Back to basics:

Telecoms part 1

Paul Darlington and Trevor Foulkes

This ‘Back to basics’ article covers the Role of operational telecoms

subject of railway telecommunications. As Operational telecoms systems have four
with other such articles, our intention is roles for a railway:
to provide an overview for IRSE members
new to the industry or who may not have • To facilitate normal day-to-day voice and
“Without experience of working in this specific area. data communications. This includes links
communications The content may also be useful for people to support the operation of signalling and
studying for the IRSE Exam. The objective is electrification systems.
trains cannot
to describe the subject in a generic manner • To facilitate quick communications in the
move” and we have used examples based mainly event of a problem or hazard.
on UK main line railways. Part 1 covers • To facilitate communications of those
telecoms networks and part 2 in another attending an accident.
issue of IRSE News will look at telecoms for
passenger use. • To provide bearer services for other
systems to enable communications where
Communication is essential to all businesses and when required.
including railways and without telecoms Normal day-to-day operational verbal
services trains would not run effectively. It is communication includes the use by signallers to
possible for trains to move without signalling, give instructions to drivers to move their trains
but communications are necessary for efficient in the event of a signalling system failure and to
operation. Railway telecoms covers voice, data persons wishing to use level crossings. They are
and radio for rail operations, rail business, and also used to take and give back line possessions
passenger use. It can also cover commercial and grant electric traction isolations for
telecoms services for some railways. emergencies and to facilitate engineering works.

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 IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

It also includes day-to-day conversations to plan to cross the track. Other lineside phones may also
train movements and manage the railway. In all be provided to facilitate engineering or operational
these cases it is very important that the receiver of activities, although these are often undertaken
the instruction correctly interprets the instruction using a public or railway specific radio system.
in order to carry it out. Most railways do this by the Lineside telephones are normally analogue 300-
use of a voice protocol which requires messages 3400Hz in operation and connected via a twisted
to be repeated back. However, for the telecoms copper pair in a cable to the nearest signal box or
service it is important that the voice channel is transmission node. No power supply is required
clear and of sufficient volume to enable messages at the telephone location, as it is powered over
to be understood. Also, if the display system the copper circuit, at normally 50V DC. This is
shows the location or role of the users then this known as Central Battery (CB) working. When a
must be proven correct, as far as is practical, since user wishes to establish a call, they lift the handset,
credible but incorrect information could mislead a which places a 600Ω loop on the pair. This allows
user into making an incorrect decision or miss- a current to flow which is detected at the far end.
understanding the context of the message being The actual loop current will be dependent on the
passed. A misinterpretation of an operational resistance of the copper circuit and will decrease
message can result in an incorrect action and with distance. Depending on the use of the
potentially lead to a hazardous situation. telephone, the far end may route the call directly
to the signaller and return ringing tone to the user.
When there is a hazardous situation it needs to
This is a point-to-point telephone circuit and is
be rectified, often with trains being stopped,
commonly used for level crossings. Alternatively,
before an accident occurs. Railway telecoms
the far end may return dial tone which tells the
radio systems have a key role in managing such
user to enter the number for the extension or
situations where trains need to be stopped. Trains
“If there is an may need to quickly alert the signaller of a hazard
service they require. The number is normally sent
accident it is as a sequence of multi-frequency tones which
and request assistance. The person becoming
are decoded at the far end and used to route
important that aware of the hazard needs to be able to contact
the call to the required destination. Once the
all trains in the immediate area quickly and easily,
the emergency and instruct the drivers to bring their trains to a
far end answers the call, a duplex speech path is
services can established back to the initiator and conversations
stop. Time is of the essence in passing this type
can take place. When the user wishes to terminate
be contacted of message. Even if the train cannot be brought
the call, he replaces the handset which removes
quickly” to a stand before the collision, a reduction
the loop. If a phone needs to be rung, an AC
in speed can significantly reduce the impact
ringing current typically 75V at 25Hz is applied
of the accident.
to the line. The current is interrupted to give the
If there is an accident it is important that the distinctive ringing cadence. The telephone will be
emergency services can be contacted quickly to rung by this current until the handset is lifted and
help with recovery and reach any injured people. the loop applied. At this point the ringing current is
In many cases the emergency services provide removed and the speech circuit established.
Telecommunications their own communications systems but when
are essential for the safe
access distances are extended, for example in Copper cable
and smooth operation of
railways worldwide. The sub-surface stations, tunnels, or remote locations, Telephones will normally be connected via a
people upon which the the equipment to allow the emergency services to two pair ‘tail cable’ to a lineside location or
network depends work in extend their normal radio systems may need to be connection box where the circuit is connected
different roles, and have provided by the railway. to the main line side cable. Copper cables come
different needs of their in many varieties as the number of pairs can vary
equipment. Voice communications by telephone from single pairs to hundreds of pairs and the
Photos Shutterstock/
Some railways provide lineside telephones for the conductor size can vary from typically 0.63mm or
APChanel, Paveils
Dunalcevs, 1000Words public at level crossings so they can contact the 0.9mm gauge (diameter) to much bigger sizes on
and Chuyuss. signaller in an emergency or to obtain permission older copper cables. Each pair is twisted together

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IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

to reduce crosstalk from other circuits in the cable reflection that occurs, to identify any problems
and from external sources. In cables with many that might be present in the cable. A clean cut is
pairs, these are arranged in layers. A system of easy to locate but a poor joint or deteriorating
colour coding is used so that each pair and the fibre connection will result in a higher reflection
conductors forming each pair (known as legs) reading, with the OTDR indicating the distance
can be individually identified. The copper pairs to the problem.
are normally protected by a moisture barrier and
Spare network bandwidth can also be leased
“Telecoms petroleum jelly to prevent water ingress, and an
to others for commercial telecoms purposes,
insulating sheath, which can be zero halogen and
copper cables low smoke if required for underground locations.
if permitted by the national legislation
can be used covering commercial telecoms. This could
Some older copper cables were provided with a
include individual fibres or capacity in railway
to carry DC steel armoured layer for electrification traction
telecoms cable routes leased to third parties.
immunisation purposes, but this is now normally
signalling provided by a separate screening conductor. The Any lease agreements will need to take into
circuits, but not sheath is normally marked with information so that account the priority of telecoms services
for railway operational purposes and the
vice versa as cables can be identified.
maintenance arrangements.
conventional Telecoms copper cables can be used to carry
signalling DC signalling circuits, but not vice versa as Concentrators
conventional signalling cables are not constructed At the signal box there will be an operator
cables are not with twisted pairs since they are designed for only interface, sometimes called a “concentrator”, to
constructed with DC circuits. If a telecoms cable is used to carry which all the lineside phones and other phones
twisted pairs” both telecoms and signalling circuits it is normally are connected e.g. phone connections to
recommended to fully terminate all the cable pairs adjacent signal boxes, electrical control rooms
in every trackside location case, using a method and operational control rooms. When a phone
which facilitates easy identification of pairs, testing is ringing in, an appropriate light flashes or the
and isolation. For good quality speech and data display is changed to show which phone it is.
services, a telecoms cable will require a cable The signaller can choose which line to answer by
insulation resistance of several megohms, which is lifting his handset and selecting the particular line.
far higher than needed for a DC signalling circuit. He can also ring a phone by lifting the handset
and pressing the appropriate button. In some
Fibre cables
railways, phone lines for some level crossings
The introduction of fibre optics revolutionised give a distinctive different ringing sound so the
telecoms cable networks for railways. Fibre optic signaller can take quicker action. Sometimes
cables are small and light (compared to copper the signaller’s handset is equipped with a press-
multipair cables) and can be used to transmit very to-talk button so that the driver can only hear
high data rates (several 100Gbit/s) and are immune what is said by the signaller to the handset and
from electrical interference. The distance between not hear conversations on other lines. There are
transmission nodes can be increased significantly many versions of concentrators based on the
compared to copper cabling. technology available when they were brought
Fibres carry short wavelength light pulses and into service. Some have a key and lamp for each
are used in conjunction with digital transmission line, others are based on touch screens telephone
systems. Early fibre cables were multimode systems similar to those used in money markets
graded-index but were quickly superseded by and known as ‘dealer boards’. Some combine the
single mode fibre using 1310 nanometre (nm) radio and fixed lines on the same display as the
wavelength with improved attenuation and signalling controls. Modern concentrators are
bandwidth. Multimode cable remains cheaper based on computers that communicate using the
“UHF radios and can still be used on short haul applications, Internet Protocol (IP) see later.
are generally typically in buildings. Early cables typically If the signal box and phone are separated by an
contained 8 or 10 fibres positioned within a loose
used for station tube construction with a Kevlar® central strength
appreciable distance, say over 15km (10 miles),
management, then a transmission system will be needed to
member with no metallic elements. Fibre count
extend the circuit. This is covered later.
shunting and within cables has increased and cables containing
to facilitate hundreds of fibres in several tubes are now Voice communication by radio
available. Fibre cables, being much smaller than UHF (Ultra High Frequency) radios are generally
engineering copper equivalents, can be rolled on to a drum in
used for station management, shunting and to
work” much greater lengths, requiring less joints when
facilitate engineering work. Some are used as
installed trackside. Care has to be taken however
‘back-to-back’ radios and some have base stations
during design and installation not to bend the fibre
which allow the connection of a landline from, say
cable too tightly around corners.
the signal box. UHF radios are normally simplex so
The essential tools for working on fibre are each user has to press a button when they wish
a fusion splicer and an Optical Time Domain to talk and release to listen. Individual radios are
Reflectometer (OTDR). A splicer effectively distinguished by callsigns and strict voice protocol
heats and welds the fibre together. Early models is required as a licence condition. When used by
required the jointer to align the two ends a shunter to give instructions to a driver, some
mechanically using a built-in microscope but now radios have a facility to transmit a confidence
the process is automated. The OTDR is used to tone so the driver knows the shunter still wishes
send pulses of light down a fibre and measure any them to continue or else the shunter has to keep

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 IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

Operations and Radio block Signaller

Dispatcher
maintenance centre centre fixed terminal

Other
networks

Mobile Switching
Centre (MSC) A GSM-R network will typically
have more than one MSC,
several BSCs and many BTSs

Base Station
BSC BSC
Controller (BSC)

Base Transceiver BTS BTS BTS

Station (BTS)

Mobiles Portables

Figure 1 – Schematic of repeating the instruction. For engineering work mounted on the train or vehicle roof and have
typical GSM-R network. public radio networks are often used if there is higher power levels. As a train passes along
coverage at the location. a section of route it reselects the next base
station to monitor based on the “neighbour list”
Many railways have or are installing their own transmitted from each base station and the relative
national radio networks to the GSM-R standard. received signal strengths of each neighbour and
This system is based on the 2G version of public the currently selected base station.
networks with some extra enhanced facilities:
In a public network it does not matter which
• Railway Emergency Call (REC).
base station is used for a call, but for a railway
• Prioritisation for important calls. emergency call it is important as it is established
• Location dependent addressing e.g. contact around the GSM-R cell which the train mobile
the signaller who controls the section of line had selected before the call set up, to make sure
for the train making the call. a call is routed to the controlling signaller. Thus,
• Functional dependent addressing e.g. contact the control of the reselection is important and
the driver of train number 50629. needs careful design of frequency allocation
and neighbour lists, especially when there is a
• Voice group calls e.g. a shunting group. parallel railway close by. Frequency allocations
“Radio coverage
• Data services e.g. European Train Control also have to take account of any noise which
is critical to the System (ETCS) data. may be introduced by the receivers picking up
success of a Figure 1 shows a schematic of typical GSM-R signals on the same or adjacent frequencies
GSM-R system” system. GSM-R systems have dedicated spectrum from other masts in the area. In addition, to
which is harmonised across Europe as: Uplink reduce the size and hence impact of a railway
876–880MHz for mobile transmission and emergency call, operators normally want to be
Downlink 921–925MHz for mobile reception. able to distinguish between trains on the various
lines approaching busy junctions with often the
Radio coverage is critical to the success of a base station mast covering three or more sections
GSM-R system. Many issues affect radio coverage, of line approaching a junction. This has to be
including cuttings, trees, hills, mast height and achieved using only a small number of frequencies
the frequency used. A public mobile system radio compared to a public GSM system. In Europe only
coverage will be optimised for revenue and it may 19 are currently available for GSM-R.
be acceptable for small areas to have no coverage.
For a railway radio network, complete coverage It is also important for the handover of calls to
along a line of route will be required, including all occur robustly so as to not interrupt speech
cuttings, bridges and tunnels. or data communications. This handover takes
time and therefore the handover zone has to
It makes a significant difference to radio coverage increase as the maximum line speed increases.
design if a network is being designed for vehicle Care has to be taken when trains enter a tunnel,
mounted mobile radios or hand held portable for example, to ensure there is sufficient time for
radios, as the former can have the antennas a handover. Additional base station or repeaters

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IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

Tunnels require may be required in large stations, cuttings, under Work is underway on the replacement for
significant consideration bridges and tunnels. GSM-R, called FRMCS (Future Railway Mobile
when providing radio Communication System) but it is expected that
communications. A common problem to almost all railways is
the current GSM-R functionality will be carried
Photo Shutterstock/ providing radio communications in tunnels.
Dirtymouse. forward to the new system.
Communication using a tunnel mounted aerial
in a single bore tunnel at 450MHz is possible Data
up to around 500m, whilst it can reach 1.5km
Railway telecoms does not just use voice as data
in a double track tunnel. At the higher band
circuits are required to allow remote control
frequency of 900MHz the distance increases to
and monitoring of equipment. Data circuits are
around 2km or more for double track tunnels.
provided to support signalling systems, e.g. SSI,
The tunnel dimensions become significant as
Westlock, Smartlock when long distance terminals
greater propagation distances have been found in
are required. Data circuits can be supported over
the tunnels on the high-speed lines in Germany,
copper cables using modems or plug directly into
“Tunnel which are built to a more generous loading gauge
transmission equipment.
than other railways, such as the UK.
dimensions The near continuous data connection between
become The effect of introducing a train into the tunnel
trains and control centre to support the European
is to increase the attenuation rate due to the
significant” blocking presence of the train. In a single
Train Control System (ETCS) is normally provided
via a GSM-R network in Europe and beyond.
bore tunnel this can be a significant problem,
Railways, particularly metros, that use other cab
depending on the tunnel dimensions. In a double
based signalling systems (e.g. Communications
track tunnel the effect may become significant
Based Train Control CBTC) may adopt an
when trains are passing. At certain frequencies
alternative radio system such as TErrestrial Trunked
some tunnels can act as waveguides, which
Radio (TETRA) or even Wi-Fi if the line is in tunnel
can lessen the rate of field strength attenuation
where external interference can be controlled.
through the tunnel. Factors that can increase the
Early versions of ETCS used circuit switched data
rate of attenuation include the presence of bends
and hence required a constant data connection
in the tunnel and the construction of the tunnel
circuit to be available for the whole journey. This
(concrete, brick or rock-lined).
causes problems in dense areas where many
The space occupied by trains in the tunnel is trains are trying to access the network. To address
also important. In tunnels with no overhead line this, some GSM-R networks are being enhanced
electrification and a restricted clearance, for to support GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
example, the distance radio waves propagate which allows better use of the radio bandwidth.
is lower than comparable tunnels with a larger Packet and circuit switching are explained later in
gap between the roof of the train and the the IP section.
tunnel ceiling.
SCADA Systems
The alternative approach to the use of free-space Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
antenna propagation is to use leaky feeders or systems can be used to monitor and control many
radiating cables. These have the advantage of different processes and systems for railways.
having a consistent and generally predictable level However, the primary railway application is the
of attenuation, which is not affected by passing control of electric traction systems over wide
trains. The cable is ‘leaky’ in that it has gaps or areas. Telecoms data links with high availability
slots in its outer conductor which unbalances the will be required for electric traction SCADA system
radio signal in the cable and causes it to propagate control, together with robust voice services
radio frequencies along its entire length. for routine and emergency isolation purposes.

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 IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

Above from left, a Eliminating common failures which could isolate applications. The primary layer is where channels
signallers fixed GSM-R more than one successive electrical supply site is are converted from analogue to digital form so
terminal. important, so an emergency isolation can still be they can be combined with other circuits and
Cab GSM-R mobile unit. implemented. SCADA systems may also be used sent around the network. When the primary layer
Small ‘key and lamp’ for the monitoring and control of ancillary systems is connected to line side cables, this is normally
signallers concentrator. such as lifts and escalators, ventilation and air- done using a primary multiplexer (PMux). PMuxs
conditioning and drainage systems and will also can support, speech circuits and data circuits up
require telecoms links. to 2Mbit/s. PMuxs are connected using an E1 data
stream at 2Mbit/s. PMuxs can be configured as
Traditionally signalling telemetry systems are
point to point or in rings. Each E1 data stream has
generally not regarded as SCADA systems but
32 timeslots. Timeslot (TS) 0 is for synchronisation
they perform a very similar function, transmitting
and alarms and normally TS16 is used for channel
commands and receiving indications on the status
associated signalling. The other 30 timeslots each
of signals, points, track circuits. However in some
of 64kbit/s can be used to support speech or
railways SCADA capable equipment is used for
data circuits. The main interface cards used on a
signalling remote control systems.
railway network may be:
Transmission systems • Subscriber – to connect to a phone via the
Transmission systems are used to transmit lineside cable.
and receive more information than a single • Exchange – to connect to the exchange
cable pair or fibre and over longer distances. or concentrator.
They have evolved over time, mainly driven by
• 4-wire E&M – to provide transmit and receive
developments for public telephone networks.
paths and up to 4 status circuits which can be
“Transmission Nowadays transmission systems are normally
used to operate relays.
designed in layers to reflect the capacity and
equipment is points of presence for the different services. • G703 data interface for SSI.
now normally The core network layer has relatively few nodes • V24 or X21 for lower speed data.
connected using connected by high speed links and configured • ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) for
in a diverse manner. The access layer, on the
lineside fibre other hand, would have frequent nodes situated
some terminal equipment.
cables” where services are required, e.g. at base stations
A normal telephone circuit has a frequency range
of 300-3400Hz. A PMux converts analogue
or signal boxes.
speech into a digital form by sampling the sound
Transmission equipment is normally connected every 125μS (i.e. 8kHz) and then converting
using lineside fibre cables, but older systems may the sample value to a digital number between
still be connected by copper cable. To provide -128 and 128 i.e. 8bits. This conversion is called
diversity transmission equipment can also be quantising and is done to limit the noise due to
connected by a service provided from a public the process to a small proportion of the amplitude
telephone operator. of the signal. So, the overall bit rate by channel is
8bits/sample x 8000samples/second = 64kbits/s.
Primary layers and primary The interface card then allocates this data stream
multiplexers into a timeslot of the E1 circuit. In addition, it
Older telecoms and data transmission systems, detects items such as the loop condition or
such as Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) ring current and sends codes in timeslot 16
and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are to enable the interface card at the far end to
known as “circuit switched” transmission, with a reproduce the condition.
permanent connection established between two

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IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

Internet Protocol (IP) networks

Core SDH transport IP (Internet Protocol) as its name suggests is
High bandwidth services
(STM-16) (e.g. IT and GSM-R)
the basic protocol used on the internet, but has
been the heart of all new telecoms networks and
data communications systems provided for a
Access SDH transport number of years.
(STM-1) The PDH and SDH “circuit switched” transmission,
2/34/45Mbit/s with a permanent connection established between
Access DSL services two applications, ‘locks up’ the communication
transport resource and is inefficient, as the transmission
(2Mbit/s) path is used even when no data is being
transmitted. IP however is a “packet switched”
network, with the data message split into small
Primary Sub 2Mbit/s packets to share capacity and transmission paths
layer services which are only used when data needs to be sent.
This requires ‘routing’ to be established for each
data exchange, however resilience is built in and
Copper Analogue the communications resources are shared, making
layer services IP far more efficient than circuit switching.
Each packet needs to be given information about
the destination, its origin, and other information,
to allow the data to be routed around a meshed
Figure 2 – Typical network PMuxs are normally connected via bearer services network of routers. An IP packet is shown in
configuration based on through the higher order transmission layers but Figure 4. The payload is a variable amount of data
SDH equipment. can also be supported using Digital Subscriber to be transmitted and is typically a few kilobytes,
Line (DSL) modems over lineside copper networks. but can be up to 64 kilobytes. The IP header is
A typical network configuration based on SDH fixed at 20 bytes and contains a 32-bit source
equipment is shown in Figure 2. and destination address as well as an indication
of the length of the overall packet. Other fields
To connect a circuit switched network to an
provide a checksum, the version of IP being
Internet Protocol (IP) network, gateways are
used, and a simple type of service indicator. The
required to convert the circuits or E1 data
“time to live” field is used to set the maximum
streams into a set of packets to send round
number of hops between router nodes to prevent
the network. Data circuits for some signalling
unsuccessful delivered packets circulating and
applications (example SSI) have specific time delay
clogging up the network. After the packet has
requirements which need to be addressed in the
transferred its specified number of hops it is simply
design of the core network and require allocation
discarded and ‘dies’.
rules for such circuits, or for the E1 data streams
supporting the circuits. The IP network as described in its raw state is
simply a “best effort network”, and there is no
Figure 3 shows a typical example of how lineside
guarantee of the packets arriving, or in which
phones may be connected to a signal box, using
order they arrive, and the network is what is
Figure 3 – Lineside older circuit switched transmission.
known as connectionless, so the transport layer
telephone connected
using circuit switched
manages the flow of IP packets. Transmission
transmission.

Transmission
node
Primary multiplexer
with exchange cards

Transmission Primary multiplexer

node A with subscriber Copper cable
cards
Concentrator

Junction
boxes

Primary multiplexer
with exchange cards
Transmission Tail cable
node B Fibre cable

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 IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

A network of routers is shown in Figure 5 together

with the role of the TCP and IP headers. The
routers only examine the IP packet header, and
simply pass the datagram packet onto the next
Payload (max 65kbytes) Header (20 to 60 bytes) router in the network, according to a table held
within the router. Multiple paths for the packets
are available so the transmission network is more
reliable and it is possible for consecutive packets

Version and header length

to be routed over different paths between router
nodes. Once the packets are delivered to their

Header checksum
end-point, the TCP assembles packets in the

Fragment offset

Type of service
correct sequence and requests the retransmission

Identification
Time to live
of delayed or errored packets if required.

Protocol

Length
Not every application has the same requirements
for the delivery of IP packets. For example, when
Destination Source transmitting a document or email it is critical
Options
address address 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1
0-40
4 4 the entire data message is transmitted with no
corruption. It does not matter if it takes a few
milliseconds to receive the data message, so TCP
is used, which will request the re-transmission of
any missing or corrupt data packets. However,
a voice or video image signal is time critical
Figure 4 – An IP packet. but very small gaps in the image or voice can
Control Protocol (TCP) sits within the IP payload
and envelopes the source data by a 20-bit header be tolerated, and may not even be noticed.
and is carried by the IP packet as the payload. TCP For these applications User Datagram Protocol
acts as a connection-ordinated protocol within (UDP) is used. This assembles the data packets in
the connectionless network, it assumes the IP the correct order, but does not arrange for the
network is unreliable and numbers the IP packets retransmission of corrupt or missing packets; they
or “datagrams” at the transmitting end of the link. are simply discarded.
It examines the numbers at the receiving end and
requests the retransmission of any packets not
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)
arriving within a specified period. The numbering MPLS is a method of providing a guaranteed
sequence is used to arrange the packets into the Quality of Service (QoS) and Virtual Private
correct order, and finally TCP monitors the flow of Network (VPN) capability within an IP network,
Figure 5 – A network of
packets getting through the network and adjusts and is a method of making the connectionless
routers showing the role
of TCP and IP headers. the launch rate accordingly. IP network connection orientated. MPLS uses

Data Data

Data TCP header Data TCP header

Payload IP header Payload IP header

IP packet IP packet

Routers examine only

IP packet headers

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IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

‘labels’ to specify a virtual path for the IP packets the Transport Layer, there is either TCP for the
to follow using a 20-bit label attached to the front latency tolerable, or UDP for the latency intolerant
of each packet. MPLS provides better latency for applications. There is a vast array of protocols
time critical applications, such as voice and video, covering many possible applications that may run
and with VPN capability for security. The faster over an IP network, either internet or intranet or
routing is because the label switching is done in an IP based secure signalling system; and it is at
hardware, whereas normal IP routing involves the this level where full end to end data security needs
slower processing of software to deconstruct and to be addressed. The design and standards for IP
decode the IP address. MPLS also incorporates and the internet are administered by a consortium
Class of Service (CoS) network performance to of users, academics, and manufacturers known
differentiate between time critical, high priority as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),
traffic and delay tolerant, low priority traffic. To use unlike traditional telecoms networks which were
this service, MPLS capable routers are required. designed to international standards governed by
Voice Over IP (VoIP) the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
The IETF have set recommendations for OSI layers
VoIP systems offer many advantages compared to 2 to 7, however the IETF considers layers 5 to 7 a
a traditional circuit switched telephone exchange
single entity.
network, as voice simply becomes another
application running on an IP network, this offers Management of a telecoms network
many advantages and the capability of exceptional
“Security is a good quality sound. This is because high speed
Software-Defined Networks (SDN) are now
concern with common. SDN enables remove dynamic, efficient
codecs convert the voice to IP packets without
network configuration and alarm management
IP networks, needing the normal 4kHz frequency filtering.
in order to improve network performance and
so real time This higher quality is subject to loading on the IP
monitoring, making it more like cloud computing
network, which can lead to loss of packets and
cyber security is hence degradation of sound quality; which is
than traditional network management.
critical” why a high Quality of Service (QoS) IP network In many cases modern business systems are based
is required for VoIP. A power supply for the VoIP on an IP network and the methods of connecting
telephone will also be required. computers, printers and servers are well defined.
Security is a concern with IP networks, so real time VoIP telephones are increasingly used in offices
cyber security using encryption and firewalls along and if a railway telecoms IP network is provided
with “defence in depth” techniques with multiple for operational use it is also possible to extend
layers of defences is critical. it for business purposes. Interfaces may be
required to any older circuit switched digital
Protocol layers telephone exchanges which could still be used in
One way of explaining the various IP a railway network.
protocols and layers is to map TCP/IP and its
supporting protocols against the Open Systems
Increasing capacity
Interconnection (OSI) model as shown in Figure 6. Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM)
At physical Layer 0 and 1 there are the various or Dense Wavelength Divisional Multiplexing
transmission systems and cables in the access and (DWDM) technology can be used to make better
core network. At Layer 2 there are various data use of installed fibre. These systems use Frequency
link systems that may be used in the telecoms Division Multiplex (FDM) with between 18 and 160
IP network, including Ethernet and possibly the wavelengths of light over single mode fibre. In this
Public Switched Network for dial up connections. way many transmission links can be overlaid onto
IP resides at Layer 3, the Network layer. At Layer 4, the same fibre, to significantly increase capacity.

Figure 6 – The Open

Systems interconnection L7: Application NFS
(OSI) model.
L6: Presentation HTTP SMTP POP FTP SNMP
HTTP is Hypertext XDR
Transfer Protocol, SMTP L5: Session
is Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol, POP is Post L4: Transport TCP UDP
Office Protocol, FTP is
File Transfer Protocol, L3: Network IP
SNMP is Simple Network
L2: Link e.g. Ethernet
Mail Protocol, NFS is
Network File System, L1: Physical e.g. SDH, PDH, ADSL
XDR is External Data
Representation, PDH is L0 e.g. Copper, fibre, radio
Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy and ADSL is
Asynchronous Digital
OSI Internet
Subscriber Line.

22
 IRSE News | Issue 270 | October 2020

Electrification, interference stanchion to permit a 25kV-0-25kV arrangement

and immunisation giving a more balanced system. Trains continue to
take power at the 25kV voltage with the current
Electric traction systems can cause problems being returned in the ‘other’ catenary wire. In this
for telecommunications with electromagnetic way, for sections which do not have a train taking
induction of high voltages and noise into speech power, the currents in the OHLE conductors are
circuits. This can arise from harmonics resulting the same magnitude but in opposite phase. This
from the electric field generated by the current means that at any point which is an equal distance
drawn by electric trains in 25kV overhead line from both the conductors the induced magnetic
systems, or by the AC feeder cables and the field will be effectively zero. This is the ideal place
crude rectification of the AC supply to provide for the cable route. It is not possible to directly
a DC traction system either using third rail or align with this ideal positioning as the catenary
overhead catenaries. S&T engineers have to
“S&T engineers ensure interference will not cause malfunction
wires move from side to side and go up and down
for obstacles such as bridges and level crossings.
have to ensure of safety related circuits, particularly that short However the nullifying effect still significantly
interference circuit currents do not generate high voltages that reduces the electric field. As has been mentioned
would damage equipment or cause a dangerous
will not cause health hazard to staff. Also, higher frequency
previously, the advent of fibre optic cables
with no metallic components has significantly
malfunction of harmonics from traction systems should not cause reduced the problem of electrical interference
safety related speech circuits to become noisy and interfere with and associated immunisation for new systems and
data circuits.
circuits” in some cases may allow the use of simple feed
Various traction systems are in use around catenary systems.
the world with 25kV 50Hz one of the main In part 2 of this article we will look at telecoms
systems in use today. The ITU (International systems for passenger use and the differences
Telecommunications Union) requires induced between public and railway telecoms networks.
voltages in telecoms copper cables under normal
conditions to be no more than 60V RMS, and
under system fault conditions 430V RMS. The
noise limit for telephone circuits is a psophometric “Back to basics” and the IRSE Exam
electromotive force of 1mV. Psophometric noise is We hope our “Back to basics” articles are
‘weighted’ the same as human-perceived levels of particularly interesting and useful to those
noise. This is more important for telephony than of you who are maybe new to the industry
the raw noise voltage. and are working to build up your knowledge,
A range of solutions are required to mitigate or who have moved to a new role involving
the effects of traction power supplies on telecommunications. For those considering
line side services: taking the IRSE exam, these articles should be
particularly relevant to assist your studies.
• Limiting the lengths of copper cable section.
As an example, why not think about how you
• Having a robust balance to earth interface for would answer these questions from the 2019
powered equipment. Module 6 of the exam, based on what you have
• Position of the cable route (and hence cables) learnt from the article?
with respect to the traction cables.
You are required to produce a radio
• Providing an earthed screening cable in communication system that provides coverage
the cable route. for trains within tunnels and for station staff
• Replace longer distance copper cabling with a throughout an underground system. The
fibre optic based system. train traction system is an overhead 25kV
Some railways provide traction current at 25kV, catenary system.
“The advent of 50Hz to the train with currents of around 300A a) With the aid of diagrams describe your
fibre optic cables flowing through the train from the catenary wire chosen system and explain the factors
to the rails. To minimise interference, a booster you would consider as part of your
with no metallic transformer is used whereby the overhead line design. [12 marks]
components equipment (OHLE) is separated into in sections
of about 3km and at the end of the section a b) Produce an outline test plan including the
has significantly tests you would undertake to prove the
Booster Transformer (BT) is used to ‘suck’ the
reduced the return current out the rails and into a separate functionality of the system. [13 marks]
problem of return conductor mounted on the outside of the
electrical overhead stanchions roughly at the same height You are the telecommunications
as the catenaries. This creates an opposite phase
inteference” and opposing electric field that helps to cancel
designer for a project which is to renew
a telephone concentrator and associated
out the effect of the current in the catenaries but lineside telephones.
the effects of the currents within the occupied
overhead line section still need to be addressed. Using a risk assessment methodology
of your choice outline the hazards, and
More recent electrification projects use a 50kV proposed mitigations, throughout the asset
auto-transformer system whereby, a ‘second lifecycle. [25 marks]
catenary’ is mounted on the outside of the

23
Back to basics:
Telecoms part 2

Paul Darlington and Trevor Foulkes

Part 2 of ‘back to basics’ for railway system will quickly annoy customers and may
telecommunications covers telecoms for result in negative comments and poor publicity.
passenger or customer assistance. As with So, all sound systems should be designed by
other similar articles, the intention is to competent sound communications engineers.
provide an overview for IRSE members A good PA system will depend on four
new to the industry or who may not have key requirements:
experience of working in this specific area.
The content may also be useful for people 1. Loudness or sound pressure level. This
studying for the IRSE Exam. The objective is should be at a volume or level to please
to describe the subject in a generic manner those intending to hear the communications
and we have used examples based mainly on message, but not too loud to annoy
UK main line railways. neighbours and residents close to a railway
The concourse at station, or train passengers who may not need
Birmingham New Public Address (PA) to hear the announcement.
Street station in PA systems have always been important for
the UK is typical 2. Intelligibility. This is one of the most important
of the challenging
communicating with customers and staff, and are requirements of a PA system and where many
environment for PA also used for emergency purposes when linked systems fall short.
designers. to fire detection systems. A badly designed sound

11
IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

From left, a row of 3. Naturalness. A natural sounding PA system is Loudness and intelligibility
speakers at Birmingham one where pre-recorded announcements will
New Street station. Station PA systems must be carefully designed
sound the same or similar to real time voice to avoid conflict between wanted and unwanted
announcements. noise, and simply specifying a sound pressure
Speakers at Crewe station.
4. Reliability. All PA systems need to have good level and intelligibility requirement may provide
Inductive loop for hearing reliability and availability, with appropriate a system acceptable for rail users, but one which
aid users. redundancy in their design, this is especially annoys nearby residents. There have been cases
important with voice alarm systems which may where PA systems have been renewed with an
Combing PA with CIS have performance requirements mandated by overall lower volume, but with better intelligibility
is effective for good national legislation. resulting in more complaints from neighbours. An
communications. The first three requirements are dependent extreme case resulted in a noise prohibition notice
on the acoustic environment, which can be and for the station PA system to be switched
particularly challenging at railway stations with off until the problem was resolved. A detailed
variable building design and noisy trains. Sound investigation found a number of issues. The
may be reflected, refracted, diffracted, absorbed station at times was busy with announcements
or transmitted through obstructions, dependent as frequent as every 30 seconds. A second issue
upon the material and size of the obstruction. was that some announcers took 34 seconds to
“A typical railway communicate the same information as other
A typical railway station will need careful design announcers did in 6 seconds. The solution
station will need of its speaker system to make the best of what consisted of a number of changes which included
careful design can be a very challenging acoustic environment. zoning of the system and establishing common
of its speaker The sound design engineer will need to consider: scripts for all announcements.
the operating environment of the equipment in
system to make terms of temperature, humidity and dust; security Ambient noise sensing continuously monitors the
the best of what of equipment; listed building consent as many changing ambient noise levels and adjusts the
can be a very stations in some countries are protected buildings; audio level of the PA system. This is particularly
any noise abatement notices that may have been relevant for railway stations with wildly varying
challenging served; density of nearby housing and residents; background sound levels usually caused by trains.
acoustic platform possessions and isolations needed for The maximum volume of the PA will need to be
environment” installation and maintenance; feedback from users limited as some trains can be very loud and it may
on the existing system, such as areas of poor not be possible to announce over the top of the
coverage along with any customer complaints; train noise for health and safety reasons. Storing
glass shelters, as these can attenuate sound by and transmitting an announcement when the
approximately 25dB. background noise is lower is something that can
be considered.
Coverage in general should be provided in all
areas where most customers stand when waiting Dividing a station public address system into
for information on train services or disruption, defined zones can be helpful, particularly where
and in all weather conditions. In Europe the limiting the noise to neighbours is required with
regulations for Persons with Reduced Mobility only those zones selected being addressed. The
(PRM) require PA coverage in all public areas of output from the amplifier can be automatically
the station and the UK Equality Act 2010 requires routed to the chosen zone or zones either by
all station operators to take reasonable steps to using zone selection keys on a controller, or by a
ensure they do not discriminate against people stored speech system announcing the timetable
with reduced mobility. to only areas requiring the message. Simultaneous
but different announcements can be made to

12
 IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

different parts of the station and using male and Passenger (or Customer)
female voices can help to distinguish between the Information Displays
messages but care must be taken to minimise the
over hearing between zones. Visual PIS/CIS are now common in many railways.
They generally originated with hand painted
A PA system can be used to feed directly to boards but migrated to using revolving printed
hearing aid users using a specially designed ‘flap’ displays installed at larger stations to increase
induction loop amplifier and associated cable the display content, either operated manually
system. The engineering and design of induction or using card reading machines. In the 1980s
loops is complex and is environment dependent processor systems controlling monochrome
– steel-constructed buildings can make it Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) displays started to
particularly difficult. be installed at smaller stations with ‘next train’
Background music can be used to fill the ‘silence’ platform displays and departure/arrival summary
between announcements and is sometimes used displays. Flap displays were inflexible and required
at less busy stations. If provided this should not extensive ‘re-flapping’ when timetable changes
be loud enough to be obtrusive, but should be were carried out. LCD displays originally using
adjusted so that it adds to the ambiance of the a 7x5 dot matrix often replaced flap displays to
environment. Music should never be so loud that increase flexibility although often with a poorer
“Public Address customers cannot communicate, or that advice display readability. LED displays then replaced
Voice Alarm given by station staff cannot be heard. LCD at larger ‘main board’ displays and CRT
platform displays to improve both readability and
(PAVA) sound
Voice alarm systems reliability. It is easier to read upper- and lower-
systems Train operators have a duty to ensure the safety of case than all upper- case, which is why road signs
designed to customers at all times. When an emergency such in most countries use upper- and lower- case.
warn of danger as a fire or a security threat arises or whenever Displays should therefore be able to display
there is the need to evacuate a station this can information ideally in the train company font with
normally require both upper- and lower-case text with proper
be best achieved by a speech announcement,
special fire-safe rather than bells or sounders. The spoken word descenders, e.g. for “y” and “g”.
wiring” can be ‘live’ from a microphone, or pre-recorded. PIS/CIS systems consist of either a central or local
Stored announcements can be initiated by the processor and controller for the displays, together
station’s or an adjacent building’s fire alarm with power supplies and communication links to
installation. When the alarm is activated the and from the displays. These links have migrated
sound system automatically broadcasts the stored from RS422/RS232 to Ethernet and Wi-Fi, with
emergency message. systems now controlled from real time signalling
Public Address Voice Alarm (PAVA) sound systems control systems (usually the train describer)
designed to warn of danger normally require and linked to comprehensive train timetable
special fire-safe wiring and complete building systems. Systems can also provide real time train
coverage with approved loudspeakers sited to information to third party mobile applications for
cover all public and staff areas. The provision of public use. Unfortunately, when train disruption is
auxiliary power sources, so that in the event of severe and with no trains moving it can be difficult
an AC mains supply failure, the sound system can to display train information at just the time it is
continue to operate, will be required. In addition really required. It is hoped that traffic management
equipment redundancy, self-checking alarms, systems may be able to provide accurate
sound level and intelligibility requirements should predictive information for displays in the future.
be considered.

13
IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

York station with CCTV When designing and siting displays on stations equipment options, data storage, component
coverage of all train the structure gauge for the railway should be miniaturisation, wireless communications, and
movements. This camera complied with and take into account signal video image analysis. A CCTV system for a
is broadcasting live, see
sighting along with installation and maintenance railway may be part of a multi-layered security
irse.info/zibhw.
Photo Network Rail. access, cable containment and power supply system. Undertaking a comprehensive needs
requirements. Listed building consent may be assessment at the start of any project helps to
Most cameras are now
fixed. required, and if replacing an existing system ensure all required functionality is identified.
feedback from users of the system should be Clear requirements, a comprehensive site survey,
obtained and analysed together with any customer compliance with legislation and proper equipment
complaints. The footfall where most people selection will all contribute to the design of a
“Involving human stand when waiting for a service in all weather good CCTV system.
conditions should be taken into account when
factors specialists designing the system, together with requirements
In order to properly implement a CCTV system
and to highlight any engineering, operational,
and local for persons with reduced mobility. Future train
management and monitoring issues, the site-
operators will service changes should also be considered.
specific characteristics need to be assessed by
help to identify Involving human factors specialists and local a knowledgeable multidisciplinary team with
operators will help to identify the location of the right level of expertise. This could include
the location
displays to maximise their effectiveness. Double operators, security personnel, power and
of displays to sided displays should be used where ever possible structural engineers to identify key functional and
maximise their to maximise the network capability of the system. operational needs and restrictions. Functional
effectiveness” Some operators use scrolling displays, but requirements will include determining the area of
these can be difficult for persons with sight and surveillance, locations or assets that will benefit
comprehension issues to read and understand. from CCTV surveillance. Operational requirements
Displays which change but hold messages fixed will define what information and detail the
for a short time are better. system will be expected to provide. Factors to
consider may include the viewing scope of the
Closed-circuit television area, the ability to recognise someone walking
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems provide through a barrier or door, and to read vehicle
surveillance capabilities to improve safety, assist registration numbers.
railway and station operation, and to combat
There are four key requirements that need to be
crime and terrorism. A CCTV system links a
covered in the initial design.
camera to a video monitor or receiving system
“It is important using a direct transmission system. This differs • Functional – to define the precise area of
that CCTV from broadcast television where the signal is camera coverage such as surveillance of
systems provide transmitted over the air and viewed on screen. It perimeters, storage areas, key assets and
is important that CCTV systems provide quality entrances and exits.
quality video video images in an easily re-playable form to • Operational – to define the capabilities of the
images in an third parties, such as law enforcement agencies. CCTV system components that will provide
easily re-playable This can be critical should there be a need to use the expected information under all operating
the images as evidence of a crime. This article
form” does not cover driver only operation or level
conditions. These will include security, day and
night operation, lighting, weather conditions,
crossing CCTV systems. vibration and temperature changes.
CCTV technology is improving all the time with • Infrastructure – to include installation
better performance in areas such as digital constraints for installing or accessing fibre

14
 IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

and /or, copper data cables, wireless networks can cause power fluctuations and may require
access, power, listed building constraints, and larger conductor sizes to reduce voltage drop.
people with reduced mobility. Authorisation Therefore, it is advisable to locate the power
for works on listed buildings may be required source close to the CCTV control equipment
before any works commence. and to include an Uninterruptible Power Supply
• Video retention – to define the video retention (UPS) to protect equipment and ensure the power
and storage needs. These should take into supply is stable.
account security and data protection, which Older CCTV systems generally used co-axial
may be subject to legislation. cable to connect cameras to the control hub,
“Nowadays video Whenever possible, CCTV systems should be but nowadays video transmission for CCTV is
included in the planning and design stage of normally via unshielded twisted pair (UTP) or fibre
transmission for cable. Many problems with video image quality
any new facility, building or asset to ensure
CCTV is normally all necessary infrastructure requirements for can be avoided by selecting the appropriate
via unshielded the CCTV are adequately incorporated into transmission media and following manufacturer’s
recommended installation techniques and
twisted pair (UTP) the overall design. Factors to consider in the
detailed design of any CCTV system include: the procedures. As CCTV technology has evolved,
or fibre cable” number and locations of cameras including lens video transmission has progressed from analogue
selection, cabling and cable containment together to digital equipment, often with an Internet
with fixing arrangements; lighting levels for all Protocol (IP) capability to transmit compressed
proposed camera coverage areas; unhindered video as digital data. Some railways now mandate
but secure camera access for both installation all new CCTV systems will use IP, but analogue
and maintenance; no interference or blocking of systems using digital recording are still used
signal sighting; power requirements, including by some railways as IP CCTV systems can be
appropriate separation of power and data complex to configure.
cables to comply with standards and reduction IP CCTV solutions, while complicated, do offer
of interference. more facilities and can be integrated seamlessly
Inadequate power can be a problem with CCTV with other control systems to deliver integrated
equipment and can often cause interference. centralised control and monitoring. Data from
Proper system performance requires a clean and other security devices and from business systems
can be linked with IP CCTV images and recordings
reliable power source. Therefore, the design may
while cameras can be easily controlled and
need to specify power conditioning or backups,
monitored from web browsers.
to ensure the quality of the video across the
entire system is unaffected by primary power CCTV systems regularly need to be checked
source disruption. Placing low-voltage power to meet changing operational requirements
Overview diagram components near high-voltage lines can induce and equipment obsolescence so the ability
of a typical station currents in the low-voltage system, presenting to easily incorporate hardware and software
CCTV system. hazards. A power source located too far away updates should be considered. Using existing

CCTV workstations
local or remote

Pan, tilt, zoom

(PTZ)

To Station Management
and other systems

Router
Firewall

CCTV
control
system
Video
Power over storage
Ethernet
(POE)

Fixed cameras

15
IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

Clockwise from left: CCTV infrastructure such as cameras, housings Cameras

A CCTV camera and and cable runs may reduce costs, but CCTV CCTV cameras are either fixed or pan-tilt-zoom
loudspeaker sharing a equipment is improving all the time, as the (PTZ). Fixed cameras are intended to constantly
lamppost. capabilities of CCTV components advances.
Photo A N Hurst. view a single scene, while PTZ cameras are motor
Replacing old equipment and infrastructure may driven and can pan left or right, tilt up or down,
Fixed camera installation therefore improve system performance and be a
in a concourse area. and zoom in or out to instantly customise the
more cost-effective solution. view as needed. Most systems nowadays use fixed
A similar camera to that
in the first photo, but Station Management Systems (SMS) are typically cameras to view and record complete areas as
mounted on a passenger deployed at large stations or in a group of stations PTZ cameras require full time operators.
display sign. along a route managed from a central location. An Ingress Protection (also known as IP and not
The SMS is the focal point for station operations to be confused with Internet Protocol) rating
and provides the operator with a user-friendly, is to protect equipment from attack from solid
functional environment from which to monitor foreign objects e.g. stone throwing, and from
and control all station systems. The SMS should harmful effects due to the ingress of water. Ingress
gather information from many sources and Protection IP always has a number. So cameras
“Most systems provide control of the various individual station should typically have an IP rating of IP34 when
systems, such as CCTV, public address, customer
nowadays use information and alarm systems. Integrating the
used internally and IP65 for external cameras. The
“IK” rating or code is an international standard
fixed cameras to control and operation of the CCTV system in a to define the level of resistance of enclosures to
view and record clear, consistent and integrated format will help to mechanical impacts. Cameras are recommended
provide efficient and cost effective management
complete areas of the station. The SMS will usually be interfaced
to have an IK vandalism rating of IK10, along with
a typical operating temperature range of -15C
as PTZ cameras with a fire alarm system so that in the event of an to 45C external to the housing. This may need
require full time alarm activation, cameras covering the area will to be revised depending on local conditions.
operators” automatically be displayed to the operator. The minimum resolution of cameras in a railway
A CCTV system is built up from a number of system is typically 720 pixels, and systems with
different components. 1080p resolution or higher are often provided.

16
 IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

Despite increasing use of IP network cameras, essential that the system be capable of retaining
“Power over analogue cameras still exist in many older systems data in accordance with a company’s policies
Ethernet (PoE) IP since there may be a high cost involved in and procedures, together with data protection
cameras will not upgrading and converting to a new transmission and CCTV legislation. EMC requirements will
network. Analogue cameras can also transmit need to be considered, such as defined in
generally require high definition pictures, making them appropriate standard EN 50121-4.
a local power for various surveillance needs. These cameras
Camera lenses
supply” also have cyber security advantages because
the cable connections require a physical access A lens has components and characteristics that
for them to be breached or damaged. They are determine its capabilities. These include the
easier to configure, but will not provide as many focal length, type of aperture and focus control.
features as IP systems. The focal length and size of the image sensor
determine the angle from which the lens accepts
Power over Ethernet (PoE) IP cameras will not light to focus on the image sensor. Any lens with
generally require a local power supply but must a focal length greater than the standard lens is a
be able to operate in the railway environment. PoE telephoto lens, while a lens with a focal length less
extenders will need to provide sufficient power than the standard lens is a wide-angle lens.
to meet the camera’s operational requirements.
Connections to individual cameras can be via Camera lenses shall normally be fitted with either
wireless such as Wi-Fi, but a local power supply an auto-iris fixed lens, vari-focal lens or zoom
will be required and the wireless connections lens. Remote vari-focus, zoom, controlled back
should be encrypted for security. Possible focus and remote camera alignment will all
interference with other Wi-Fi channels in the area contribute to efficient operation and maintenance
should be assessed. of the system, and will eliminate the need for
“Notices may working at height to adjust the camera.
Day/night cameras and low-light or night vision
be required at cameras can be used to capture images in dark Cameras mounted on extendable or hinged posts
environments. Low-light cameras are designed to will facilitate easy maintenance and minimise
locations in working at height during both installation and
perform in some level of ambient lighting, such as
areas of CCTV indoor conditions, station lighting, or a full moon maintenance, but no hinged or extendable
coverage to but are not intended for use in complete darkness. post should come close to any electric traction
Night vision cameras used in CCTV systems system or other hazards. Fixed camera mounts
inform members
typically consist of near-infrared (NIR) and infrared with adjustable horizontal and vertical planes
of the public that (IR) cameras with built-in IR illuminators and are will maximise operational effectiveness. Camera
an area is being designed to allow the viewing of night scenes. positions should be selected to enable routine
monitored and The IR light emitted can be at wavelengths that access (for cleaning and replacement) without the
are invisible to the human eye. Some operational need for blocking train movements or isolating
recorded” environments may require a thermal imaging overhead power. Individual and isolated columns
camera to detect situations even if conditions supporting lighting or cameras should be
such as fog or smoke are encountered. These positioned to avoid creating obstructions to the
detect infrared or heat radiation that is invisible to movement of station users. The camera assembly,
the human eye. housing and sunshield should take account of
the effects of sunlight during the course of the
The most complex CCTV systems may day and also the seasons of the year in order to
From left. Traditional incorporate hundreds of cameras and sensors maintain the viewing requirements of the system.
camera housing and a integrated into one overall security network.
dome camera housing. With larger quantities of data being collected, it is

17
IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

Notices may be required at locations in areas and management of the system, especially if
of CCTV coverage to inform members of the the information is consistent with details in the
public that an area is being monitored and asset register.
“Recorded recorded. These will need to be provided in
Monitors may be required for public behaviour
accordance with national and local legislation,
images should and surveillance monitoring, for example at ticket
such as the General Data Protection Regulation
be strictly (GDPR) and the UK Data Protection Act 1998.
gate lines, so higher performance specifications
should be considered to enhance visibility
controlled
CCTV workstation and monitors of the display. Public surveillance monitors
to prevent may require additional vandalism and ingress
To provide good picture quality, the minimum
tampering or monitor resolution should be at least that of protection suitable for the location in which the
unauthorised the cameras. Multiple camera images at original monitor is being installed, such as a minimum
resolution may be required for viewing onto IP65 for all external monitors and IP32 for all
viewing” internal monitors.
a high-resolution screen, so for example, a
30” 4K resolution monitor could display 4 x Control system
15” 1080p resolution cameras. The camera
identification should be easily available so the ONVIF (Open Network Video Interface Forum)
operator knows where they are looking. is an open industry forum for the interface of
physical IP-based security products. The ONVIF
A bank of monitors to create a ‘video wall’ specification covers how IP products within video
is commonplace in larger control centres. surveillance and other physical security areas
These can be programmed to periodically can communicate with each other. Therefore,
change the picture displayed on the monitors procuring CCTV systems in compliance with the
to help relieve the boredom from seeing the ONVIF specification will assist interoperability
same scene all the time and to concentrate between network video products from different
the multitude of camera images on to a suppliers. ONVIF aims to provide standardisation
sensible number of screens. A typical railway of communication between IP-based physical
CCTV control room could have 500 cameras security products to give interoperability
“External remote covering a route with about 50 monitors in regardless of the brand, and is open to all
access will also the video wall. companies and organisations. Using ONVIF
need security An ergonomic assessment of the operator’s equipment will help with not becoming locked
workstation location should be undertaken in to any particular proprietary technical solution
via firewalls and to determine the most appropriate size and devised by individual manufacturers.
compliance position. Providing the control systems for System security is important so access to the
with individual camera selection and PTZ operation with system and any recorded images should be strictly
company’s industry standard telemetry protocols with controlled to prevent tampering or unauthorised
an open architecture, will help with the viewing. This could be via electronic access
security policies” whole life support of the CCTV system and
controls, including but not limited to passwords
interoperability with other systems.
or encryption, to prevent unauthorised access
An agreed format for event reporting and to the building, system and recordings, with an
alarms will be required and telemetry data from audit trail and record of who accessed the system
all camera input channels with time/date and and when. Different levels of user privileges,
camera description will provide a consistent such as Administrator, User and Maintainer,
format to identify station, camera location and may be appropriate. Further information can
camera number. This will assist the operation be found in BSI document ‘Code of Practice

A number of dome
cameras providing
comprehensive
monitoring of a ticket
barrier.

18
 IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

An historic clock at for Legal Admissibility of Information Stored Video storage

London Victoria station, Electronically’ (BIP0008) or from local Police
mounted next to several The system will need to store recordings for all
Crime Reduction Officers. connected cameras for a time period of typically
very modern speaker
arrays. External remote access will also need security 31 days so as to assist with any post incident
Photo Institute of Sound, via firewalls and compliance with individual investigations. All video data once past the stated
Communication and time period should be automatically deleted
company’s security policies. The system should
Vision Engineers (ISCVE). unless marked for retention. A facility for local
prevent transmitted images from being corrupted
or modified in transit. Where the proposed system or remote users to mark specific pictures or
does not provide the specified security functions, sequences identified as relevant to an investigation
the network or transmission medium used could for retention should be considered. To optimise
be employed to provide equivalent security. storage capacity, agreement from stakeholders
“Accurate clocks should be obtained as to the circumstances in
are important Video analytics such as the detection of unusual which images will be recorded for review and
movement in a normally static picture may be
for a smooth- at what resolution, together with date and time
specified in the design, as these can further stamping requirements. Care may need to be
running railway“ improve the overall effectiveness of the CCTV taken that any video compression does not
security solution. Video analytics monitor the compromise video quality.
video streams in near real-time and automatically
create security alerts when recognising specific Clocks
types of events and activities. Video analytics Accurate clocks are important for a smooth-
can also be used for analysing historical data running railway, and telecoms engineers in
to identify specific incidents and patterns many railway companies have provided clock
“The positioning (forensic analysis). systems for many years. Originally they were
of clocks needs provided using centrally located ‘master clocks’
Using a video analytics system to automatically
to take into monitor camera video feeds and providing alerts communicating with slave clocks via telecoms
account similar for events of interest enables efficiency and cost cables. More recently clocks are Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) controlled, so just need
criteria to PA, reductions by reducing the need for human
a power supply and possibly an external antenna
concentration and helps operators to notice and
CIS and CCTV respond to threats sooner. Typical uses are for to receive the satellite signal. The positioning
systems with perimeter protection intrusion management, of clocks needs to take into account similar
criteria to PA, CIS and CCTV systems with regards
regards to height, crowd management and situation awareness.
to height, maintenance and not obstructing
They can also be used for ‘footfall’ counting to
maintenance and assist the commercialisation of retail space on signal sighting.
not obstructing stations and passenger loading on trains. Internet connection for trains
signal sighting” On initial installation, consideration should be Most train passengers now have an expectation
given to fit spare switching, optical and Cat 5E/6 that a connection to the internet will be available
copper cable (where appropriate) for at least an on trains. With an on-board internet connection,
additional 10 per cent spare capacity in agreement real time ticket sales via debit/credit card are
with stakeholders’ policy. This will allow expansion possible, along with seat occupancy reporting
for future requirements. and real time seat reservations. Communications

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IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

and preventative maintenance are also key to Internet connectivity can be improved by
enhancing operational efficiency. This could providing digital on-board repeaters (D-OBR). A
include data to monitor and manage the train, D-OBR is an active multi-band, multi-operator
and if adequate bandwidth is available real time repeater which is designed to provide coverage
forward and rear facing CCTV cameras for track within train vehicles by amplifying and re-radiating
and signalling maintenance. While GSM-R will (repeating) the external 2G, 3G and 4G/LTE mobile
provide the wireless connection for ERTMS / operator signals through dedicated ceiling-
CBTC movement authority, it does not have mounted antennas. A D-OBR will provide Internet
“Antennas are sufficient capacity for train Wi-Fi applications access to mobile phones without a Wi-Fi facility;
however, most passengers now expect Wi-Fi
one of the most and use of public 4G or 5G LTE networks is more
usual for provision of the internet connection. to be available, although some train operators
critical items have ‘quiet coaches’ to restrict nuisance use by
The replacement for GSM-R, known as FRMCS
to deliver good (Future Radio Mobile Communication System),
some travellers who can adversely impact the
connectivity on journey experience.
is planned to provide for all train connectivity
and off the train” requirements, including business and passenger One or more external mounted wideband
communications. antennas can be provided on trains and
connected to a communications device known
To improve or provide an internet connection on
as a Mobile Communications Gateway (MCG).
trains it is likely to require equipment both on the A wideband antenna capable of receiving a
infrastructure and train. Like many applications, wide range of Mobile Network Operator (MNO)
such as operational voice and ETCS/CBTC, this services and 2.5GHz or 5GHz point to point Wi-Fi
will require close working between rolling stock connections at stations can be provided, with
and S&T engineers, and for each to have an 6GHz Wi-Fi systems also being introduced. Care
appreciation of the engineering principles for both will be needed on the location of the wideband
infrastructure and trains. train antennae so they do not interfere with the
By their construction, train vehicles create train GSM-R antenna.
attenuation which degrades the usable signal Antennae are one of the most critical items to
in the train. The degree of attenuation varies deliver good connectivity on and off the train,
between 5 to 35dB depending on the rail vehicle and creating an efficient antenna solution will
profile and a loss of 3dB results in halving the do much to improve system efficiency. Many of
available power. The on-train user experience the radio frequency problems associated with
can vary as a result of the differing levels of signal antennae also stem from poor fitment of feeder
attenuation due to a significant mix of different cables, which should be installed in accordance
devices, with an increasing trend towards the use with the manufacturer’s instructions.
of multiband smartphones and tablets. Multiband The MCG (or number of MCGs) provides ‘a
devices incorporate wider band receivers which cloud’ of connectivity to the train via a number
weaken the performance for any one single band, of MNO services and external Wi-Fi connections
and coupled with multiband antennas becoming aggregated together. Fixed Wi-Fi at stations
integrated into the handsets themselves makes or trackside is a good way of enhancing the
reception on-board trains even more challenging. connectivity as this is within the control of the rail
There is a significant cost involved in the industry. At terminal stations it can provide a good
Most train passengers design and implementation of additional public link to a train and this is where many people open
now have an expectation
operator radio sites along rail routes and careful their device and ‘log on’. Wi-Fi systems are ‘licence
that a connection to the
internet will be available consideration is required for any additional public free’ so care may need to be taken to prevent
on trains. radio coverage to avoid signal interference with interference from other Wi-Fi systems, which
Photo Icomera. GSM-R and FRMCS. could be located away from the railway.

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 IRSE News | Issue 271 | November 2020

The connectivity to the MCG may also include satellite Railway telecoms is managed in a different way to a public
connections, although some systems can be troubled by higher telephone network. An example would be that railway operators
latency times to and from a moving train. A train compares expect any engineering or station works that will disrupt the
unfavourably with a more stable platform like an aircraft, train service, to be pre-planned, agreed with them and to be
which is how an internet connection is provided in the air told when a facility is restored. Similarly, if a significant fault
industry. Satellite communications will not work in tunnels or occurs it has to be investigated to ascertain the root cause so
deep cuttings. that, if necessary, steps can be taken to prevent recurrence.
Such situations demand telecommunication requirements that
An acceptable customer service in order to support email and
may be difficult to obtain from the service provided by a public
social media browsing can be provided with a data bandwidth
telecom operator.
as low as a few hundred kbits/s, but obviously the more
bandwidth the better. Limiting each customer to a maximum A railway telecom engineer is expected to understand the rules
will help to provide an acceptable service to all customers and procedures employed on the railway so that when they are
on the train. In order to provide a reliable non-discriminatory designing systems to support the operation, they can define
service, certain high bandwidth applications, such as video and what functionality is required and also understand the safety
audio streaming services or peer-to-peer file sharing, may need and performance implications of any failures. So if an off the
filtering and restricting. On train bandwidth requirements will shelf piece of equipment is used, the engineer needs to be sure
vary depending on the number of active Wi-Fi customers and that it is fit for the purpose intended, for example, it provides
may increase as passengers become aware of Wi-Fi availability, sufficient protection to be used in places of high induced
therefore additional bandwidth should always be planned for. voltages or vibration.

Final thoughts If it is decided to use a public telephone system (fixed or

mobile) to support a railway application, then the possible
So, given all that has been covered in both parts of the back
shortcomings of using the standard facilities should be
to basics of railway telecoms, what makes railway telecoms
considered. For instance, the radio coverage may change over
different from providing a public telecoms network?
time and not cover areas of the track. A public operator may not
Many pieces of equipment can be used for railway and public be able to provide diversity between two circuits for the last few
telecommunications e.g. cables, transmission and exchange miles at a reasonable cost. The public service may be turned
equipment. There are pieces of equipment which are specific off for maintenance overnight and at short notice. If these
to the railway such as signalling centre concentrators and shortcomings are acceptable then the use of public services
GSM-R cab radios. These items are normally developed to can provide a cost-effective solution for some railways.
provide a feature which is unique to the railway – e.g. using the
There may be a temptation for some governments and railway
GSM-R frequency bands or needing to be designed to prevent
authorities to ‘sell off’ the railway telecoms assets and resource
an activity which may cause risk, such as two drivers speaking
to raise finance or for commercial purposes. This has occurred
to a signaller at the same time. The equipment also has to
several times across the world. However, in nearly every
operate correctly in the railway environment which is normally
example, the railway authority has had to buy back or re-install
harsher than an office environment. Factors to take into
its own telecoms infrastructure, plus rebuilding a telecoms
account include Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC), vibration,
workforce. Telecoms is a vital part of railways operations and
temperature, and humidity.
with the increasing use of digital signalling systems and the
internet of things, it is becoming ever more important.

About the authors ...

Paul Darlington CEng, FIET, FIRSE, joined the S&T department Trevor Foulkes MA, CEng, FIRSE joined British Rail in 1979 as
of the London Midland Region of British Rail in 1975 as a a sponsored management trainee engineer. After graduating
trainee telecoms technician. After maintaining telephone from Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge his training was based
exchanges, he became an instructor at the regional S&T in the S&T department of the Western Region, followed
training centre. In the 1980s he moved to the telecoms by a series of roles in the design of systems and the
project office in Birmingham and was involved in designing management of technicians and engineers.
and implementing CIS, CCTV, SPT and radio systems.
In 1994 Trevor joined Railtrack and specified telecoms
Moving to Railtrack in 1994 Paul led the asset management works for the south and west of the country after which
of telecoms for the north west of England and became he joined HQ and set national standards for equipment.
engineering manager for all disciplines. In 2008 he moved He then joined the West Coast Main Line (WCML)
to London as head of telecoms engineering for Network resignalling team in 1996.
Rail and finished his full-time career as route asset manager
In 2000, he led the business case development for the
signalling in Manchester. Paul also led the work to enhance
telecoms network, now known as the Fixed Telecom
the Network Rail network with IP, which led to the creation
Network (FTN), before becoming the design authority for
of Network Rail Telecoms (NRT) and the Network Rail FTNx
the FTN and GSM-R systems. In 2012, he was seconded to
IP network. He also chaired the safety approval panel for
the High Speed 2 project to develop the control, command
the GSM-R Network.
& signal engineering design. He also led the Spectrum
Retiring in 2012, today Paul is an engineering writer, managing Group of the UIC project developing the next generation of
editor for IRSE News and also interviews applicants for operational radio to replace GSM-R.
professional registration with the IET and IRSE.
Trevor retired in 2015 and is chair of the London &
South-East Section of the IRSE and has assisted with the
telecoms aspects of the new Certificate in Railway Control
Engineering Fundamentals (module A).

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