi-National Companies originate from countries of the North and operate in other countries which
lead profit repatriation

- Countries of the North earn a lot of interest from loans to the developing countries.

2. ENERGY USE/ ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Define Energy use/ Energy consumption

Energy consumption is the average amount of kilograms of oil, gas, electricity or wood that utilized by each person
in a country.

- Developed countries use large quantities of energy while Developing countries use small quantities.

- Developed countries use a lot of energy because they have a lot of industries, machines, vehicles and gadgets
that use electricity and have large urban areas.

- Developing countries use smaller quantities of energy because there have very few industries, vehicles and
machines. Most work is done manually.

3. EMPLOYMENT

In developed countries there are a lot of employment opportunities in:

- Large industrial sector
- Large commercial service sector
- Quaternary sector

In developing countries employment is very low because of

- Small industrial sector
- Small commercial sector
- Dependence on subsistence agriculture.

4. TRADE

Developed countries are dependent on exporting manufactured or finished products.

Developing countries are dependent on exports of raw materials.

POLITICAL INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN RIGHTS: These are things or conditions that every person is entitled to have and they are part of the
constitution of every country.

Respect for human rights marks a high level of development for any country.
Conditions that fulfil human rights include the following:
- Regular free and fair elections
- Freedom of speech or opinion
- Right to education
- Freedom of association and worship
- Impartial/ fair justice
- Law and order
- Peace and security
- Equal opportunities in all spheres of life.

However if these conditions are not met, there is bound to be discrimination

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

A theory is a set of ideas offering explanation about something.

Theories of development are ideas from such disciplines as economics, politics and sociology that attempt to explain
how the world can be developed.
Different views have been brought forward, these include:
 Modernisation theory
 Dependency theory
 Sustainable Development theory
 Environmentalism and sustainable development theory
 Populism
 Globalisation
 Gender and Development

Fig.5

MODERNISATION THEORY

Modernisation theory is a set of ideas that states that for developing countries to advance, they should copy
development pattern that was taken by the developed countries.
It is also referred to as the ‘Stages of Growth theory’.

The theory suggests that a country goes through the following stages of development.

Stage 1: Traditional society stage depends on subsistence agriculture.

 Technology is still simple or rudimentary.
 People live a simple life, therefore low standard of living.
 In traditional society, people practice barter trading.
 Traditional societies have few towns

Stage 2: Pre-Conditions for take-off is when there is improvement of transport network, for example, roads, canals
and railways.
 Agriculture revolution, for example, changes from subsistence to commercial farming.
 In Pre-Conditions for take-off stage, there is introduction of fertilizers, hybrids and pesticides.
 Specialisation of work begins.
 Improved technology that raises productivity.
 Urbanisation starts.

Stage 3: Take-off is when industry stimulates city growth.

 There is rapid urbanisation in take-off stage.
 Investment in capital goods rises and quickens economic growth.
 In take-off stage, some people become rich.

Stage 4: Drive to Maturity is when there is rapid increase in manufacturing and service industries, have more
exports and fewer imports.
 More people dependent on paid employment and wages generally improve.
 Agriculture now fully mechanized with very few people engaged in it, more people in industries.
 Demand for consumer goods increases.

Stage 5: The Age of High Consumption is when there is high production of consumer goods.
 Large services sector that employs the majority of the people.
 High standards of living as wages are good for most people.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

Policies that should be implemented:

 There should be investment in industry and infrastructure.
 Apply or borrow ideas from the Capitalist countries of the North.
 There should be emphasis on the importance of education and training.
 People should give up their traditional habits and experiment with new ideas.
 There should be change from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture.
 New production technologies should be introduced.
 There should be specialisation in production.
 Urbanisation should take place.
 There should be industrialisation.
 People should be patient enough to accept less income until the economy of the country has grown.

THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION THEORY

 Modernisation theory shows the importance of capital investment as a fuel for economic development.
 Modernisation theory lays emphasis on the need for change in the attitudes and ways of life of people.
  Modernisation theory stresses the need to work hard for little money, for example, working for low wages
so as to enjoy full benefits later.
 Modernisation theory recognises that change can be unpleasant and that certain groups will suffer in the
process.

THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF MODERNISATION THEORY

 Modernisation theory neglects political and social development.

 Modernisation theory ignores the fact developing countries are affected by circumstances beyond their
control that are deterrent to development, for example, natural disasters.
 Modernisation theory neglects the fact that some people value their cultural practices too much to
relinquish them.
 Modernisation theory also ignores the fact that developing countries lack cheap sources of raw materials
that developed countries got from their former colonies.
 Capitalism is not the only way to achieve development, USSR and China developed under the Socialist
mode of production.
 Developing countries are unable to follow the pattern of development because developed countries control
their economies and determine trade terms.
 Globalisation, Multi-National Companies, free trade all make it difficult for developing countries to
develop.
 There is an unfair international trading term that favours the developed countries at the expense of the
developing countries, the trade terms are set or determined by the developed countries.

 In many countries the wealth has never trickled down.

 In some countries industrialisation is slow with the economy trapped by dependence on producing primary
products.

DESCRIBE THE STAGES OF THE MODERNISATION THEORY

-The traditional society is where people practise barter system and subsistence farming. The people make simple
crafts. The people also experience low standards of living.

-The Preconditions for take-off stage is where new technology arises. The people start to practise commercial
farming. The specialisation increases in this stage. In this stage urbanisation starts to happen. The people start to use
hybrid seeds and fertilizers.

-The take-off stage is when there is investment in capital goods. There is also growth of cities in the take-off stage.
Some people become rich. In take-off stage there is rapid urbanisation.

-The Drive to maturity/ maturity stage is where manufacturing dominates the economy. There are more exports than
imports in drive to maturity stage. The wages increase as most people get employed. The demand for consumer
goods increases

-The age of high consumption/ high mass consumption stage is where service industries and consumer goods
dominate the economy. The wages are high for many people. Many people experience high living standards.

DESCRIBE THE BENEFITS TO THE PEOPLE OF A COUNTRY WHERE MODERNISATION HAS

TAKEN PLACE.
-The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken place is that they will be technological
development or people will start to use modern technology.

-In a country were modernisation has taken place there will be infrastructural development, for example, tarred
roads, hospitals and schools.

-The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken place is having human resource development/
skilled manpower/ high literacy rate because the modernisation theory emphasis training and education.

-The country were modernisation has taken place people will have improved standard of living.

-In a country were modernisation has taken place they will be improved service delivery through research and
development.

-The benefit to the people of a country where modernisation has taken place is availability of affordable goods.

-They will be wealth creation in a country where modernisation has taken place.
-They will be employment creation in a country where modernisation has taken place.

DEPENDENCY THEORY

Define dependency theory

Dependency is a set of ideas that argue that the South was unable to copy and adopt the North’s path of
industrialisation because the North exploited the South’s resources to enhance their economy and kept the South
poor

- Dependency theory is a set of ideas that states that in order to advance, developing countries should rely
less on developed ones.

- It argues that less developed countries became economically reliant on the North and thus the North
became industrialised at the expense of the South who remained underdeveloped

Dependency was developed in the 1960’s to try and explain why developing countries were failing to develop.

Europe and North America became rich and developed through exploiting the poor countries during colonialism.

They exploited resources of developing countries and neglected their economies by not developing any industries
or infrastructure.

Exploitation is still continuing today in the form of Neo-Colonialism, that is the control of the economies of
developing countries through;

 Trans National Corporations or Multi-National Companies

 International loans (the debt trap)
 Foreign Aid Control
 International trade

Dependency theorists argue that developing countries would be better off if they break off economic relations with
the developed countries and develop on their own.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

  The Countries of the South/ developing countries should cut economic links with Countries of the North/
developed countries.
 Developing countries should reduce spending on consumer goods but spend more on capital goods, for
example, machinery.
 Countries of the South should save and invest locally instead of borrowing.
 Local inventions should be encouraged, for example, development of local technology.
 Developing countries should become self-sufficient reliant.
 Dependency theory encourages people to be patient and sacrifice for a better future.

THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY THEORY

 It focuses on all aspects of development which are social, political, economic and environmental
development.
 Dependency theory acknowledges the inter-linkage of countries globally.
 Dependency theory explains the crippling effect of colonialism.
 Dependency theory emphasis the need for self-reliance in capital and technology.

THE WEAKNESSES /DISADVANTAGES OF DEPENDENCY THEORY

 It ignores the fact that the South lacks investment capital that would make cutting links difficult.
 Dependency theory also ignores the fact that the developing countries would lose the benefits of
international trade if it cuts links with the Countries of the North.
 Producing for the local market may result in the inefficient use of resources.
 It neglects the fact that most people in the South aspire to the lifestyle of the people of the Countries of the
North, and may likely object when asked to stop importing products from Countries of the North.
 Most developing countries lack the capacity to develop the industrial technology own their own.
 Governments will face a lot of opposition if they stop importing western goods, for example, television
and cars.
 Some countries which have links with the Countries of the North developed successfully without cutting
links with the Countries of the North, for example, Cuba and Tanzania.

SUGGEST THREE WAYS IN WHICH DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN USE THE DEPENDENCY
THEORY TO DEVELOP.

-The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to develop is by breaking off all links with the
West and become self -reliant.

-Developed countries can use dependency theory to develop by avoid borrowing from outside but save and invest
within the country.

-The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to develop is by spending less on consumer
goods.

-Developed countries can use dependency theory to develop by using appropriate technology and make its own
industries or encourage local inventions.

-The way in which developing countries can use dependency theory to develop by encouraging its people to exercise
patience, work hard and shun modern lifestyles.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 Define Sustainable Development:

- Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present generation to meet its needs without
jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their needs

- Sustainable Development is the wise use of resources by the present generation to meet its needs so that
future generations could also meet their needs.

Sustainable Development was developed in the 1970’s as a response to the damage to the environment by the
developed countries, for example, pollution, depletion of species and resources, soil erosion, desertification and
rapidly rising global population.
There was also concern with the unequal sharing of the world’s resources, for example, 80% are consumed by
the developed countries and 20% by developing countries.
It calls for both equitable sharing and the caring for the environment.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 Sustainable Development encourages one to think about conservation, which is a good thing.
 It highlights the dangers facing the globe, such as pollution.
 Sustainable Development makes people aware that they have the common problems.
 Makes the world realize the need for cooperation in solving environmental problem.
 It alerts the world to the unfair distribution of the global resources.

THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 Sustainable development ignores the possibility of the discovery of new sources of resources.
 It dispels the possibility of a development of new technologies which will help increase food supply, reduce
pollution, and substitutes for minerals that pollute the environment, for example, solar energy for wood and
coal.
 Sustainable development neglects a possibility of people and government joining hands to find ways of
equitable distribution of resources.

THE WAYS OF ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN A COUNTRY

- Stock piling of minerals / preservation until prices in the world market has improved.
- Introduction of Legislation / seasonal hunting / quotas / hunting licenses / National Parks & Game Reserves
/ Anti-poaching laws to prevent extinction of natural resources.
- Stabilising population growth e.g. planning for small families, birth control, practicing population control,
giving incentives to small families or penalize for large families
- Conservation measures; tree planting, recycling, re-use, reduce, refuse, clean-up, limited use of resources,
good farming methods, Wildlife Management Areas
- Education on resource use
- Use of synthetic products
- Finding alternative energy sources, for example, the use of solar energy instead of coal which causes air
pollution.

ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

GENDER DEVELOPMENT
There has been a realisation that women, despite being the majority population, have been excluded from most areas
such as:
Political rights, there are few women in leadership positions.

Legal rights, no laws protecting women against oppression or abuse.

Access to education and training, most girls are uneducated because they are regarded as being less
important.

Access to property, most societies prohibit women from owning property, for example, land and livestock.

The unequal treatment at the work place, women are given low paying jobs even if they have the same
qualifications as men, for example, managerial positions are held by men mostly.

GENDER EQUALITY IN DEVELOPMENT

The move to include women in development started in the 1970’s and 1980’s as a result of the pressure from human
and women’s rights groups.
There was a realisation that sidelining women and serious implications.

THE PROBLEMS OF SIDELINING WOMEN

- More than half of the human resources are underutilized.

- Large population families because women are ignorant of birth control because of being illiterate.
- Poor health for families and consequently an unhealthy nation.
- Less skilled manpower.
- Fewer enterprises since women have less access to credit.

POLICIES THAT WILL ALLOW WOMEN TO PARTICIPATE IN DEVELOPMENT

- Giving women full access to credit capital.

- Giving women property rights.
- Giving women access to education, for example, universal education (compulsory and free).
- Affirmative action for women that is programmes that deliberately accelerates the promotion of women
over men in education, politics, business and the workplace.
- Promoting women’s organisations that fight for their rights, for example, Emang Basadi and Metlhaetsile.
- Including gender studies in the school curriculum to remove prejudice among the young population.
- Legislation, passing laws that gives equal rights to both men and women.

GLOBALISATION

Globalisation is a set of ideas that emphasis that all people of the world should become once nation in order to bring
democracy as a way of maintaining peace and stability.

Globalisation is the integration of the world’s economic, social and political systems into one entity.
It involves interaction and interdependence of all the countries in the world- The Global village.
Globalisation came about after the collapse of the Communist bloc in the 1980’s. Capitalism became the dominant
political and economic system.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS/ PRINCIPLES

- Organisations for economic cooperation for both developed and developing nations must implement -
mutually agreeable and sustainable policies to reinforce macro-economic structures.
- Infrastructure should be improved in developing countries.
- There should be fostering of good governance and participatory democracy.
- Policy makers in developing countries should facilitate the dissemination and application of technological
knowledge.

THE STRENGTHS/ ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION

There will be emergence of more democratic system in the world.

More economic opportunities will be developed, especially for developing countries.

THE WEAKNESSES/ DISADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION

Globalisation may perpetuate domination of the world trade by the developed nations.

The regional blocks that already exist run against the concept of free trade.

THE DEVELOPMENT THAT SHOW THE GROWTH OF A GLOBAL VILLAGE

- The emergence of satellite and high-tech global information systems, for example, DSTV and internet.

- Globalised patterns of consumerism, for example, consumer rights movements.

- Growing appeal for a universalized wealthy ‘cosmopolitan life style’.

- Nation’s participation in world sport such as Miss World and FIFA World Cup.

- Relative decline of the Soviet Block, and other blocks.

- The growth of regional and international agencies and organisations.

- Emergence of Human Rights Protection Organisations, for example, Ditshwanelo.

THE ELEMENTS/ CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALISATION

- Globalisation improves technology and production, for example, use of automated machines, information
technology and technology transfers to the developing countries.

- Globalisation integrated global communication network, for example, satellite, radio, television and radio
networks, the internet and global media publication such as newspapers and magazines.

- Globalisations lead to trade liberation which is the removal of trade barriers to facilitate the free movement
of goods and services across international borders.

- Globalisation leads to the rise of Trans-National Corporations, Global business empires with subsidiaries
all over. They are far much more powerful economically than national governments.

- Globalisation caused decline of sovereign state, independent nation states will cease to exist and to be
replaced by regional and international economic groupings, for example, European Union.
 THE PROBLEM CREATED BY GLOBALISATION

- Increase in poverty and inequalities between the developed and developing countries.

- Globalisation leads to concentration of capital and wealth in the developed countries.

- It lead to emergence of Trans-National Corporations that are difficult to control and monitor.

- Globalisation caused marginalization of the developed countries from the global village because they lack
capital, technology, skills and have weak economies that are unable to compete.

- Globalisation cause environmental degradation by Trans-National Corporation.

THE GLOBALISATION CHALLENGES FOR AFRICA

 Education and training to produce competitive people who can work anywhere in the world.

 Regional integration and continental Union to enable African economies to compete on the international
market.

 Controlling the repatriation of profits by Trans-National Corporations.

 Controlling the brain drain, for example, the flight of skilled and professional labour to the developed
countries.

 Globalisation leads to shifting from primary production to secondary production.

 Globalisation leads to controlling the HIV/AIDS pandemic.

 Globalisation builds a stable political climate in order to be able to attract investment.

 Changing the African mindset from consumerism to saving, investment and production.

 Respect for human rights and upholding their dignity and pride.

Describe the challenges faced by Africa/ the countries of the South as a result of globalisation

Ideas such as:

-The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of development of international
crime syndicates or terrorism.

-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of increase of brain drain as a result of globalisation
because most of skilled people in developed countries prefer working in developed countries.
-The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of the dominance or control of
the economy by the Multi-National Companies taking profit away to their countries of origin.

-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of lack of funds to educate and train people to compete for
jobs locally or have high illiteracy rate.

-The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of HIV and AIDS killing their
skilled manpower.

-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of having weak economies which fail to compete in a
globalised world because of dependence on exporting raw materials instead of finished goods.

-The countries of the South are faced with the challenge of loss of sovereignty as a result of globalisation.

- The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of loss of culture.

- The challenge faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation is that of difficult to accept change.

(ii) Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of all countries.

Ideas such as:

-The way through which globalisation encourages development of all countries is by transfer of technology from
developed countries to less developed countries, for example, automated machines. /Improvement of technology/
from simple technology to complex technology, for example automated machines.

-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through introduction of global communication
networks, for example, internet and televisions.

-The way through which globalisation encourages development is by trade liberalisation or promote foreign
exchange.

-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through international policing/ Interpol/ peaceful
interventions.

-The way through which globalisation encourages development is by increase of Trans-National Companies.

-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through formation of regional and international
groupings such as European Union and African Union.

-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through the promotion of democracy.

-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through the free movement of labour.

-The way by which globalisation is used to develop the world is through the encouragement of investment or saving.

POPULISM

Populism is a set of ideas that emphasizes that people should be agents of their own development.

They should deal with their problems on an individual level.

They should deal with their problems via local non-governmental and voluntary organisations.
The theory recognizes three sets of problems as obstructing human development:

 Concentration of power within government bureaucracies and large private sector firms and organisation.
 The tendency to evoke narrow economic and technical criteria and procedures as a basis for their decisions
and general operations.
 Exclusive mechanisms working through the state and the market marginalize the vast majority of poor
people from political and economic life.

Populism also opposes large –scale industrialisation and, instead, supports smaller scale and community-oriented
ventures in industry and agriculture.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Study Fig 1, which shows population statistics for selected African countries and answer question 1(a)

Fig1
(a)(i) Describe the causes of high infant mortality rate in developing countries.

(ii) Describe the ways in which the government is trying to reduce the infant mortality rate in Botswana.

2. Study Fig. 2 which shows some indicators to measure development.

Fig.2
(a)(i) Explain how each indicator shown in Fig.1 is used to measure development.

(ii) State the disadvantage of using GNP per capita to measure development.

(b)(i) Explain how any three political indicators can be used to measure development.

(ii) Explain why political development is difficult to measure.

3. Fig. 3 shows a list of countries and their indicators of development. Use it to answer question 1(a)

Fig.3

(a)(i) Using Fig. 3 only, describe three economic characteristics of developed countries.

(ii) Explain why there are differences in the levels of development between developed and developing countries.

5. Study Fig. 4, which shows some theories of development.

Fig.4

(a)(i) Describe the stages of the Modernisation theory.

(ii) Describe the benefits to the people of a country where modernisation has taken place.
(b)(i) Describe the factors that slow down development in the developing countries.

(ii) Explain how social indicators are used to measure development.

5. Study Fig. 5, which shows the Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs), and answer questions (a)(i) and (ii).

Fig.5

(a)(i) Describe the location of the Newly Industrialised Countries.

(ii) Explain the challenges which are faced by the Newly Industrialised Countries.

6. Study Fig. 6, which shows the division of the world into countries of the North and countries of the South.

Fig.6

(a)(i) Describe the geographical locations of the countries of the South.

(ii) Describe the economic characteristics of the countries of the North.

(b)(i) Describe the challenges faced by the countries of the South as a result of globalisation.

(ii) Suggest ways through which globalisation encourages development of all countries.