Mathematics Book 3
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manglish thongamMathematics Book 3
Uploaded by
manglish thongamMATHEMATICS
for
CLASS IX
( ENGLISH MEDIUM )
WRITERS :
Shri H. Jayantakumar Singh,
Retd. HOD (Maths), D.M. College of Science
Shri Ch. Ibotombi Singh,
Retd. HOD (Maths), D.M. College of Science
Shri R.K. Pushpabahon,
Selection Grade Lecturer, D.M. College of Science
M. Premjit Singh,
Lecturer, Deptt. of Mathematics, M.U.
BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, MANIPUR
1
Published by :
The Secretary,
Board of Secondary Education,
Manipur
Board of Secondary Education, Manipur
04BSEM : 2004
1st Edition : December, 2007 : 30,000 Copies
Reprint : January, 2012 : 15,000 Copies
Reprint : March, 2014 : 5,000 Copies
Reprint : September, 2014 : 15,000 Copies
Revised Edition : September, 2015 : 12,000 Copies
Reprint : February, 2016 : 4,000 Copies
Reprint : November, 2016 : 8,000 Copies
Price Rs.
Printed at :
BCPW, Lamphelpat, Imphal
2
FOREWORD
The Board developed text-books under the National Curriculum
Framework, 2005 to keep abreast with the national change for the
schools of Manipur. The Board since its inception had been trying to
promote education for betterment and quality.
The book has been developed in line with the NCF, 2005. Utmost
care has been taken to make it suitable to the local needs and schools
of Manipur. Every effort has been made to make the book worthwhile.
In the course of preparation, a series of meetings was held with the
authors, reviewers etc. to bring it to the present form.
I sincerely thank the authors, reviewers and all others who had
helped to make the book presentable and suitable for use by the
students.
The Board would welcome any suggestions for further
improvement of the text-book.
Dr. Chithung Mary Thomas
Secretary
3
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS OF
THE REVIEW WORKSHOP
Dr. I.S. Khaidem,
Ex. VC., M.U.
B. Nabadwip Sharma,
Retd. Head Master, S.S. Residential High School
Ramesh Ch. Haomom,
Retd. HOD (Maths), Imphal College
Achom Dimbeswar Singh,
Senior Graduate Teacher, T.G. Higher Secondary School
Kh. Rajenkumar Singh,
L.C.M. School, Moirang
Kumam Anthony Singh,
C.C. Higher Sec. School
Shri R.K. Pushpabahon,
Selection Grade Lecturer, D.M. College of Science
Shri Ch. Ibotombi Singh,
Retd. HOD (Maths), D.M. College of Science
M. Premjit Singh,
Lecturer, Deptt. of Mathematics, M.U.
4
CONTENTS
Sl. No. Chapter Pages
1. Number System 1 – 28
2. Polynomials 29 – 55
3. Coordinate Geometry 56 – 69
4. Linear Equations in Two Variables 70 – 82
5. Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry 83 – 91
6. Lines and Angles 92 – 118
7. Triangles 119 – 138
8. Quadrilaterals 139 – 153
9. Area 154 – 168
10. Circles 169 – 188
11. Constructions 189 – 203
12. Mensuration 204 – 227
13. Trigonometry 228 – 243
14. Statistics 244 – 268
15. Probability 269 – 278
APPENDIX
I. Proof in Mathematics 279 – 289
II. Introduction to Mathematical Modelling 290 – 294
5
NUMBER SYSTEM 1
CHAPTER
1 NUMBER SYSTEM
1.1 Introduction
Starting from the natural numbers, the number system has been successively
extended. From the system of natural numbers we pass onto that of the whole numbers
by introducing the number zero. Again by using the idea of signed numbers, the negatives
of the natural numbers are introduced and we pass onto the system of integers. Further
with the introduction of positive and negative fractions, the number system is again
extended to get the system of rational numbers. From the way of extension at each stage,
it is clear that every natural number is a whole number, every whole number is an
integer and every integer is a rational number. In this chapter we aim at extending the
system of rational numbers to form what is called the system of real numbers by
introducing irrational numbers.
Let us first recall some fundamental properties of the rational numbers. You know
2 3
that 0, 1, 3
, 2
etc. are all rational numbers. In fact, a number that can be put into the
p
form q where p, q are integers and q 0, is a rational number. The condition
q 0 indicates the exclusion of the case of division by zero. The result of performing any
one of the four basic operations of arithmetic (i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division) in respect of any two rational numbers (excluding, of course division by zero) is
p r
again a rational number. In class VII you have learnt that if q and are any two
s
p r p pr r
rational numbers such that q < s
then q < qs < s
. Thus , between two unequal
p r pr
rational numbers q and s
there lies a rational number qs .
2 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Let us again consider two rational numbers, denoted by a and b such that
a < b. Now
a < b a + b < b + b (adding b to both sides)
a + b < 2b
ab
2
< b (dividing both sides by 2) ............ (1)
Again, a < b a + a < a + b
2a < a + b
ab
a < 2
.............. (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we obtain
ab
a < 2
< b
ab
i.e. 2
is a rational number lying between a and b.
We have thus shown that between two unequal rational numbers a and b there lies
ab
another rational number 2
. For instance between the rational numbers 1 and 2 we can
1 2 3
insert a rational number 2
i.e. 2 so that
3
1< 2 <2
Again, we can insert 1
2 1 23 5
i.e. 4 between 1 and 2 and
3
1 3
2 2
2 7
i.e. 4
3
between 2 and 2 so that
5 3 7
1< 4 < 2 < 4 < 2
Proceeding in the same way, in the next step we obtain
9 5 11 3 13 7 15
1 2
8 4 8 2 8 4 8
The process may go on indefinitely and infinite number of rational numbers may be
found each greater than 1 but less than 2. Thus, there lie an infinite number of rational
numbers between two unequal rational numbers 1 and 2. You may now conclude that,
there are an infinite number of rational numbers between two unequal rational
numbers.
NUMBER SYSTEM 3
Remark : In the system of natural numbers or whole numbers or integers, given any
number, say a, you can find the next greater number a + 1 so that no
number in the system is left between a and a + 1. For instance between
3 and 4 (= 3 + 1) no integer has been left. However, in the system of
rational numbers you cannot do so. Given a rational number say a, you
cannot find the next greater rational number. Because if you choose a
rational number say b, to be the next higher number you have left an infinite
number of other rational numbers lying between a and b.
1 1
Example 1 : Find four rational numbers between 3 and 2 .
p r p r
Solution 1 : We know that the rational number q s lies between q and s . Hence
we proceed as follows
1 < 1
3 2
1 < 11 < 1
3 3 2 2
1 < 2 < 1
3 5 2
1 3 2 3 1
3
< 8
< 5
< 7
< 2
1 4 3 2 3 1
3
< 11
< 8
< 5
< 7
< 2
4 , 3, 2 3
So, four required rational numbers are 11 8 5 and 7 .
1 1
Solution 2 : One rational number that lies between 3 and 2 is
1
2 13 12 i.e. 5
12 . Thus 1
3
125 12 .
1 5 5 1
Similarly, we can find rational numbers between 3 and 12 , between 12 and 2
and write
1
3
1 1
2 3
125 125 1 5
2 12 12 1
2
i.e. 1
3
83 125 11
24
1
2
1 3
Finally inserting one more rational number, say between 3 and 8 we write
1
3
17
48
83 125 11
24
1
2
so that four of the desired rational numbers are
17
48
, 83 , 125 and 11
24 .
4 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Solution 3 :We first write the given fractions with common denominator as follows:
1
3
62
1
2
63
Then we multiply both numerator and denominator of each of the new fractions by
a suitable number so that the difference between the resulting numerators is greater than
or equal to the number of rational numbers required plus one. Here, the suitable number
is 5 and we write
1
3
62 10
30
1
2
36 15
30
It is now readily seen that 30 , 30 , 13
11 12
30
, 14
30 are rational numbers all lying between
1
3
1
and 2 . Thus four required rational numbers are 30 11
, 25 , 13 , 7
30 15 .
EXERCISE 1.1
1. What is a rational number ? Is it true that every integer is a rational number?
a b
2. If a and b are two unequal rational numbers, show that 2 is a rational number
lying between a and b.
3. Insert four rational numbers between 2 and 3.
1 1
4. Find five rational numbers between 4 and 3.
1 2
5. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 3 .
NUMBER SYSTEM 5
1.2 Irrational Numbers
You have seen that the collection of rational numbers is infinite i.e. there are
infinitely many rational numbers. And given two unequal rational numbers, however small
their difference may be, there are an infinite number of rational numbers between them.
Thus, there are infinitely many rational numbers between 0 and 1, also between 0 and
1 1
2 and between 0 and 8 etc. Further, all the rational numbers may be represented by
points on a number line. Think of a number line on which each of the rational numbers
is represented by a point. Infinite number of points on the line should have been consumed
in representing the rational numbers. A pertinent question that arises is “Whether all the
points on the number line are exhausted or are there points still left on the line not
representing any rational number ?” In short, “Are there points on the number line which
do not represent any rational number ?”
The answer to this question is affirmative. There are points on the number line
(in fact, infinitely many of them) which do not represent rational numbers. Around 400
BC, this fact was known to the Pythagoreans, the followers of the great Greek
Mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras (569 BC – 479 BC). You may recall
Pythagoras theorem which states that “The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.” This theorem enables us to
determine the diagonals of a rectangle of given length and breadth and hence the
diagonals of a square of given side.
Consider a square ABCD whose side is of one unit in length. The diagonal AC
is of length given by
D C
AC 2
= AB + BC (Pythagoras Theorem)
2 2
= 1 2 + 12
= 2
AC = 2
A B
Let us now prove that “There is no rational number whose square is 2” or
equivalently, “ 2 is not a rational number.”
Suppose 2 is rational. Then there exist integers p and q such that q 0,
p
p, q are coprime and q 2 .
p2 p2
q2
= 2i.e. q = 2q ... (1)
6 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Since p and q have no common factor other than 1, therefore the left hand side
of (1) is a fraction which cannot be reduced to simpler form whereas the right hand side
is an integer. The equality holds only when q = 1 in which case the left hand side is an
integer. But when q = 1 we get p2 = 2. This is a contradiction since there is no integer
whose square is 2. [ Observe that 12 < 2 < 22 and there is no other integer between
1 and 2].
This contradiction is due to our assumption that 2 is rational. Hence 2
is not rational.
It is now seen that the number indicating the length of a diagonal of a square
whose side is one unit in length, is not a rational number. Accordingly the number
represented on the number line by the point P where OP (the point O represents the
number zero) is equal to the length of a diagonal of a unit square is not a rational number.
This indicates that there are points on the number line not representing rational numbers.
And the system of rational numbers is inadequate to cover all the points on the number
line. As such the necessity of formulating a more comprehensive system of numbers
1 2
-2 -1 0 1 P 2 3 4
called real numbers is felt so that to each point on the number line there corresponds a
number of the system and vice versa.
That, formulation of the system of real numbers may be done in various ways has
been shown by Mathematicians like Dedekind, Cantor, Weierstrass etc. It is beyond the
scope of this book to discuss systematically the definition of real numbers. However a
round-about definition may be given on the basis of Dedekind-Cantor Axiom which states:
“To every real number there corresponds a unique point on the number line
and to every point on the number line there corresponds a unique real number.”
Definition : Irrational numbers are numbers represented on the number line by points
other than those representing rational numbers.
Definition : Real numbers are numbers which are either rational or irrational.
NUMBER SYSTEM 7
Thus, irrational numbers are real numbers which are not expressible as a ratio of
two integers. Examples of irrational numbers are 2, 3, 5 etc. The number ,
denoting the ratio of circumference of a circle to its diameter is also an irrational number.
The square root of any positive integer other than the square numbers 1 2, 22, 32, 42, ...
may be shown to be irrational (the proof being analogous to that of 2 ). Similarly the
cube root of any positive integer different from the integers 13, 23, 33, 43, ... is an irrational
number.
1.3 Representation of Square Roots of Positive Integers on Number Line :
Let XOX/ be a number line, O being the point that represents the number zero.
Taking a suitable scale, points are marked on OX , unit distance apart, to represent the
integers 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. A straight line AO/A/ is drawn parallel to XOX/ at a unit distance
from it. Through the point P1 representing 1, we draw P1Q1 perpendicular to OX
meeting O / A at Q1. With centre O and radius OQ1 an arc is drawn intersecting OX
at P2. Then P2 represents 2 . Through P2, a line P2Q2 is drawn perpendicular to OX
intersecting O / A at Q2. With centre O and radius OQ2 an arc is drawn intersecting OX
at P3. Then P3 represents 3 . Again a line perpendicular to OX is drawn through P3
A/ O/ Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 A
1 3
2
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
O P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
X/ X
intersecting O / A at Q3. With centre O and radius OQ3 an arc is drawn intersecting OX
at P4. Clearly P4 represents 4 i.e. P4 coincides with the point representing 2.
8 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Proceeding in this way we can find successively the other points P5, P6, P7 etc.
representing 5, 7 etc. Having found the point Pn representing n , we can find
6,
the next point Pn + 1 by drawing a perpendicular to OX through Pn meeting O / A at the
point Qn and then drawing an arc with centre O and radius OQn to intersect OX at this
point Pn + 1 .
The points P1, P2, P3 etc. representing 1, 2, 3 etc. may also be found on
the number line by constructing what is known as square root spiral.
Draw a line segment AA1 of unit length. Also draw a line segment A1A2 of unit
length, perpendicular to AA1.
Join AA2 and draw line segment A2A3 of unit length perpendicular to AA2. Join AA3 and
draw line segment A3A4 of unit length perpendicular to AA3. Proceeding in this way, we
find successively the points A1, A2, A3 etc. such that AA1, AA2, AA3 etc. are of lengths
1, 2, 3 etc.
A4 1
1 A3
A5
1
4 3 A2
A6
5 2
1
A 1 A1
1 2 3 4
O P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 X
On the number ray OX we can mark points P1, P2, P3 etc. in such a way that
OP1 = AA1, OP2 = AA2, OP3 = AA3 etc. These points P1, P2, P3 etc. represent the
numbers 1, 2, 3 etc.
NUMBER SYSTEM 9
Example 2. Represent 3 on the number line.
Solution : Take a line segment AA1 of unit length and draw A3
a line segment A1A2 also of unit length, perpendicular to AA1. 1
A2
Join AA2 and draw line segment A2A3 of unit length 3
2
perpendicular to AA2. Join AA3. On the number ray OX , mark
1
a point P such that OP = AA3. Then P is the point P( 3 )
A 1 A1
representing 3 on the number line.
1 2 3 4 5
O P( 3 ) X
In case of any integer which can be expressed as sum of two square numbers,
a short cut method can be used to locate its square root, as illustrated below :
Example 3 : Represent 13 on the number line.
Solution : It is seen that 13 = 4 + 9 = 22 + 32.
C
Draw a line segment AB of length 2 units. Draw a
line segment BC of length 3 units, perpendicular to AB. Join
AC. Now
AC 2 = AB2 + BC2 13 3
= 22 + 32
= 13
A 2 B
AC = 13 .
P( 13 )
O 1 2 3 4 5 X
Mark the point P on the number ray OX such that OP = AC. Then P is the
required point P( 13 ) representing 13 on the number line.
10 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
1.4 Real Numbers and their Representation on the Number Line
The rational numbers and irrational numbers taken together form the system of
real numbers. In this system there is a number corresponding to each point on the number
line. Also to each number of the system there corresponds a point on the number line.
In other words, there is a correspondence between the system of real numbers and the
totality of all points on the number line. The collection of all real numbers is denoted by R. In
view of the correspondence, a number line provides a complete geometrical picture of R.
A point on the number line is termed as a rational point or an irrational point
according as it represents a rational number or an irrational number. We see that infinite
number of points lie between any two different points on the number line. This indicates
that between two unequal real numbers there lie infinitely many real numbers. Of these
real numbers lying between two given unequal real numbers, infinitely many are rational
and infinitely many are irrational. You can now guess the juxtaposition of rational points
and irrational points on the number line.
You have studied the representation of rational numbers on the number line in
Class VII. In general, to represent a rational number mn (where m, n are integers and
n > 0) we take the point M representing the integer m on the number line and then divide
OM (O represents zero) into n equal parts. If P is the point of division nearest to O then
it represents mn . Thus, given a real number x, if it is rational we can locate on the number
line, the point P(x) representing x, using the illustrated process. However if the given
number is irrational there is no generalised process to find the exact position of the point
representing the same, on the number line. Only in some exceptional cases when the
given number can be put into the form r m s n ; r, s being rational and m, n being
positive integers, the exact position of the point can be located. The representation in such
a case is as illustrated in the following examples.
3 2
Example 4 : Represent 2
on the number line.
Solution : The point A representing 2 is located on the number line.
O 1 A P B X
The segment OB = 3 OA is measured to get the point B representing 3 2 .
Then OB is bisected at P. The point P, so obtained, represents 3 2 2 .
NUMBER SYSTEM 11
Example 5 : Locate the point representing 2 3 on the number line.
Solution : First, the points A, B representing 2, 3 respectively are located on the
number line. Then we draw successively segments BC and CD of unit length,
perpendicular to AB and AC respectively.
3 C
O 1 A B P X
With A as centre and AD as radius an arc is drawn, intersecting AX at P..
Clearly P represents 2 + 3 on the number line.
Example 6 : Represent 2 5 on the number line.
Solution : The point A representing 2 is located on the number line. A point B
is marked on AX such that AB = 1 (unit). A line segment BC of length 2 (units) is drawn
perpendicular to AB. With centre A and radius AC, an arc is drawn cutting AX at P..
As OA = 2 and AP = 5 , the point P therefore, represents 2 5 on the
number line.
5 2
2
1
O 1 A B P X
There are infinitely many irrational numbers that cannot be expressed in the form
r m s n . In fact, infinitely many irrational numbers are there, which cannot be
expressed by using known arithmetical symbols such as digits, radicals, powers etc. There
is no well known process to locate the exact position of the point representing such an
12 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
irrational number. However, given an irrational number, we may find an approximate
position of the point representing the same on the number line, by expressing the number
in decimal expansion.
We assume that every real number has a decimal representation. In previous
classes, you have learnt that every rational number has either a terminating or a non-
terminating recurring decimal representation and conversely every terminating or
recurring decimal represents a rational number.
There are non-terminating and non-recurring decimals such as
0.202002000200002 ...
(Here, in this decimal there are only two distinct digits namely 2 and 0, and 2’s
are separated by one zero in the beginning, next by two zeros, next by three zeros and
so on).
What numbers will such decimals represent ? Of course, irrational numbers, since
they cannot represent rational numbers. Conversely each irrational number will have a
non-terminating and non-recurring decimal representation, for if the decimal is terminating
or recurring the corresponding number is rational. From this consideration, we can also
define irrational numbers as non-terminating and non-recurring decimals.
Consider the irrational number , denoting the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter. Its decimal expansion (upto four places of decimal) is 3.1416. To
represent the number on the number line, we first approximate its value correct to a
desired number of decimal places and use the approximate value to find the corresponding
P(3.14)
O 1 2 3 4 X
point. For instance, the value of correct to two decimal places is 3.14 and we locate
the point P on the number line representing the rational number 3.14 and use this point
P as the point P() representing the number . We know that P is not the exact position
of the point P() but very close to it.
To find the point P(3.14) we are to divide the unit length between 3 and 4 into
100 equal parts and take first 14 points. In fact, the point P(3.14) divides the segment
joining 3.1 and 3.2 in the ratio 4:6 i.e. 2:3. With due magnification, the point representing
3.14 is shown below :
NUMBER SYSTEM 13
3 3.10 3.14 3.18 3.20 3.30
X
The knowledge of the form of decimal expansion of irrational numbers enables
us to find irrational numbers lying between two given real numbers.
Example 7 : Write any three rational numbers and any three irrational numbers
lying between 52 and 53 .
Solution : We know that
2 3
5 = 0.4 and 5 = 0.6
Three rational numbers between them are 0.45, 0.46, 0.5. And decimal expansion
of three irrational numbers lying between them are as given below :
(i) 0.45045004500045 ...
(ii) 0.5050050005 ...
(iii) 0.5151151115 ...
( The above decimals are non-terminating and non-recurring, hence they are
irrational numbers and all three of them lie between 0.4 and 0.6)
EXERCISE 1.2
1. Show that there exist points on the number line not representing rational
numbers.
2. Prove that there is no rational number whose square is 3.
3. Prove that 5 is an irrational number..
4. Prove that 7 is not a rational number..
5. Represent the following number on the number line.
(i) 5 (ii) 7 (iii) 11 (iv) 20 (v) 29
14 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
6. Locate on the number line the point representing the following number :
5
(i) 2 3 (ii) 3 2 (iii) 2
(iv) 3 2 (v) 2 5
(vi) 4 5 (vii) 2 3 (viii) 5 2
7. Write any three rational numbers and any three irrrational numbers lying between
2.1 and 2.2
1 1
8. Write any four irrational numbers lying between 3 and 2 .
1.5 Existence of x for a given Positive Real Number x.
If n is a natural number, then n stands for the positive real number p such that
p = n. Thus,
2
n = p means that p = n and p > 0. Similar definition may be given for
2
x where x is a positive real number..
Let x be a positive real number. Then x = y means that y2 = x and y > 0.
It can be shown geometrically the existence of x for any real number x > 0
and the representation of the same on the number line. The idea involved in the process
is based on the well known algebraic identity :
(a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab
Taking a = x and b = 1, the identity becomes
(x + 1)2 – (x – 1)2 = 4x
x 2 1 x 2 1 x
2 2
x 2 1 x 2 1 x
2 2 2
Consider a right triangle whose hypotenuse and one side are of lengths x 2 1 and
x 1
2 respectively. Then from the above identity it follows that the remaining side of the
triangle is of length x . To construct one such right triangle we proceed as under :
NUMBER SYSTEM 15
Points A, B, C are marked on a
D
line such that AB = x units and BC = 1
unit. AC is bisected at O and a semi-
circle is drawn with O as centre and
AC as diameter. A line is drawn through x
B perpendicular to AC, intersecting the
semi-circle at D. Then OBD is the
x 1
desired right triangle in which the A O 2
B C
hypotenuse OD = x 2 1 and OB =
OC – BC = x 2 1 – 1 = x 2 1 .
Now, BD 2 = OD2 – OB2
x 2 1 x 2 1
2 2
=
= x
BD = x
This is the visual and geometric proof for the existence of x for any positive
real number x.
Since we can construct a line segment of length x units for any given positive
real number x, therefore we can represent x on the number line using the above
illustrated process.
Example 8 : Represent 4.5 on the number line.
Solution : On the number line XOX/, points A and B are marked representing the
numbers, – 4.5 and 1 respectively. Clearly A and B lie on opposite sides of O and the
length AB is of 5.5 units. Bisect AB at C and draw the semi-circle having C as centre
X/ A C O B P( 4 .5 ) X
and AB as the diameter. Draw OD perpendicular to OX meeting the semi-circle at D.
16 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Again draw an arc, with centre O and radius OD to intersect OX at the point P. Then
P represents 4.5 on the number line.
1.6 The nth Root of a Real Number
Let us now extend the idea of square roots to cube roots, fourth roots, fifth roots
etc. Generalising the idea, the nth root of a given positive real number is defined when
n is a positive integer.
Since 23 = 2 2 2 = 8, therefore 3
8 2 . Thus, cube root of 8 i.e. 3
8 is
3
the positive number 2 whose cube is 8. If x is a positive real number, then x y means
y3 = x and y > 0.
Again 34 = 3 3 3 3 = 81 so that 4
81 3 . Thus fourth root of 81 i.e. 4
81
is the positive number 3 whose fourth power is 81.
If x is a positive real number, then 4
x y means y4 = x and y > 0.
n
In general, if x is a positive real number and n is a positive integer then xy
means yn = x and y > 0.
Here, n
x is called the nth root of the positive number x and it is a positive real
number by definition. As in the case of rational numbers, the nth root of a real number
x is also expressed as x 1n . Thus,
1
n
x xn y provided yn = x and y > 0.
1.7 Operations on Real Numbers and Laws of Exponents
In earlier classes you have studied that the system of rational numbers satisfy
closure property with respect to addition and multiplication i.e. the sum and product of two
rational numbers are rational numbers. Also rational numbers satisfy associative and
commutative laws of addition and multiplication. Further, multiplication distributes over
addition in this system. All these laws (closure, associativity, commutativity and
distributivity) hold in the case of real numbers also. And the existence of the additive
inverse or negative, – x for any real number x and the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal,
1
x for any non-zero real number x enables us to perform the operations of subtraction
and division (except by zero) in the system of real numbers.
NUMBER SYSTEM 17
Unlike the case of rational numbers, the sum or product of two irrational numbers
need not be an irrational number. For example,
3 3 and 3 3 are not
3
irrational. Also 3
and 3 3 are not irrational, whereas 3 2, 3 2 ,
3
3 2 and 2
are all irrational.
The sum, difference, product and quotient of two non-zero real numbers, one
rational and other irrational are all irrational. For example, the numbers 2 3 , 2 3 ,
2 3
2 3 , 3 and 2 are all irrational.
Consider the case of 2 3 . Let 2 3 = x. Clearly x is a real number which
is either rational or irrational. Suppose x is rational. Then x – 2, being difference of two
rational numbers must be rational. But x – 2 = 3 so that a rational number x – 2 is
found to be equal to an irrational number 3 . This is a contradiction. Hence x i.e.
2 3 is not a rational number. So 2 3 is irrational.
2
Using similar reasoning, it may be shown that 2 3 , 2 3 , 3 and 23 are
all irrational numbers. In general if r is a non-zero rational number and s an irrational
s r
number, then r + s, r – s, rs, r and s are all irrational numbers.
Example 9 : Find the sum of 3+2 2 and 5-3 2
Solution : 3 2 2 + 53 2 = 3+5+ 2 2 3 2
= 8 + (2 – 3) 2
= 8 + (–1) 2
= 8 – 2.
Example 10 : Find the product of 3 2 - 2 3 and 2 2 + 5 3
Solution : ( 3 2 2 3 )( 2 2 + 5 3 )
=
3 2 2 2 5 3 2 3 2 2 5 3
= 6 4 + 15 6 4 6 10 9
= 12 15 4 6 30
= 18 11 6
18 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Let us now recall the terms base, exponent and power.
You know that 23 = 2 2 2 = 8. In the notation 23, the number 2 is the base,
3 is the exponent or index and 23 is a power of 2. The laws of exponents for rational
base and integral exponents may be written as follows :
If m, n are integers and x, y are non-zero rational numbers, then
(i) xm xn = xm + n
m
x
(ii) = xm – n
xn
(iii) (xy) m = x m ym
(iv) (x m) n = x mn
Taking m = n in (ii) we get
xn
= xn – n or 1 = x0
xn
Thus, x0 = 1 (for any non-zero number x)
Again, putting m = 0 in (ii) we get
x0 1
x 0 n or xn
x n
xn
1
Thus, xn n
x
and this relation gives the meaning of a power where the exponent is negative.
Let us now study the meaning of powers where the exponent is a rational
number. Consider the power 4 5 2 where the exponent 52 is a rational number. We may
simplify this power in two different ways as follows :
4 1 5
(i) 4
5
2 = 2
4
5
=
= 25 = 32
4
1
5
(ii) 4
5
2 = 2
45
= 4 4 4 4 4
= 4 4 4 32
NUMBER SYSTEM 19
We may now introduce powers where the base is a positive real number and the
exponent is a rational number.
If x is a positive real number and p, q are integers relatively prime to each other,
then
x
p
q p q
x q
xp
Thus, 2 3 3 24 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
4
3 2
5
1 1 1 1
and 5
35 33333 9 3
3 2
The laws of exponents as stated above, including the deductions hold good
when bases are positive real numbers and exponents are rational numbers, positive
or negative.
3 363
Example 11 : Simplify : 147 + 3
- 6
3 363
Solution : 147 3
6
3
= 3 7 7 3
16 3 11 11
3
= 7 3 3
11
6
3
= 7 13 116 3
42 2 11
= 6
3
33 3
= 6
112 3
Example 12 : Simplify : 3 3 2 +7 3 16 - 3 250
Solution : We have, 3
16 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
and 3
250 3 2 5 5 5 5 3 2
3 3 2 7 3 16 3 250
= 33 2 7 2 3 2 53 2
= 3 14 5 3 2 = 12 3 2
20 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Example 13: Find (i) 64 1 3 (ii) 81 4
1
(iii) 125 3
2
2
1
6 3
Solution : (i) 64 3 =
1
= 263 = 22 = 4
81 = 3
1
4 4
(ii) 1
4 = 3
125 = 5
2
3 3
(iii) 2
3 = 53 2 3 = 52 = 25
5 2
Example 14: Simplify : (i) 4- 2
3
(ii) 16 4 -8 3
271
- 43 2
×81- 4
3
1
(iii) (iv) 6 -2
÷ 216 3
1 1 1 1
Solution: (i) 4 2 = = = =
3
4
3
4
3
2 23 8
5 2
= 24 23
5 2 4 3
(ii) 16 8
4 3
= 24 4 23 3
5 2
= 25–22
= 32 – 4 = 28
3
4
3
3
1
1 3
27
4 3
34 4
(iii) 27
81 = 3 1
81
4
=
34
3
4
= 34 313 = 34–3 = 3.
2
(iv) 1
6 2
216 3 = 62 216 23
2
= 6 2 63
3
= 62 62
= 62–2
= 60 = 1
NUMBER SYSTEM 21
1.8 Rationalisation of Real Numbers
1
Consider the real number 2 2 . Can you locate the point on the number line
representing this number ? It is difficult to locate. However if we express the number
with a rational denominator, then we may have an idea to locate the point. So, our aim
is, first to express the number with a rational denominator. To do so we proceed as
follows :
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by 2+ 2 (how would you guess
this factor ?) we have
1 2 2
2 2
= (2 2 )(2 + 2)
2 2
= 22 ( 2 ) 2
2 2
= 4 2
2 2
= 2
As done earlier, the number may now, be represented on the number line. The
representation is shown below :
1
P Q( 2 2 )
O 1 2 3 4 X
2 2
The point P representing 2
lies between 1 and 2.
A point to be emphasized in the above process is the choice of the multiplying
factor 2 2 . Given the denominator 2 2 we choose this multiplying factor 2 2
by using the well known identity (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2 so that the product turns out
to be a rational number.
22 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
If the product of two irrational numbers is a rational number then each is called
a rationalising factor of the other. Thus 2 2 and 2 2 are rationalising factors
of one another. Similarly a b x and a b x are rationalising factors of one another..
Also x y and x y are rationalising factors of each other..
1 1
To rationalise the denominators of the numbers of the type a b x
and x y
we choose a b x and x y respectively as the rationalising factors and
multiply both numerator and denominator of each fraction by the corresponding
rationalising factor.
Example 15 : Express with rational denominator
3 15 1 1
(i) 2 5
(ii) 2 + 3
(iii) 4- 5
3 2 -2 3 5- 7
(iv) 3 2 +2 3
(v) 3+2 7
3 15 3 15 3 3
Solution : (i) 2 5
= 2 5
= 2
1 1
(ii) 2 3
= 3 2
3 2
= ( 3 2 )( 3 2)
3 2
= ( 3) 2 ( 2 )2
= 3 2
1 4+ 5 4+ 5
(iii) 4 5
= (4 5)(4 + 5)
= 4 2 ( 5) 2
4+ 5 4+ 5
= 16 5
= 11
3 2 2 3 (3 2 2 3) 2
(iv) 3 2 +2 3
= (3 2 + 2 3)(3 2 2 3)
(3 2 )2 + (2 3)2 2 3 2 2 3
= (3 2 ) 2 (2 3) 2
18 12 12 6
= 18 12
30 12 6
= 6
52 6
NUMBER SYSTEM 23
5 7 (5 7 )(3 2 7 )
(v) 3+2 7
= (3 + 2 7 )(3 2 7 )
5(3 2 7 ) 7 (3 2 7 )
= 32 (2 7 )2
15 10 7 3 7 + 2 7 29 13 7
= 9 28
= 19
29 + 13 7
= 19
1 1
Example 16 : Simplify +
2 + 3 + 5 2 + 3 - 5
2 3 5 2 3+ 5
Solution :
1
1
=
2 3 5 2 3 5 ( 2 3 5 )( 2 3 5 )
2 2 2 3
= ( 2 3) 2 ( 5) 2
2( 2 3)
= 2+3+2 6 5
2( 2 3)
= 2 6
2 3
= 6
6( 2 3) 12 18
= 6
6 6
2 3 3 2
= 6
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Construct a line segment of length 5.6 .
2. Represent 6.5 on the number line.
3. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational :
(i) 3 2 (ii) 3 2
1
(iii) 2 5 (iv) 7
(v) 3 3 3 (vi) 13 7 4 7 (vii)
4 21
5 21
(viii) 2 3 3 2
24 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
4. Simplify :
(i) 18 64 (ii) 43 12 (iii) 5 80
(iv) 50 32 (v) 363 147 (vi) 2 45 5 20 80
(vii) 2 12 75 7 3 (viii) 7 14 (ix) 2 3 3 2
(x) 8 12 3 24 (xi) 3 10 4 15 (xii) 6 12 3 27
5. Multiply :
(i) 3 52 3 by 4 5 5 3
(ii) 2 5 7 by 2 5 7
(iii) 3 7 2 5 by 3 7 2 5
6. Express the following avoiding fractional or negative exponents :
5
5 4
2 3
(i) 35 (ii) (iii) 4
2 3
2 2
(iv) 3 3
3
1
2 (v) 5 3
2 5 3
7. Express the following avoiding radical signs and negative exponents :
3 5
5 4
3
(i) (ii)
1
2 4 6 2
2
(iii) 5
7 3
(iv) 3
3 5 6 3
9
(v) 4
8. Find the value of
16 4 5
3
(i) (ii) 323 (iii) 95
3431
23
125 3 (v)
2
(iv)
NUMBER SYSTEM 25
9. Express with rational denominator :
3 1 34 2 5 2 3 5 3
(i) 43 3
(ii) 53 2
(iii) 5+ 3
(iv) 4 15
1 4 1
(v) 1+ 6 7
(vi) 1+ 2 + 3
(vii) 2 + 3+ 5
10. Simplify :
18 27 18 48 6
(i) (ii)
75 48 32 50 3+ 6 2+ 6 2+ 3
(iii)
1
1
(iv)
2
7
31
5 3 5+ 3 4 3 2 3 2 1+4 2
(v)
1
1
(vi)
11
11
1 2 3 1+ 2 3 1 3+ 5 1+ 3 5
7 5 7 + 5
(vii) 3 35
7+ 5 7 5
11. Show that the following are rational
(i)
3
2 5+2 6 (ii)
5 5
2 5
3+ 2 3+ 5
(iii)
1
1
1
1+ 2 2 + 3 3+ 4
2 1 2 +1
(iv) x2 – xy + y2 where x = 2 1
and y = 2 1
26 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
ANSWER
Exercise 1.1
p
1. A number of the form q where p, q are integers and q 0. Yes, it is true.
3. Four rational numbers between 2 and 3 may be taken in many ways. One way
of to write 2 10
41
105 ; 3 15
41
155 and take 11 12 13 14
5
, 5, 5, 5 .
4. Taking 1
4
= 123 18
72 ,
1= 4
3 12
24
72
19 20 21 , 22 , 23
we get the five rationals , , 72
72 72 72 72 .
p p p r
5. Use q
< rs q
q s
r
s and get the rationals
2, 2, 3, 1, 4, 3
8 5 7 2 7 5
Exercise 1.2
1. Take the point P on the number line such that OP is equal to the length of a
diagonal of a unit square.
2. Proceed as in case of 2.
5. Proceed as in Example 2 and 3.
6. Proceed as in Example 4 and 5.
7. Rationals : 2.11 , 2.12 , 2.13
Irrationals : 2.11010010001 ...; 2.12020020002 ... ; 2.13030030003....
8. 0.34040040004 ... ; 0.353353335 ... ; 0.4040040004 ... ;
0.4141141114 ... .
Exercise 1.3
1. Refer Example 8.
2. Proceed as in Example 8.
3. (i) Irrational (ii) Irrational (iii) Irrational (iv) Irrational
NUMBER SYSTEM 27
(v) Rational (vi) Rational (vii) Rational (viii) Rational
4. (i) 83 2 (ii) 6 3 (iii) 5 5 (iv) 2
(v) 4 3 (vi) 0 (vii) 2 3 (viii) 7 2
6 4
(ix) 6 6 (x) 288 2 (xi) 4
(xii) 3
5. (i) 30 7 15 (ii) 2 10 (iii) 24 4 35
1
6. (i) 5 (ii) (iii)
32 4
53 5 3 24
1 1 6
(iv) 6
27
(v) 2
55
5 1 3
7. (i) 32 (ii) 4 (iii) 75
53
(iv) 2 (v) 34
1
1
8. (i) 8 (ii) 8 (iii) 243
1
(iv) 25 (v) 49
5 3 29 + 29 2 1 + 15
9. (i) 11
(ii) 7
(iii) 2
(iv) 7 5 9 3
6 6 42 2 3 3 2 30
(v) 12
(vi) 2 2 6 (vii) 12
10. (i) 3 (ii) 0 (iii) 3 (iv) 0
6
(v) 2
(vi) 4 15 6 3 (vii) 35
28 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
SUMMARY
Main points studied in this chapter may be summarised as follows :
p
1. A number which can be put in the form q where p, q are integers and q 0,
is called a rational number.
2. The number indicating the length of a diagonal of a unit square is not rational.
3. There are points on the number line which do not represent rational numbers and
such points represent irrational numbers.
4. A real number which cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers, is an
irrational number.
5. The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating and non-
recurring. Conversely, a non-terminating and non-recurring decimal represents an
irrational number.
6. The rational numbers and irrational numbers taken together, form the system of
real numbers.
7. To each point on the number line there corresponds a unique real number and to
each real number there corresponds a unique point on the number line.
8. The sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers need not be
irrational.
9. If m, n are integers, n > 0 and x is a positive real number,
x
m
n m
then x n xm n
.
10. If x, y are positive real numbers and m, n are rational numbers, then
(i) xm.xn = xm + n (ii) xm
xn
x mn
(iii) (xy)m = xm.ym (iv) (xm)n = xmn
1
11. To rationalise the denominator of a b x
we multiply both numerator and
denominator by a b x .
1
12. To rationalise the denominator of x y we multiply both numerator and
denominator by x y .
**********
32 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
It may also be noted that when n = 0 and a0 0, the polynomial becomes a0 (a
non-zero constant) and its degree is 0. In other words, a non-zero constant is a polynomial
of degree zero. Whereas when n = 0 and a0 = 0 we get a zero polynomial of which the
degree is not defined as the condition an 0 is violated.
A polynomial is said to be in the standard form when its terms are arranged in
ascending or descending powers of the variable.
Definition : A polynomial in which the coefficient of the highest degree term is 1 is
called a Monic Polynomial.
For example, x3 + x2 + 1, x4 – 3x3 + x – 2 are monic polynomials. Monic
polynomial of degree zero is 1.
2.4 Some Special Names of Polynomials
(i) Linear Polynomial : A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial.
For example, 4x, x + 3, 5 x 2 , 4 – 3x etc. are linear polynomials.
The general form of a linear polynomial is ax + b, where a and b are constants
and a 0.
(ii) Quadratic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic
polynomial.
For example, 2x2 + 5, x 2 52 x , 6 – y – y2 etc. are quadratic polynomials.
In general, a quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b,
c are constants and a 0.
(iii) Cubic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial.
For example, 5x3 – 1, y3 – 5y + 2 etc. are cubic polynomials.
The general form of a cubic polynomial is ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c,
d are constants and a 0.
(iv) Biquadratic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree four is called a biquadratic (or
quartic) polynomial and its general form is ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, where
a, b, c, d, e are constants and a 0.
For example, 5x4 + 4x3 – 2x2 + x – 1 is a biquadratic polynomial.
So far we have dealt with polynomials in one varaible only. We can also have
polynomials in more than one variable. For example, x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz is a polynomial
in three variables x, y and z. Similarly, s2 + st + t2 and p2 + q2 + pqr are polynomials
in two and three variables respectively. We shall study such polynomials in detail later.
68 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
EXERCISES 3.2
1. Find the distance of the following points from the origin.
(a) (2, 5) (b) (6, –10) (c) (–6, 12)
2. Find the distance between the pair of points
(a) (1, 3), (7, 2) (b) (7, –2), (3, –1)
(c) (10, 4), (–1, –2) (d) (–1, 3), (4, –2)
3. The coordinates of A are (–4, 8) and those of B are (x, 3). Find x if AB = 13.
4. Show that the points A(2, 7), B(3, 0), C(–4, –1) are vertices of an isosceles
triangle and find the length of the base.
5. Show that the points A(4, 3), B(1, 2), C(1, 0), D(4, 1) are vertices of a
parallelogram and find the lengths of its diagonals.
6. Show that (2, 1) is the centre of the circumcircle of the triangle whose vertices
are (–3, –9), (13, –1) and (–9, 3).
7. Show that the points (4, 4), (5, -1), (-6, 2) are the vertices of a right angled
triangle.
8. Show that the points (p, p), (-p, -p), (p3, - p3) are the vertices of an
equilateral triangle.
ANSWER
1. (a) 29 (b) 2 34
(c) 3 20
2. (a) 37 (b) 17 (c) 157 (d) 5 2
3. –8, –16 4. 10 5. 10, 3 2
66 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Q(x2, y2)
P(x1, y1)
C
X/ O A B X
Y/
Fig. 3.11
Draw PA and QB perpendicular to the X-axis. Then OA = x1, AP = y1,
OB = x2, BQ = y2. Draw PC perpendicular to QB meeting QB at C. Then ABCP is
a rectangle and so, BC = AP = y1.
QC = BQ – BC
= y2 – y1
Again, PC = AB = OB – OA = x2 –x1.
In PCQ, PCQ = 900.
by Pythagoras theorem
PQ 2 = PC2 + QC2
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
PQ = (x2 x1 )2 ( y2 y1 ) 2
64 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Step I : Take the co-ordinate axes on the plane so that the origin is at a suitable
position, preferably at the middle of the plane.
Step II : Choose the scale on the axes so that the point corresponding to the given co-
ordinates may be shown in the plane.
Step III : Check the sign of the abscissa. If it is positive, take the required units starting
from O along the positive direction of the X-axis. If it is negative take the
required units starting from O along the negative direction of X-axis. If it is
zero, it remains at O.
Step IV : Name the point obtained in step III, A, say.
Step V : Check the sign of the ordinate. If it is positive, take the required units starting
from A along the positive direction of the Y-axis. If it is negative, take the
required units starting from A along the negative direction of the Y-axis. If it
is zero, it remain at A.
Step VI : Name the point obtained in step V, P, say.
Then, P is the required point on the plane with the given co-ordinates. Such a
process of locating a point with given co-ordinates is called plotting a point.
EXERCISE 3.1
1. In which quadrants, do the following points lie :
(a) (–2, 7) (b) (–2, –3) (c) (1, 6) (d) (5, –3)
2. Locate the points given below on the Cartesian plane and also state the
quadrants in which they lie :
(a) (2, 5) (b) (–4, –1) (c) (–1, 5) (d) (2, –6)
3. On which axis do the following points lie :
(a) (1, 0) (b) (0, 5) (c) (–3, 0)
(d) (0, –2) (e) (0, 0)
62 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
The above observations can also be put in a table as below :
QUADRANT 1st 2nd 3rd 4rd
COORDINATES
Abscissa + – – +
Ordinate + + – –
Let us again find the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D marked on the axes
as in Fig. 3.8.
2 B
1
C A
X/ -4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
-1 D
-2
-3
Y/
Fig. 3.8
The distance of the point A from the Y-axis is 6-units and the distance from the
X-axis is 0 unit. So, the co-ordinates of the point A are (6, 0). Similarly, the co-ordinates
of B, C, D are (0, 2), (–3, 0), (0, –1) respectively. Observe that A and C lie on the
X-axis and their ordinates are zeroes. Again, B and D lie on the Y-axis and their abscissas
are zeroes. Thus,
if a point lies on the X-axis, its ordinate is zero and if a point lies on the
Y-axis, its abscissa is zero.
Note that the origin lies on both the axes. So, both its ordinate and abscissa are
zeros. Hence, the co-ordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
60 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Y
6
4 B P
1
C A
X/ -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 5 X
-1
-2
Q -3 D
-4
Y/
Fig. 3.5
Draw perpendiculars PA, QC on the X-axis and PB, QD on the Y-axis. Measure
PA, PB, QC, QD. Observe that PB lies along the positive direction of the X-axis and
PB = 3 units. So, the abscissa of P is +3 or simply 3. Whereas, QD lies along the negative
direction of the X-axis and QD = 2 units. So, the abscissa of Q is –2. Similarly,
PA lies along the positive direction of Y-axis with PA = 4 units whereas QC lies along
the negative direction of Y-axis with QC = 3 units. So, the ordinate of P is 4 whereas that of Q
is – 3. Hence, the co-ordinates of P are (3, 4) and the co-ordinates of Q are (–2, –3).
Y
3.5 Quadrants
The co-ordinate axes X / OX and SECOND FIRST
QUADRANT QUADRANT
Y / OY divide the plane into four regions.
Each region is called a quadrant. Thus, the
co-ordinate axes divide the plane into four X/ O X
quadrants. THIRD FOURTH
QUADRANT QUADRANT
Fig. 3.6 Y/
58 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
5 cm
10 cm
Fig. 3.3
You may say that it is near the top edge of the paper or you may further say that
it is near both the top edge and right edge of the paper. This also does not specify the
exact location of the dot.
3.3 Cartesian Co-ordinates
*Rene Descartes, the great French mathematician and philosopher propounded a
system of describing the position of a point in a plane. In honour of Descartes, this system
used for describing the position of a point in a plane is known as the Cartesian System
of Co-ordinates.
3.4 Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate System
To fix the position of a point P in a plane, take two fixed perpendicular lines,
conventionally one horizontal and other vertical, on the plane intersecting at a point. Let
/ be the horizontal line,
XX Y / Y be the vertical line and O be the point of their
intersection. Take the line X / OX as a number line in which O is the origin, positive
numbers are represented along OX and negative numbers along OX / in a certain scale.
Similarly, take the line Y / OY as a number line in which O is the origin, positive numbers
are represented along OY and negative numbers along OY / in the same scale. The
horizontal line X / OX and vertical line Y / OY are together called the co-ordinate axes,
..
* Pronounce as Rene / \ da /-kart
8 2 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
ANSWERS
3. (i) (5, 0) and (0, 3) (ii) 6 4. (3, 4)
5. 5 6. 6x – y + 4 = 07. y = kx
8. x + y = 125
9. (i) 1040F (ii) 450C (iii) 320F and –17.80C (approx.) (iv) – 400
10. (i) 40g (ii) 630
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c are constants (real
numbers) such that both a and b are not zeroes, is called a linear equation in two
variables.
2. A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.
3. The graph of every linear equation in two variables is a straight line.
4. Every point on the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a solution of the
linear equation, and every solution of a linear equation is a point on the graph of
the linear equation.
5. The graph of x = c is a straight line parallel to the Y-axis and passing through
(c, 0).
6. The graph of y = c is a straight line parallel to the X-axis and passing through
(0, c).
7. The graph of x = 0 is the Y-axis.
8. The graph of y = 0 is the X-axis.
9. The graph of an equation of the type y = kx, where k is a constant, always
passes through the origin.
******
8 0 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
(0, 0), (2, 4), (4, 8), (–1, –2)
Plotting the points represented by the above ordered pairs and
joining these points we get a line AB as shown in Fig. 4.5. This straight
line is the graph of the above equation.
We see that the point (5, 10) lies on the line AB .
Hence, when the distance travelled by the body is 5 units, the work
done is 10 units.
Remarks : The graph of the equation of the form y = kx is a line which always
passes through the origin.
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Draw the graph of the following equation :
(i) x = 4 (ii) x = – 5 (iii) y = 3 (iv) y=–4
(v) x + y = 0 (vi) x – y = 0 (vii) x + 3y = 0
2. Draw the graph of the following equation :
(i) 3x + 4y = 12 (ii) x + 2y = 6 (iii) 2x – 5y = 10
(iv) 3x = 4y – 12 (v) x
5
y
6
1 (vi)
x
5 y
6 1
(vii) 4x + 3y = 13 (viii) 2x + 3y = 11
(ix) x – 3y = 8 (x) 3x – y = 8
3. Draw the graph of 5x + y
3
1.
(i) Find the co-ordinates of the points where the graph intersects the two
co-ordinate axes.
(ii) From the graph find the value of y when x = – 5.
4. Using the same unit and the same axes, draw the graphs of the following
equations:
2x – y = 2 and 3x + 2y = 17
Find the co-ordinates of the point where the graphs intersect.
7 8 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Remarks : (i) The graph of the equation y = c, where c is a constant, is a straight
line parallel to the X-axis. It cuts the Y-axis at the point (0,c). The
ordinate of any point on this line is c.
(ii) The graph of y = 0 is the X-axis.
Example 3 : Draw the graph of 3x + 5y = 15.
Solution : 3x + 5y = 15 is a linear equation in two variables x and y. Some of the
ordered pairs satisfying this equation are (0,3), (5,0), (10, –3), (–5, 6) etc.
Plotting the points represented by these ordered pairs and joining them we
get a straight line AB as shown in Fig. 4.4. The straight line AB is the
graph of the equation 3x + 5y = 15.
A 7
( -5,6)
6
5
4
3 (0,3)
2
1 (5,0)
X/ -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X
-1
-2
(10,-3)
-3
-4
B
Y/
Fig. 4.4
Example 4 : If the work done by a constant force acting on a body is directly
proportional to the distance travelled by the body, the constant of
proportionality being the constant force, express this in the form
of an equation in two variables and draw the graph of the same by
taking the constant force as 2 units. Also read from the graph the
work done when the distance travelled by the body is 5 units.
7 6 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
So, the linear equation (i) is geometrically represented by the line AB . This line
is called the graph of the linear equation. Thus, we conclude that the graph of a linear
equation is a straight line whose points make up the aggregate of solutions, of the
equation. To obtain the graph of a linear equation in two variables, it is enough to plot two
points corresponding to two solutions of the equation and draw a line through them.
However, it is better to plot at least three such points so that you can immediately check
the correctness of the graph.
Example 1 : Draw the graph of x = 5.
Solution : x = 5 is a linear equation in one variable. However, it can be written as
x + 0.y = 5 ... (i)
which is a linear equation in two variables. Some of the ordered
pairs which satisfy equation (i) are given below :
(5, 0), (5, 2), (5, 5), (5, –3) etc.
7 A
6
5 (5,5)
4
3
2 (5,2)
1
(5,0)
X
/
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X
-1
-2
-3 (5, -3)
-4
B
Y/
Fig. 4.2
The points represented by the above ordered pairs are plotted in the
cartesian plane. Joining these points we get a straight line AB (Fig. 4.2).
The line AB thus obtained is the graph of the equation x = 5.
7 4 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
(iii) Two tables and three chairs cost 1200.
(iv) Two numbers are in the ratio 2 : 3.
3. Find four different solutions for each of the following equations in two
variables:
(i) x = 3y (ii) 4x + 3y = 12 (iii) x + 2y = 6
(iv) 5x + 2y = 0 (v) 3x + 4 = 0 (vi) 2y – 5 = 0
4. Check which of the following are solutions of the equation 3x – 2y = 6 and
which are not :
(i) (2, 0) (ii) (0, 3) (iii) (3, 0)
(iv) (0, –3) (v) (–2, –6) (vi) (4, 3)
5. Find the value of k if
(i) (1, 2) is a solution of 3x + 2y = k
(ii) (2, –3) is a solution of kx – 3y + 5 = 0.
ANSWERS
1. (i) –6 (ii) 3 (iii) 1 (iv) 4 (v) 13
3
(vi) 4 (vii) 2 (viii) 12 (ix) 1 (x) 7
2. (i) x – 8y = 0 (ii) x – y = 5
(iii) 2x + 3y = 12000 (iv) 3x – 2y = 0
1 8
3. (i) (0, 0), (3, 1), (–6, –2), (1, 3 ) (ii) (0, 4), (3, 0), (–3, 8), (1, 3 )
(iii) (0, 3), (6, 0), (2, 2), (–2, 4) (iv) (0, 0), (2, –5), (–2, 5), (1, 52 )
(v) ( 43 , 0), ( 43 , 1), ( 43 , 2), ( 43 , 3)
5 5 5 5
(vi) (0, 2 ), (1, 2 ), (2, 2 ), (3, 2 )
4. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes (v) Yes (vi) Yes
5. (i) 7 (ii) –7
7 2 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
in two variables. In other words, a linear equation in two variables has infinitely many
solutions. However, an arbitrary ordered pair need not be a solution of the equation.
Example 1 : The cost of a notebook is twice that of a pen. Write a linear
equation to represent this statement.
Solution : Let the cost of a notebook be x and that of a pen be y..
Then we have,
x = 2y
x – 2y = 0.
This is the linear equation which represents the given statement.
Example 2 : Write each of the following equations in the form ax + by + c = 0
(a > 0) and indicate the values of a, b and c in each case :
(i) 3x – 4y = 5, (ii) x + 5 = 2y and (iii) 3x = y.
Solution : (i) The equation 3x – 4y = 5 can be written as 3x – 4y – 5 = 0, which
is of the form ax + by + c = 0. Here a = 3, b = –4 and c = –5.
(ii) The equation x + 5 = 2y can be written as x – 2y + 5 = 0, which
is of the form ax + by + c = 0. Here a = 1, b = –2 and c = 5.
(iii) The equation 3x = y can be written as 3x – y + 0 = 0, which is
of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a = 3, b = –1 and c = 0.
Example 3 : Write each of the following as an equation in two variables :
(i) 4x = 3 (ii) x = –2 (iii) 2y = 5
Solution : (i) 4x = 3 can be written as 4x + 0.y = 3 or 4x + 0.y – 3 = 0.
(ii) x = 2 can be written as x + 0.y – 2 = 0.
(iii) 2y = 5 can be written as 0.x + 2y – 5 = 0.
Example 4 : Find any three different solutions for each of the following
equations :
(i) 2x + 3y = 6 (ii) 3x + 4y = 0 (iii) 2x + 5 = 0.
Solution : (i) Taking x = 0, the equation 2x + 3y = 6 reduces to 3y = 6, which
gives y = 2. Therefore, (0, 2) is a solution of the equation
2x + 3y = 6.
7 0 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
CHAPTER
4 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES
4.1 Introduction
You have studied linear equations in one variable in the previous classes. Recall
that a linear equation in one variable is an equation involving only linear polynomials in one
variable. Thus, equations of the form ax = b, ax + b = c, ax + b = cx + d (where
a 0, b, c, d are constants) are linear equations in one variable. For example, x + 2 =
0, 2x – 3 = 0, 5x + 3 = 3x – 5,
y
2 3 y
3 3 etc. are linear equations in one
variable. You also know that such equations have a unique (i.e. one and only one) solution.
Now, let us see some examples of solving linear equations in one variable (i.e. finding the
value of the variable satisfying the equation).
Example 1 : Solve 4x + 3 = 15
Solution : 4x + 3 = 15
or 4x = 15 – 3 (by transposition)
or 4x = 12
x = 12
4 = 3.
Example 2 : Solve 4x + 3 = 2x + 5
Solution : 4x + 3 = 2x + 5
or 4x – 2x = 5 – 3 (by transposition)
or 2x = 2
x = 1.
Example 3 : Solve y
3
+ 1 = y
4
2
Solution : y
3 +1 y
4 2
or y
3 y
4 = 2 1 (by transposition)
y
or 12
= – 3
y = – 3 12 = – 36.
CHAPTER
5 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY
5.1 Introduction
Geometry is one of the three major components of Mathematics, the other two
being Algebra and Analysis. Geometry deals with space and related concepts. Euclidean
Geometry is one of the oldest treatises that dominated this branch of Mathematics for a
long period of more than 2000 years. But by the end of the 19th century mathematicians
found some flaws in the form of logical inconsistencies among some of Euclid’s axioms
and postulates. All these led to the development of other forms of Geometry called non-
Euclidean Geometries which do not depend on axioms and postulates. Hyperbolic
Geometry and Elliptic Geometry are two examples.
However, the importance of Euclidean Geometry is still undisputed and it forms
the basis of study of this important branch of Mathematics.
5.2 Origin of Geometry
It is commonly believed that the beginnings of Geometry are the figures made on
sand by the farmers of the by-gone eras who cultivated the Nile Valley. The figures were
made to preserve the records of the demarcations of the boundaries of the fields of the
farmers which were obliterated by the frequent floods caused by the water of the mighty
Nile. This perhaps justifies the etymological meaning of the word Geometry which is the
combination of two Greek words, Geo – meaning the Earth and metrien – meaning to
measure.
Records of the knowledge of Geometry by many ancient civilizations are now
available. Ancient civilizations of the Babyloneans, Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese etc. show
ample evidence that the peoples of those times knew application of Geometry and its
principles.
In the Indian subcontinent also excavations in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
indicate that the Indus Valley civilization about (3000 B.C.) knew the applications of
Geometry. Drawings and constructions for the performance of Vedic rites like
construction of altars and fireplaces in specific patterns show that people of that time
knew some properties of figures like triangles, circles, trapeziums etc.
But all these records do not show any evidence of a systematic study of the
subject.
It was only the Greek Mathematicians Thales (640 B.C. – 540 B.C.) and
Pythagoras (about 572 B.C.) who gave some ideas of deductive reasoning behind the
construction works of important monuments of their time.
A systematic study based on a logically consistent foundation was possible only
after Euclid (325 B.C. – 265 B.C.) developed his treatise on the subject called Elements
in thirteen chapters each forming a book.
As stated earlier these books form the basis of the study of the subject Geometry.
5.3 Concept of Dimension
It is a matter of common knowledge that right from the early days till now natural
objects and phenomena give inspirations to man particularly to scientists and philosophers.
From these inspirations they could formulate and establish various principles and laws of
nature.
From the objects available around them the ancient thinkers of Greece who were
contemporaries of Euclid, developed the idea of solid objects and their abstract
geometrical models. They also conceived Geometry as the abstract model of the things
around them.
A solid object has shape, size and it occupies a definite space. It has boundaries
called surfaces and surfaces are bounded by lines which may be straight or curved and
the lines end in points. One particular attribute of a solid body is that it can be moved from
place to place without any deformation of its shape and size.
In order to give generalization of these, the concept of dimension was brought in.
A solid has three dimensions viz. length, breadth and thickness; a surface has two
viz. length and breadth and a line has only one viz. length. A point has no dimension.
Though Euclid in his elements did not mention it categorically, the notion of
dimensions is implicit in his definitions of points, lines, surfaces and solids.
It was only in 1912 that the French mathematician Jules Henry Poincare (1854-
1912) made a definition of the concept of dimensionality.
Poincare observed that a line is one (1) dimensional because a pair of points on
it can be separated by a point which is of (1–1) i.e. 0 dimension.
A plane is two (2) dimensional because a pair of points in it can be separated by
a line which is of (2–1) i.e. 1 dimension and not by a point which is of lesser dimension.
Similarly, a solid is three (3) dimensional because only a plane which is of (3–1)
i.e. 2 dimensions can separate two points in it and not by a line or a point which are of
lesser dimensions.
5.4 Study of Geometry
To study Geometry in a systematic way Euclid made a scheme. This consists of
(i) giving some entities in the form of definitions
(ii) enunciating nine general axioms
(iii) stating five postulates which are axioms related to Geometry.
On the backdrop of one or more of the above three parts of the scheme he
proved a number of propositions some of which are so important that they are taken as
standard theorems of Geometry.
However, mathematicians of later age found some inconsistencies in the proof of
some of his theorems even though better proofs were not available.
Thus, forgetting the proof part, the truth of these propositions are retained as
axioms needing no proof.
In the following sections we shall discuss these various aspects and also the
inherent criticisms and their presently accepted forms.
5.5 Definition of Some Entities
A Point
A point in a plane is that whose position is known but having no length, no breadth
and no thickness. In other words a point has no dimension. However its position
is unique. A point is said to have no part.
A Line
A line straight or curved is an entity having length but no breadth and no
thickness. A line is said to have one dimension.
The ends of a line are points.
A Surface
A surface is that entity having both length and breadth but no thickness. A surface
has two dimensions. The edges of surfaces are lines.
A plane is a flat surface. Any straight line on a plane has all its points on it.
A Solid
A solid is a material body having length, breadth and thickness. A solid has three
dimensions. A solid is bounded by surfaces.
These are only a few of the entities that Euclid introduced in his definition
of terms.
5.6 Nine General Axioms
Axioms are self evident statements which need no proofs.
Euclid’s nine general axioms are stated below :
Axiom 1 :
Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
The following are axioms related to the four basic operations of Arithmetic.
Axiom 2 : Addition
If equals are added to equals, the sum are equal.
Axiom 3 : Subtraction
If equals are taken away from equals, the remainders are equal.
Axiom 4 : Multiplication
Things which are multiples of equals are equal to one another.
Axiom 5 : Division
Things which are equal parts of the same are equal to one another.
Axioms related to lines, points and angles.
Axiom 6 :
C
If O is a point in a straight line AB, then a
line OC, which turns about O from the position OA
to the position OB must pass through one and only
one position in which it is perpendicular to AB.
B O A
Fig. 5.1
Axiom 7 :
Every straight line of finite length i.e. a line segment has one and only one point
of bisection.
Axiom 8 :
Every angle has one and only one internal bisector.
Axioms of Superposition
Axiom 9 :
Magnitudes (entities) which can be made to coincide with one another one equal.
5.7 Criticism on the Definitions
Though Euclid’s definitions of certain terms like point, line and plane can give the
distinguishing characters of the entities, they involve unexplained terms like part, length,
breadth etc. To define them more undefined terms are to be brought in. In this way an
endless chain of definitions arises.
To avoid all these, mathematicians now take a point, a line and a plane as
undefined terms.
Further, the axiom of superposition is generally avoided because it incurs the
movement of plane figures like a triangle to superpose on another triangle which is not
possible in view of the definition of a solid and also a triangle being not a solid. However,
equality by virtue of coincidence is meaningful as we shall find in later sections.
Thus a very important theorem of Euclid namely the SAS congruence theorem,
the proof of which involves movement of a triangle is now taken as an axiom to avoid
the inconsistency in its proof.
There are other cases like this that you will study in due course.
5.8 Euclid’s Five Postulates
Though postulates and axioms are now taken as synonymous, Euclid called
axioms related to geometry as postulates.
Postulate 1 :
(i) A straight line may be drawn from one point to any other point.
(ii) Given two distinct points there is one and only one line through them i.e.
a unique line passes through two distinct points.
Postulate 2 :
A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.
A terminated line is now called a line segment.
Postulate 3 :
A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
Postulate 4 :
All right angles are equal to one another.
Postulate 5 :
If a straight line falling on two
P
straight lines makes the interior angles on A B
x
the same side taken together less than
two right angles, then the two straight
lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on the y
C
same side on which the sum of the
Q
angles is less than two right angles. D
This postulate is not as obvious
as others. It requires demonstration. Fig. 5.2
In the figure, AB and CD are
two lines and PQ falls on both. If the sum of the two interior angles x and y on the left
side of PQ is less than two right angles i.e. if x + y < 2 rt. angles then, the two lines
AB and CD when produced indefinitely will meet on the left side of PQ .
There is another form of this postulate.
It states as follows :
Given a straight line and fixed point not on the line, there is only one line passing
through the point and parallel to the given line.
This statement apparently seems to be different from postulate 5. But they are
equivalent.
In the figure, AB is the
given line and C is the given point.
P C Q
Let PQ be the straight line passing
x
through C and parallel to AB . A
line through C meets AB at D.
Now CD falls on them and the
y
sum of the interior angles x and y is
A D B
2 right angles. If the sum is to be
less than 2 right angles then, at least Fig. 5.3
one of the angles x or y (or both) is
to be reduced by turning the line (lines) about the point (points) C or D as the case may
be. Surely the two lines will meet on the side of the line CD wherein the sum of the two
interior angles is less than two right angles.
Another form of the postulate is as follows :
Two distinct intersecting lines cannot be parallel to the same line.
Example 1 : C is a point on the line segment AB such that AC = CB, show that
1
AC = 2 AB.
Solution : In the adjoining figure, from
the given condition AC = CB.
A C B
Adding AC to the equals we
get Fig. 5.4
AC + AC = AC + CB ; by Axiom 1 (axiom of addition of equals)
2AC = AB, (AC + CB) coincides with AB and therefore by
axiom 9, they are equal.
1 1
Dividing by 2, 2 2AC = 2 AB ; Axiom 5 (axiom of division by equals)
1
AC = 2 AB.
Example 2 : AB is a line segment, C and D are two points on AB such that
AC = BD, using appropriate axioms show that AD = CB.
Solution : As C and D are two points on AB , one point say, D can be to the left
or to the right of C.
Case I. When D is to the left of C.
As shown in the figure we see that
A B
D C
Fig. 5.5
AC coincides with (AD + DC). Thus by axiom 9 they are equal. Similarly, BD
and (DC + CB) are equal.
Thus, AC = BD
AD + DC = DC + CB
AD = CB, (Axiom 3, subtraction of equals)
Case II. When D is to the right of C.
A B
C D
Fig. 5.6
Now, AC = BD
AC + CD = BD + DC , (Axiom 2, addition of equals)
AD = CB, (Axiom 9, Axiom of coincidence)
We shall now establish a very basic theorem of Geometry.
Theorem : Two distinct straight lines cannot have more than one point in common.
Proof : Let AB and CD be two distinct straight lines.
Two possibilities arise
(i) When the two lines are parallel.
In this case the two lines do not meet each other. In other words
there is no point common to both the straight lines.
(ii) When the two lines are not parallel they will meet at one point say,
at the point P. Now P is a point common to both the lines.
We shall show that P is the only point common to both the lines.
If possible let Q be another point common to the lines. In other words
both the points P and Q are on the lines AB and CD . Then AB passes
through the points P and Q. So also CD passes through P and Q.
Thus AB and CD are distinct lines passing through two different
points.
This violates postulate 1 (ii) which states that there is one and only
one line passing through two distinct points.
Hence, it is not possible to have another point common to both of
them.
Thus two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in
common.
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Using the postulate of drawing a circle, show that an equilateral triangle can be
drawn with a given line segment as a side.
2. Given a line segment AB and a point C not on it, using appropriate axiom show
that there is only one perpendicular from C on AB .
3. Using Euclid’s postulate 5 show that there exists a line parallel to a given line.
******
118 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
SUMMARY
In this chapter the following points have been studied.
1. If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed is
1800 and its converse.
2. If two lines intersect, the vertically opposite angles are equal.
3. If a transversal intersects two parallel lines
(a) each pair of corresponding angles are equal.
(b) each pair of alternate angles are equal.
(c) each pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary.
4. Lines which are parallel to a given line are parallel.
5. The sum of the angles of a triangle is 1800.
6. If a side of a triangle is produced, the exterior angle so formed is equal to the
sum of the two interior opposite angles.
*******
116 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Proof : It is given that A
PBC = 1
2 B and PCB = 1
2 C
PBC + PCB = 1
2 (B + C) G
F P
––––– (i)
Now, CBQ = DBF
D B C
(vertically opposite angles)
= 1
2 ABD
= 1
2 (A + C)
[ ABD is external angle and A,
C are corresponding interior opposite
angles] Q
Fig. 6.42
Similarly, BCQ = 1
2 A + B)
CBQ + BCQ = A + 1
2 (B + C)
= A + B + C – 1
2 (B + C)
= 1800 – 1
2 (B + C) (using angle sum property)
––––––– (ii)
Using (i) and (ii),
PBC + CBQ = (PCB + BCQ) = 1800
PBQ + PCQ = 1800
But BPC + BQC + PBQ + PCQ = 3600
(sum of the angles of a quadrilateral )
BPC + BQC + 1800 = 3600
Hence, BPC + BQC = 1800.
114 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Exterior Angles of a Triangle :
The side BC of the ABC is
A
produced to D (Fig. 3.39). Then ACD is
called an exterior angle of ABC. BAC
and ABC are called interior opposite
angles with respect to the exterior angle
ACD. Similarly, if AC is produced to E, D
BCE is an exterior angle and BAC, B C
E
ABC are the corresponding interior Fig. 6.39
opposite angles (Fig. 6.39). Thus, at each
vertex of a triangle, there are two exterior angles of equal measures, being vertically
opposite angles. Thus the total number of exterior angles of a triangle is six.
Theorem 6.12 : If a side of a triangle is produced, then the exterior angle so
formed is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
Given : ACD is exterior angle A
obtained by producing BC
to D and ABC, BAC
are the corresponding two
interior opposite angles (Fig.
6.40).
To prove : ACD = ABC + BAC
Proof : By the angle sum property B C D
of a triangle, Fig. 6.40
ABC + BAC + BCA = 1800 ... (i)
Again, BCA and ACD are a pair of linear angles.
BCA + ACD = 1800 ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii)
ABC + BAC + BCA = BCA + ACD
ABC + BAC = ACD
Hence, ACD = ABC + BAC.
112 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
2. In Fig. 6.36, l || m and 1 2
transversal n intersects l and m l 4 3 A
at A and B respectively. If
1 : 2 = 3 : 2, determine all
the eight angles. 5 6
8 7
m B
Fig. 6.36
B 1200
D
3. In Fig. 6.37, AB || DE. Find x. 1250 E
x
C
Fig. 6.37
4. If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, show that the bisectors of any pair
of alternate angles are parallel.
5. Prove that lines which are perpendicular to the same line are parallel to one
another.
6. Two unequal angles of a parallelogram are in the ratio 4 : 5. Find all the angles
of the parallelogram in degrees.
7. Prove that if the two arms of an angle are perpendicular to the two arms of
another angle, then the angles are either equal or supplementary.
8. If one angle of a parallelogram is 600, find the other angles.
110 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
APQ + y = 1250
680 + y = 1250
y = 1250 – 680 = 570
x = 680, y = 570.
Example 2 : Two plane mirrors l
C
and m are placed m
parallel to each other 4 3
D
as shown in Fig. 6.33. N
An incident ray AB to M
the first mirror is A
2 1
reflected twice in the
l
direction CD. Prove B
Fig. 6.33
that AB || CD.
Given : Two plane mirrors l and m such that l || m. An incident ray AB after reflections
takes the path BC and CD; BN and CM are the normals to the plane mirrors
l and m respectively (Fig. 6.33).
To prove : AB || CD
Proof : Since BN l, CM m and m || n,
CM l.
BN || CM.
Thus, BN and CM are two parallel lines and a transversal BC
intersects them at B and C respectively.
2 = 3 (alternate angles)
But 1 = 2 and 3 = 4 (by laws of reflection)
Hence, 1 = 2 = 3 = 4.
ABC = 1 + 2 = 3 + 4 = BCD.
Now, lines AB and CD are intersected by transversal BC such that a
pair of alternate angles (ABC, BCD) are equal. Therefore, AB || CD.
108 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Theorem 6.8 : If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then the interior
angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
Given : Two parallel lines AB and
CD, and a transversal l l
intersecting them at E, F
respectively (Fig. 6.29). 1
2
To prove : (i) 3 + 6 = 180 0
A 4 3E B
and (ii) 4 + 5 = 1800.
Proof : It is given that
5
AB || CD 6
2 = 6 (corresponding angles) C 8 7 D
F
But3 + 2 = 1800 (linear pair)
3 + 6 = 1800.
Fig. 6.29
Similarly, 4 + 5 = 1800.
Theorem 6.9 (Converse of Theorem 6.8) : If a transversal intersects two lines in
such a way that a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary, then the two lines are parallel.
Given : A transversal l intersecting
two lines AB, CD at E, F l
respectively such that the
pair of interior angles 3, 1
2
6 on the same side of l are 4
A 3 E B
supplementary (Fig. 6.30).
To prove : AB || CD.
Proof : It is given that 5
6
3 + 6 = 180 . 0
C 8 7 D
F
But 2 +3 = 1800 (linear pair)
3 + 6 = 2 + 3
Fig. 6.30
6 = 2.
i.e. a pair of corresponding angles are equal.
AB || CD. (corresponding angles axiom)
106 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Repeat this activity with different pairs of parallel lines and transversal. But you
will get the same fact. Thus, we have the following axiom.
Axiom 6.4. If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then the angles in each pair
of corresponding angles are equal.
F
E F E
A C D B A C D B
(i)
H
G
(ii)
Fig. 6.26
What about the converse of this axiom ? If a transversal intersects two lines,
such that the angles in a pair of corresponding angles are equal, then are the two lines
parallel? To investigate this, draw line AB and take two points C and D on AB. Construct
equal angles ACE and ADF [Fig. 6.26 (i)]. Produce EC and FD to get the lines EG
and FH [Fig. 6.26 (ii)]. Observe that these lines do not intersect, however far, they are
produced. You may also observe that these lines make equal intercepts on lines
perpendicular to them. It follows that EG and FH are parallel i.e., the converse to the
above axiom is also true. Thus,
Axiom 6.5 : If a transversal intersects two lines making a pair of corresponding angles
equal, then the lines are parallel.
Axiom 6.4 and Axiom 6.5 are together known as corresponding angles axiom.
Using these two axioms, we can have the following theorems related to parallel
lines and their transversal.
104 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
2. In the adjoining figure,
AOC = (2y – 13)0 and C
BOC = (3y – 12)0, find
all the four angles.
(3y – 12)0
(2y – 13)0
B O A
D
Fig. 6.23
3. Prove that the bisectors of a pair of vertically opposite angles are in the same
straight line.
4. If two straight lines intersect each other, prove that the ray opposite to the
bisector of one of the angles thus formed bisects the vertically opposite angle.
5. From a point O in a line AB, rays OC and OD are drawn on opposite sides of
AB such that BOC = AOD. Prove that OC and OD are opposite rays.
ANSWER
1. 10 2. AOC = 900, BOC = 1110, BOD = 690, AOD = 1110.
6.4 Angles made by a Transversal with Two Lines
Recall that, a line which intersects two or more given lines at distinct points is
called a transversal of the given lines.
When two straight lines are intersected by a transversal, eight angles are formed.
For the sake of distinction, particular names are given to these eight angles.
102 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Example 1 : In Fig. 6.20, ACU = ABT, BAC = 660. Find ABC, CBQ,
QBT and ABT.
Solution : Here ACU = ABT
U S
180 – ACU = 180 – ABT
0 0
C
(ACU + ACB) – ACU
= (ABT + ABC) – ABT
ACB = ABC ... (i) 66 0
D R A B Q
T
Fig. 6.20
By the angle sum property of a triangle,
CAB + ABC + ACB = 1800
660 + 2ABC = 1800 [using (i)]
2ABC = 1800 – 660 = 1140
0
ABC = 114
2
= 570
ABC = ACB = 570.
Now, ABC and CBQ form a linear pair.
ABC + CBQ = 1800
570 + CBQ = 1800
CBQ = 1800 – 570 = 1230
ABC and QBT are vertically opposite angles.
QBT = ABC
QBT = 570.
Again, ABT and CBQ are vertically opposite angles.
ABT = CBQ = 1230.
Hence, ABC = 570, CBQ = 1230, QBT = 570, ABT = 1230.
100 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Adding (i) and (ii),
AOB + BOD + AOC + COD = 3600
AOB + (BOD + COD) + AOC = 3600
AOB + BOC + COA = 3600.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. In the adjoining figure, AB and AC are
opposite rays. If a – 3b = 200, find a D
and b. a
b
C A B
Fig. 6.16
2. In the adjoining figure, BAC is a line
D
and x : y : z = 5 : 6 : 7. Find x, y and E
z. y
x z
C A B
Fig. 6.17
3. Two angles of a linear pair are in the ratio 6 : 3. Find the measure of each of
these angles.
4. Prove that the bisectors of two adjacent supplementary angles include a right
angle.
5. In the ABC, ABC = ACB. If the side BC is produced both ways, prove that
the exterior angles are equal.
6. The AOB is bisected by ray OC and ray OD is opposite to ray OC. Prove that
AOD and BOD are equal.
ANSWER
1. 1400, 400 2. 500, 600, 700 3. 1200 , 600.
98 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Adding together, ACD + BCD = ACE + BCE
= 900 + 900 [ CE AB,
ACE = 900 = BCE ]
ACD + BCD = 1800.
Theorem 6.2 (Converse of Theorem 6.1) : If the sum of two adjacent angles is
1800, then their non-common arms are two opposite rays.
Given : Two adjacent angles BAD and CAD, such that BAD + CAD = 1800.
To Prove : AB and AC are two opposite rays.
Construction : Suppose AB and AC are not opposite rays then draw ray AE opposite
to ray AB, so that BAE is a straight line (Fig. 6.12).
Proof : Since ray AD stands on the line BAE,
BAD +DAE = 1800 (by Theorem 6.1)
But BAD + CAD = 1800 (given)
D
E
BAD + DAE = BAD + CAD
DAE = CAD
C A B
DAE = DAC
Fig. 6.12
It is possible only when ray AE
coincides with ray AC.
Hence, ray AB and ray AC are two opposite rays.
Example 1 : OA and OB are two opposite rays. Ray OC stands on AB and
AOC = 2x and BOC = 7x. Find x.
Solution : Since OC stands on the line AOB,
AOC + BOC = 1800 (linear pair)
C
2x + 7x = 1800
9x = 1800 7x
2x
x = 200. B O A
Fig. 6.13
96 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
A B
1800 < < 3600
C A B
= 1800 (e)
C
(d)
A B C
= 3600
(f)
Fig. 6.7
Complementary Angles :
D
C
Two angles, the sum of whose
measures is 900, are called
complementary angles. Each of the
two complementary angles is called
the complement of the other.
In Fig. 6.8,
BAC + CAD = 900 A B
Fig. 6.8
So, BAC , CAD are
complementary angles.
Supplementary Angles :
C
Two angles, the sum of
whose measures is 1800, are
called supplementary angles.
Each of the two supplementary
angles is called the D A B
supplement of the other. Fig. 6.9
In Fig. 6.9,
BAC + CAD = 1800.
So, BAC, CAD are supplementary angles.
94 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Note :
(i) A line segment is a part of a line with two end points.
(ii) A ray is a part of a line with one end point.
(iii) A line is denoted as AB where A, B are any two distinct points on the line,
a line segment with end points A, B is denoted as AB and its length by
AB. A ray with initial point A is denoted as AB . However, when the
context is clear, we use the common symbol AB to denote these four
entities.
Collinear Points : Three or more points are said to be collinear if there is a
line which contains all of them.
A B C
Fig. 6.4
In Fig. 6.4, the points A, B, C are collinear whereas the points A, P, B, C
are not collinear i.e. they are non-collinear.
Concurrent Lines : Three or more lines are said to be concurrent if there is
a point which lies on all of them.
n
p m
l
O
Fig. 6.5
In Fig. 6.5, the lines l, m, n, p are concurrent as the point O lies on all of them.
92 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
CHAPTER
6 LINES AND ANGLES
6.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, you have learnt about the concepts of points, lines and angles.
You have also learnt the properties of the angles formed when two lines intersect each
other, the properties of the angles formed when a line intersects two or more parallel lines
at distinct points, the property of the sum of the three angles of a triangle and the property
of an exterior angle of a triangle. All these properties were verified through activities. In
this chapter, we will prove them with the help of deductive reasoning. Before this, let us
recall the terms and definitions related to lines and angles learnt in the earlier classes.
6.2 Some Definitions
There are three basic concepts in geometry, namely point, line and plane. It is not
possible to define these three concepts precisely. However, they can be visualised by
certain practical situations.
Point :
It has neither length nor breadth, nor
thickness, however, it has a unique position. It
is denoted by a fine dot on a paper. A point is
usually denoted by a capital letter such as A, . A
B, P, Q, R, etc.
Thus, in Fig. 6.1 the dot A is the Fig. 6.1
visualisation of a point.
Line :
A line has neither breadth nor thickness, however it has a sense of length. If we
fold a leaf of a book lengthwise, the crease in the page gives an impression of
a line.
138 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
SUMMARY
In this chapter, the following points have been studied :
1. Two triangles are congruent if any two sides and the included angle of one is
equal to any two sides and the included angle of the other (SAS congruence).
2. Two triangles are congruent if any two angles and the included side of one is
equal to any two angles and the included side of the other (ASA congruence).
3. If any two angles and a non-included side of one triangle are equal to
corresponding angles and side of another triangle, the two triangles are congruent
(AAS congruence).
4. If three sides of a triangle are respectively equal to the corresponding three sides
of another triangle, the two triangles are congruent (SSS congruence).
5. In an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite to the equal sides are equal.
6. The sides opposite to the equal angles of a triangle are equal.
7. If in two right triangles, hypotenuse and one side of a triangle are equal to the
hypotenuse and one side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent
(RHS congruence).
8. In a triangle, angle opposite to the longer side is larger.
9. In a triangle, side opposite to the larger angle is longer.
10. Sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.
*********
136 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Theorem 7.10 : The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third
side.
Example 10 : Prove that in a right triangle, the hypotenuse is the longest side.
Given : Right ABC in which B = 900. (Fig. 7.21)
To prove : AC is the longest side. A
Proof : By the angle sum property,
A + B + C = 1800
A + 900 + C = 1800
A + C = 900 B C
A < 900 and C < 900 Fig. 7.21
BC < AC and AB < AC [ side opposite to the larger angle is longer]
AC is the longest side.
Example 11: In Fig. 7.22, PQRS is a quadrilateral in which PQ is the longest
side and RS is the shortest side. Prove that R > P.
Given : In the quadrilateral PQRS, PQ is
S R
the longest side and R is the
shortest side.
To Prove : R > P.
Construction : Join PR.
P Q
Proof : Since PQ is the longest side, Fig. 7.22
PQ > QR.
In PQR, PRQ > QPR ... (1)
[ angle opposite to the longer side is larger ]
Again, SR is the shortest side.
SR < PS i.e., PS > SR
In PRS, PRS > SPR ... (2)
[ angle opposite to the longer side is larger ]
134 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Take the points C1, C2, C3 on BX as in Fig. 7.16. Observe that BC < BC1 <
BC2 < BC3. Measure the angles BAC, BAC1, BAC2, BAC3 and compare. You
will observe that BAC < BAC1 < BAC2 < BAC3. Thus, you have observed that
as the length of the side BC is increased, the measure of the angle A opposite to BC
is also increased.
Take a scalene triangle say, ABC (Fig. 7.17).
A B
Fig. 7.17
Measure the sides AB, BC, CA. Observe that BC is the longest side and AB is the
shortest side. Now, measure the angles of the ABC. You will observe that A is the
largest and C is the smallest. Repeating this activity with different scalene triangles, we
have the following theorem.
Theorem 7.8 : If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angle opposite to the
longer side is larger.
Let us perform the following activity :
Draw a triangle say, ABC (Fig. 7.18). With A as centre and AC as radius, draw
an arc of the circle as in Fig. 7.18.
C2 C1
C3 C
A B
Fig. 7.18
132 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
In the rt. sABD and ACD
AB = AC (given)
ADB = ADC = 900 (given)
AD is common to both.
by RHS congruence,
ABD ACD.
Example 9: In Fig 7.15, LM = MN, QM = MR, ML PQ and MN PR.
Prove that PQ = PR.
Given : LM = MN, QM = MR,
P
ML PQ, MN PR.
To prove : PQ = PR
L N
Proof : In rt. s LQM and NRM
LM = MN (given)
Q M R
QLM = RNM = 900 (given)
Fig. 7.15
QM = MR (given)
Here QM is the hypotenuse of LQM and MR is the hypotenuse of NRM.
By RHS congruence,
LQM NRM
LQM = NRM
PQM = PRM
PR = PQ [ sides opposite equal angles are equal ]
130 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
6. Prove that medians of an equilateral triangle are equal.
7. Two lines AB and CD intersect at O such that BC is equal and parallel to AD.
Prove that the lines AB and CD bisect each other at O.
8. Line segment AB is parallel to another equal line segment CD. O is the mid point
of AD. Prove that (i) AOB DOC (ii) O is also the mid point of BC.
9. In ABC, the bisector AD of A is perpendicular to side BC. Prove that ABC
is isosceles.
10. P is a point equidistant from two lines l and m intersecting at a point A. Prove
that the line AP bisects the angle between the lines.
11. ABCD is a rectangle. P, Q, R and S are the mid points of AB, BC, CD and DA
respectively. Prove that PQRS is a rhombus.
12. Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
13. ABCD is a parallalogram and AC is one of its diagonals. Prove that
ABC ACD.
14. AB and AC are equal sides of an isosceles ABC. If the bisectors of ABC
and ACB intersect each other at O, prove AOB AOC.
15. The image of an object placed at a point A
before a plane mirror LM is seen at the point
B by an observer at D as in the adjoining
figure. Prove that the image is as far behind the L M
mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
D
A
ANSWER
4. 400, 400 5. 400
128 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Theorem 7.6 (SSS congruence)
If three sides of a triangle are equal respectively to the corresponding three
sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
Note : Even though, the direct proof of the above theorem is not given here, it can be
proved using previous results.
Example 6: In fig 7.12, AB = CD and AD = BC
D B
Prove that ADC CBA
Given : AB = CD, AD = BC
To prove : ADC CBA
Proof : In sADC and CBA C A
Fig 7.12
AB = CD (given)
BC = AD (given)
AC is common to both.
by SSS congruence.
ADC CBA.
Example 7: ABCD is a square. E, F and G are mid points of side AB, BC, CD
respectively. Prove that the triangles AEF and DGF are
congruent.
Given : In the square ABCD, E, F, G are mid points of AB, BC, CD respectively
To prove : AEF DGF
A D
Proof : In sEBF and GCF.
1 1
BE = CG (= AB = CD)
2 2
E G
1
BF = FC ( = BC)
2
EBF = GCF = 900
by SAS congruence, B F C
126 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Theorem 7.5. The sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
Given : In ABC (Fig 7.8),
A
ABC = ACB.
To prove : AC = AB
Construction : Draw AD BC.
Proof : In sABD and ACD.
ABD = ACD (given)
ADB = ADC = 900
(by construction)
B D C
AD is common to both
Fig 7.8
by AAS congruence
ABD ACD
AB = AC.
Example 4. In Fig 7.9, AD is the bisector of A such that BD = DC. Prove
that ABC is isosceles.
Given : In ABC, BAD = DAC, BD = DC
A
To prove : ABC is isosceles
Construction : Produce AD to E such that AD = DE.
Join CE.
Proof : In sABD and EDC.
BD = DC (given)
ADB = EDC (vertically opposite angles)
B D C
AD = DE (by construction)
by SAS congruence, ABD ECD ...(1)
BAD = CED.
DAC = CED
[It is given that DAC = BAD]
EC = AC [sides opposite to equal angles] E
AB = AC (by (1)) Fig 7.9
ABC is isosceles.
124 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Case II. AB < DE
Take a point G on ED such that EG = BA (Fig 7.6)
Then in ABC and GEF,
AB = GE
ABC = GEF (given)
BC = EF (given)
by SAS axiom,
ABC GEF
BCA = EFG
But BCA = EFD (given)
EFD = EFG
Which is possible only when G coincides with D.
AB = ED and so by case I, ABC DEF.
Case III : AB > DE
Take a point H on ED produced (Fig 7.6) so that BA = EH. Then in
ABC and HEF,
s
AB = EH
ABC = HEF (given)
BC = EF (given)
by SAS axiom, ABC HEF
BCA = EFH.
But BCA = EFD (given)
EFD = EFH
Which is possible only when H coincides with D.
AB = DE and so by case I, ABC DEF.
Thus ABC DEF.
122 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
AB is common to both.
by SAS axiom.
ABD BAC
all the corresponding six parts of the sABD and BAC are equal.
So, BD = AC and ABD = BAC.
Using the SAS axiom, we can prove the following property of an
isosceles triangle.
Theorem 7.2 : In an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite to the equal sides
are equal.
Given : ABC in which AB = AC
A
To prove : C = B
Construction : Draw the bisector of A to meet
BC at D (Fig 7.4)
Proof : In sABD and ACD,
AB = AC (given)
BAD = CAD (by construction)
B D C
AD is common to both. Fig 7.4
So, by SAS axiom, ABD ACD.
B = C.
Example 3 : In ABC, AB = AC, A = 800. Find B and C.
Solution : It is given that
A
in ABC, AB = AC
80 0
C = B = x (say)
By angle sum property,
A + B + C = 1800
C
80 + x + x = 180
0 0
B Fig 7.5
120 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Draw a triangle ABC with AB = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm and the included angle
B = 300.
Y
A F
m
6c
30 0
B 4cm C D E X
Fig 7.2
Take two lines DX and DY intersecting at D such that the included angle
D = 300 (Fig 7.2). Take a point E on DX such that DE = 4 cm and another point F
on DY such that DF = 6 cm. Join EF to get FDE. Now, in sABC and FDE,
AB = FD = 6 cm
BC = DE = 4 cm
ABC = FDE = 300 (by construction.)
So, there is SAS congruence criteria between ABC and FDE. Let us check
whether these two triangles are congruent or not. Make a trace copy of ABC and place
it on FDE such that vertex B falls on D, equal sides BC and DE concide and A falls
on the same side of DE as F. You will observe that A falls exactly on F. Thus ABC
cover exactly FDE and so ABC FDE. Thus, we have the first criterion for
congruence of triangles as an axiom (appendix 1).
Axiom 7.1 (SAS congruence) :
Two triangles are congruent if any two sides and the included angle of one
is equal to any two sides and the included angle of the other.
Note : There is no SSA congruence of triangles.
Footnote : Euclid proved the result in Axiom 7.1 and the result was regarded as
a theorem instead of axiom. But there was a flaw in the proof.
Mathematicians found that the result cannot be proved by using the
previous results. So, it has been regarded as axiom.
168 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. The area enclosed by a closed curve is the amount of the surface enclosed by
the curve.
2. The area of a rectangle a cm by b cm is ab cm2.
3. A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal area.
4. Parallelograms on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels
are equal in area.
5. The area of a parallelogram is the product of any of its sides and the
corresponding altitude.
6. Triangles on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels are
equal in area.
7. Area of a triangle is half the product of any of its sides and the corresponding
altitude.
8. Two triangles having equal areas and standing on the same base and on the same
side of it lie between the same parallels.
9. If a parallelogram and a triangle are on the same base and between the same
parallels, then the area of the triangle is equal to one-half of the area of the
parallelogram.
10. A median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of equal area.
******
166 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
area of AEC = area of ABC
Adding area of ACD to both sides, we get
area of AEC + area of ACD
= area of ABC + area of ACD
area of AED = area of quad. ABCD.
EXERCISE 9.2
1. AD is a median of a triangle ABC and P is any point on AD. Show that area
of ABP = area of ACP.
2. ABC is a triangle and DE is drawn parallel to BC, cutting the other sides at D
and E. Join BE and CD. Prove that
(i) area of DBC = area of EBC.
(ii) area of BDE = area of CDE.
3. Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram divide it into four triangles of equal
area.
4. Show that the area of a rhombus is half the product of the lengths of its diagonals.
5. Prove that the area of a trapezium is half the product of the sum of the lengths
of the parallel sides and distance between them.
6. The diagonals AC and BD of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect at O. If BO = OD,
prove that area of ABC = area of ADC.
7. D, E, F are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a triangle
ABC. Prove that BDEF is a parallelogram whose area is half that of ABC and
area of DEF = 14 (area of ABC).
8. Prove that the straight line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side.
9. Prove that the straight line joining the mid-points of the oblique sides of a
trapezium is parallel to each of the parallel sides.
164 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Also, area of ADC = 1
2 DC AN
= 1
2 BD AN
[ BD = DC] ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have
area of ABD = area of ADC.
Example 2 : ABCD is a trapezium with
D C
AB || DC and diagonals AC
and BD meet at O (Fig.
9.13). Prove that area of
AOD = area of BOC.
O
Solution : Now, the s ABD and ABC are
on the same base AB and
between the same parallels AB
and DC.
area of ABD = area of ABC A B
Fig. 9.13
area of AOD + area of ABO
= area of ABO + area of BOC
area of AOD = area of BOC.
Example 3 : ABCD is a parallelogram and P is any point on BC (produced) and
AP meets CD in Q (Fig. 9.14). Prove that
(i) area of ACP = area of ABP – area of APD
(ii) area of ABP = area of quadrilateral ACPD
(iii) area of QPD = area of BCQ.
Solution : (i) Area of ACD
A D
= area of APD ...(i)
[ Triangles on the same base and
between the same parallels]
Also, area of ABC Q
= area of ACD [Diagonal
divide a parlm into equal areas] B C P
Fig. 9.14
162 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
area of parallelogram ABCQ = area of parallelogram PBCD ... (i)
Now, AC is a diagonal of the parallelogram ABCD.
area of ABC = area of ACQ
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCQ) ... (ii)
Similarly, as BD is a diagonal of the parallelogram PBCD,
area of DBC = 1
2 (area of parallelogram PBCD)
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCQ) [ From (i)] ... (iii)
From (ii) and (iii), we have
area of ABC = area of DBC.
Note : You can also verify the above theorem by drawing several pairs of triangles
on the same base and between the same parallels on the graph sheet. If you
measure their areas by the method of counting the squares, each time you will
find that the areas of the two triangles are (approximately) equal.
Corollary 1 : The area of a triangle is half the product of any of its sides and the
corresponding altitude.
Given : ABC is a triangle, AN is the A D
altitude corresponding to the side
BC (Fig. 9.10).
To prove : Area of ABC = 12 BC AN
Construction : Complete the parallelogram
ABCD.
Proof : Since AC is a diagonal of the B N C
Fig. 9.10
parallelogram ABCD,
area of ABC = 1
2 (area of parallelogram ABCD) ... (i)
Now, BC is a side of the parallelogram ABCD and AN is the corresponding
altitude.
area of parallelogram ABCD = BC AN ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have
area of ABC = 1
2 BC AN
160 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
4. Prove that the line segment joining the mid-points of a pair of opposite sides of
a parallelogram divides it into two parallelograms of equal area.
5. Prove that three parallelograms formed by joining the mid-points of the three
sides of a triangle are equal in area.
6. Prove that, of all the parallelograms of given sides, parallelogram which is a
rectangle has the greatest area.
7. If O is an interior point of a parallelogram ABCD, prove that
(i) area of OAB + area of OCD
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCD)
(ii) area of OBC + area of OAD
= area of OAB + area of OCD.
(Hint : Through O, draw a line parallel to AB.)
8. ABCD is a parallelogram and P is any point on the side CD. Prove that
area of APD + area of BCP = area of ABP.
9. ABCD and ABPQ are parallelograms such that the points C, D, P, Q are
collinear and R is any point on the side BP. Show that
(i) area of parallelogram ABCD = area of parallelogram ABPQ
(ii) area of ARQ = 1
2 (area of parallelogram ABCD).
ANSWER
1. 8.75 cm
158 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Example 1 : If a parallelogram and a triangle are on the same base and
between the same parallels, prove that the area of the triangle is
equal to half the area of the parallelogram.
Solution : Let parallelogram P D Q C
ABCD and ABP be
on the same base AB
and between the same
parallels AB and PC
(Fig. 9.5).
To prove : Area of ABP
1
A B
= 2 (area of parlm ABCD) Fig. 9.5
Construction : Complete the parallelogram ABQP.
Proof : Parallelograms ABQP and ABCD are on the same base AB and between the
same parallels AB and PC.
area of parlm ABQP
= area of parlm ABCD ....................... (i)
Since the diagonal BP divides the parallelogram ABQP into two triangles of equal
area, therefore we have
area of ABP = 1
2 (area of parallelogram ABQP)
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCD) [ From (i)]
Example 2 : In a parallelogram ABCD, AB = 12 cm. The altitudes
corresponding to the sides AB and AD are respectively 8 cm and
10 cm (Fig. 9.6). Find AD.
Solution : Area of the parallelogram ABCD
D C
= AB DM = AD BN
8 cm
N
12 8 = AD 10
i.e.
10
12 8 cm
AD = 10 = 9.6 cm.
A M B
Fig. 9.6
156 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Theorem 9.1 : A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal
area.
The proof is obvious and left as an exercise.
9.5 Base and Altitude of a Parallelogram
A base of a parallelogram is any of D N C
its sides and the length of the perpendicular
drawn from any point on the base to the line
containing the opposite side is called the
corresponding altitude (or height).
For example, in the parallelogram
ABCD (Fig. 9.2) the side AB may be taken
as the base. Let P be any point on AB. A P B
Draw PN perpendicular to CD. Then the Fig. 9.2
length of the line segment PN is the altitude
of the parallelogram ABCD corresponding to the base AB.
9.6 Area of a Parallelogram
Two main theorems concerning area of a parallelogram are given below :
Theorem 9.2 : Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels
are equal in area.
Given : ABCD and ABEF are two parallelograms, having the same base AB and
between the same parallels AB and FC.
To prove : Area of parallelogram ABCD
= area of parallelogram ABEF
Proof : In sBCE and ADF,
F D E C
BCE = ADF
(corresponding angles
from BC || AD and
transversal FC)
BEC = AFD
(corresponding angles
A B
from BE || AF and
Fig. 9.3
transversal FC)
154 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
CHAPTER
9 AREA
9.1 Introduction
Mathematics deals with two aspects of the topics within its limit of study. They
are the qualitative and the quantitative aspects.
Whenever we discuss any subject matter, first the qualitative aspect including the
defining properties is discussed. Then, to discuss the quantitative aspect the question of
measurement, the standard units and other related problems are taken up gradually.
9.2 Idea of Area
We know that the length of a rod, the length and breadth of a rectangular field,
the perimeter of a square field etc. can be measured in metres or centimetres as we like.
Now imagine a room. You can measure its length and breadth. You can also find its
height. All these can be done by using a measuring tape. But if you want to know the
quantity of a carpet that will be necessary to cover the floor of the room, then you cannot
measure the necessary amount by a measuring tape. Here comes the idea of area.
Any closed curve encloses an amount of surface. That amount of the surface is
called the area enclosed by the closed curve. To make things easier we consider areas
enclosed by rectangular and square figures in the beginning.
The amount of area enclosed by a square whose one side is 1 cm in length is
taken as a unit of area and is denoted by 1 sq. cm or 1 cm2. Similarly, the amount of
area enclosed by a square whose one side is 1 metre long is also one unit of area called
1 sq. m or 1 m2.
The amount of area enclosed by a rectangle 2 cm by 1 cm is 2 cm2 because there
are two small squares, one side of each being of length 1 cm. In short, in a rectangle
2 cm by 1 cm there are two units of area, each being 1 cm2. Similarly, in a rectangle 4cm
by 3 cm there are 4 3 i.e. 12 such units of area and we say that the area of the
rectangle is 12 cm2.
In this way, the area of a rectangle a cm by b cm is ab cm2.
168 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. The area enclosed by a closed curve is the amount of the surface enclosed by
the curve.
2. The area of a rectangle a cm by b cm is ab cm2.
3. A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal area.
4. Parallelograms on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels
are equal in area.
5. The area of a parallelogram is the product of any of its sides and the
corresponding altitude.
6. Triangles on the same base (or equal bases) and between the same parallels are
equal in area.
7. Area of a triangle is half the product of any of its sides and the corresponding
altitude.
8. Two triangles having equal areas and standing on the same base and on the same
side of it lie between the same parallels.
9. If a parallelogram and a triangle are on the same base and between the same
parallels, then the area of the triangle is equal to one-half of the area of the
parallelogram.
10. A median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of equal area.
******
166 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
area of AEC = area of ABC
Adding area of ACD to both sides, we get
area of AEC + area of ACD
= area of ABC + area of ACD
area of AED = area of quad. ABCD.
EXERCISE 9.2
1. AD is a median of a triangle ABC and P is any point on AD. Show that area
of ABP = area of ACP.
2. ABC is a triangle and DE is drawn parallel to BC, cutting the other sides at D
and E. Join BE and CD. Prove that
(i) area of DBC = area of EBC.
(ii) area of BDE = area of CDE.
3. Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram divide it into four triangles of equal
area.
4. Show that the area of a rhombus is half the product of the lengths of its diagonals.
5. Prove that the area of a trapezium is half the product of the sum of the lengths
of the parallel sides and distance between them.
6. The diagonals AC and BD of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect at O. If BO = OD,
prove that area of ABC = area of ADC.
7. D, E, F are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB respectively of a triangle
ABC. Prove that BDEF is a parallelogram whose area is half that of ABC and
area of DEF = 14 (area of ABC).
8. Prove that the straight line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side.
9. Prove that the straight line joining the mid-points of the oblique sides of a
trapezium is parallel to each of the parallel sides.
164 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Also, area of ADC = 1
2 DC AN
= 1
2 BD AN
[ BD = DC] ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have
area of ABD = area of ADC.
Example 2 : ABCD is a trapezium with
D C
AB || DC and diagonals AC
and BD meet at O (Fig.
9.13). Prove that area of
AOD = area of BOC.
O
Solution : Now, the s ABD and ABC are
on the same base AB and
between the same parallels AB
and DC.
area of ABD = area of ABC A B
Fig. 9.13
area of AOD + area of ABO
= area of ABO + area of BOC
area of AOD = area of BOC.
Example 3 : ABCD is a parallelogram and P is any point on BC (produced) and
AP meets CD in Q (Fig. 9.14). Prove that
(i) area of ACP = area of ABP – area of APD
(ii) area of ABP = area of quadrilateral ACPD
(iii) area of QPD = area of BCQ.
Solution : (i) Area of ACD
A D
= area of APD ...(i)
[ Triangles on the same base and
between the same parallels]
Also, area of ABC Q
= area of ACD [Diagonal
divide a parlm into equal areas] B C P
Fig. 9.14
162 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
area of parallelogram ABCQ = area of parallelogram PBCD ... (i)
Now, AC is a diagonal of the parallelogram ABCD.
area of ABC = area of ACQ
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCQ) ... (ii)
Similarly, as BD is a diagonal of the parallelogram PBCD,
area of DBC = 1
2 (area of parallelogram PBCD)
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCQ) [ From (i)] ... (iii)
From (ii) and (iii), we have
area of ABC = area of DBC.
Note : You can also verify the above theorem by drawing several pairs of triangles
on the same base and between the same parallels on the graph sheet. If you
measure their areas by the method of counting the squares, each time you will
find that the areas of the two triangles are (approximately) equal.
Corollary 1 : The area of a triangle is half the product of any of its sides and the
corresponding altitude.
Given : ABC is a triangle, AN is the A D
altitude corresponding to the side
BC (Fig. 9.10).
To prove : Area of ABC = 12 BC AN
Construction : Complete the parallelogram
ABCD.
Proof : Since AC is a diagonal of the B N C
Fig. 9.10
parallelogram ABCD,
area of ABC = 1
2 (area of parallelogram ABCD) ... (i)
Now, BC is a side of the parallelogram ABCD and AN is the corresponding
altitude.
area of parallelogram ABCD = BC AN ... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have
area of ABC = 1
2 BC AN
160 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
4. Prove that the line segment joining the mid-points of a pair of opposite sides of
a parallelogram divides it into two parallelograms of equal area.
5. Prove that three parallelograms formed by joining the mid-points of the three
sides of a triangle are equal in area.
6. Prove that, of all the parallelograms of given sides, parallelogram which is a
rectangle has the greatest area.
7. If O is an interior point of a parallelogram ABCD, prove that
(i) area of OAB + area of OCD
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCD)
(ii) area of OBC + area of OAD
= area of OAB + area of OCD.
(Hint : Through O, draw a line parallel to AB.)
8. ABCD is a parallelogram and P is any point on the side CD. Prove that
area of APD + area of BCP = area of ABP.
9. ABCD and ABPQ are parallelograms such that the points C, D, P, Q are
collinear and R is any point on the side BP. Show that
(i) area of parallelogram ABCD = area of parallelogram ABPQ
(ii) area of ARQ = 1
2 (area of parallelogram ABCD).
ANSWER
1. 8.75 cm
158 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Example 1 : If a parallelogram and a triangle are on the same base and
between the same parallels, prove that the area of the triangle is
equal to half the area of the parallelogram.
Solution : Let parallelogram P D Q C
ABCD and ABP be
on the same base AB
and between the same
parallels AB and PC
(Fig. 9.5).
To prove : Area of ABP
1
A B
= 2 (area of parlm ABCD) Fig. 9.5
Construction : Complete the parallelogram ABQP.
Proof : Parallelograms ABQP and ABCD are on the same base AB and between the
same parallels AB and PC.
area of parlm ABQP
= area of parlm ABCD ....................... (i)
Since the diagonal BP divides the parallelogram ABQP into two triangles of equal
area, therefore we have
area of ABP = 1
2 (area of parallelogram ABQP)
1
= 2 (area of parallelogram ABCD) [ From (i)]
Example 2 : In a parallelogram ABCD, AB = 12 cm. The altitudes
corresponding to the sides AB and AD are respectively 8 cm and
10 cm (Fig. 9.6). Find AD.
Solution : Area of the parallelogram ABCD
D C
= AB DM = AD BN
8 cm
N
12 8 = AD 10
i.e.
10
12 8 cm
AD = 10 = 9.6 cm.
A M B
Fig. 9.6
156 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Theorem 9.1 : A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two triangles of equal
area.
The proof is obvious and left as an exercise.
9.5 Base and Altitude of a Parallelogram
A base of a parallelogram is any of D N C
its sides and the length of the perpendicular
drawn from any point on the base to the line
containing the opposite side is called the
corresponding altitude (or height).
For example, in the parallelogram
ABCD (Fig. 9.2) the side AB may be taken
as the base. Let P be any point on AB. A P B
Draw PN perpendicular to CD. Then the Fig. 9.2
length of the line segment PN is the altitude
of the parallelogram ABCD corresponding to the base AB.
9.6 Area of a Parallelogram
Two main theorems concerning area of a parallelogram are given below :
Theorem 9.2 : Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels
are equal in area.
Given : ABCD and ABEF are two parallelograms, having the same base AB and
between the same parallels AB and FC.
To prove : Area of parallelogram ABCD
= area of parallelogram ABEF
Proof : In sBCE and ADF,
F D E C
BCE = ADF
(corresponding angles
from BC || AD and
transversal FC)
BEC = AFD
(corresponding angles
A B
from BE || AF and
Fig. 9.3
transversal FC)
154 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
CHAPTER
9 AREA
9.1 Introduction
Mathematics deals with two aspects of the topics within its limit of study. They
are the qualitative and the quantitative aspects.
Whenever we discuss any subject matter, first the qualitative aspect including the
defining properties is discussed. Then, to discuss the quantitative aspect the question of
measurement, the standard units and other related problems are taken up gradually.
9.2 Idea of Area
We know that the length of a rod, the length and breadth of a rectangular field,
the perimeter of a square field etc. can be measured in metres or centimetres as we like.
Now imagine a room. You can measure its length and breadth. You can also find its
height. All these can be done by using a measuring tape. But if you want to know the
quantity of a carpet that will be necessary to cover the floor of the room, then you cannot
measure the necessary amount by a measuring tape. Here comes the idea of area.
Any closed curve encloses an amount of surface. That amount of the surface is
called the area enclosed by the closed curve. To make things easier we consider areas
enclosed by rectangular and square figures in the beginning.
The amount of area enclosed by a square whose one side is 1 cm in length is
taken as a unit of area and is denoted by 1 sq. cm or 1 cm2. Similarly, the amount of
area enclosed by a square whose one side is 1 metre long is also one unit of area called
1 sq. m or 1 m2.
The amount of area enclosed by a rectangle 2 cm by 1 cm is 2 cm2 because there
are two small squares, one side of each being of length 1 cm. In short, in a rectangle
2 cm by 1 cm there are two units of area, each being 1 cm2. Similarly, in a rectangle 4cm
by 3 cm there are 4 3 i.e. 12 such units of area and we say that the area of the
rectangle is 12 cm2.
In this way, the area of a rectangle a cm by b cm is ab cm2.
180 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Case I. The circumcircle meets AD at E.
Then, ACB and AEB are two angles in the same segment of a circle.
ACB = AEB (by theorem 10.9)
ADB = AEB [ It is given that ACB = ADB ]
Which is impossible. (Why ?)
Case II. The circumcircle meets AD produced at F.
Then, ACB and AFB are two angles in the same segment of a circle.
ACB = AFB (by theorem 10.9)
ADB = AFB
Which is impossible. (Why ?)
So, D lies on the circumcircle.
Hence, A, B, C, D are concyclic.
Note : The above theorem (Theorem 10.10) can be considered as the converse
of the theorem 10.9.
10.7 Cyclic Quadrilaterals
In the previous class, you have studied the concepts of a cyclic quadrilateral.
Recall that, a quadrilateral is cyclic if all its vertices lie on a circle. With the help of
activities, you also have deduced that the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are
supplementary. Here, a logical proof of the result is given.
Theorem 10.11 Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
Given : Cyclic quadrilateral ABCD (Fig. 10.18)
To prove : A + C = 1800 and
B + D = 1800
Construction : Join AC and BD.
Proof : ADB and ACB are two angles in the same segment of a circle.
ADB = ACB = 1 (say)
CONSTRUCTIONS 201
Proof : Perpendiculars IE and IF are drawn from I on the sides AC and AB respectively.
Since I is a point on the bisector of B, ID = IF.
Again, I is on the bisector of C
ID = IE
Thus ID = IE = IF
Hence, the circle touches the sides BC , CA, AB at D, E, F respectively.
Remark :
1. The distance of a point from a line is the length of the perpendicular segment
drawn from the point upto the line.
2. The idea of a circle touching a line is not introduced hitherto. It may however
be noted that a circle touches a line if the perpendicular distance of its centre
from the line is equal to its radius.
Example 7 : The sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC are 9 cm, 6.5 cm, 8.5
cm respectively. Construct (i) the circumcircle (ii) the incircle of
the ABC.
Solution :
(i) Given : For a ABC, BC = 9 cm, CA = 6.5 cm and AB = 8.5 cm.
Required : To construct the circumcircle of the ABC.
Steps of construction :
1. The ABC is constructed such that BC = A
9 cm, CA = 6.5 cm and AB = 8.5 cm.
2. Perpendicular bisectors of the sides AB
and BC are drawn. They intersect at O.
3. With O as centre and OA as radius, a O
circle is drawn. This is the required circle.
B C
Proof : By construction, O is equidistant from A,
B and C. So, the circle drawn with O as
centre and OA as radius will pass through
Fig. 11.13
all the three vertices A, B, C of the
ABC.
226 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
ANSWERS
1. (i) 36000 cm3, 6680 cm2
(ii) 672 m3, 472 m2
(iii) 4800 m3, 1720 m2
(iv) 3672 cm3, 1452 cm2
2. (i) 864 cm2, 1728 cm3
(ii) 2166 m2, 6859 m3
(iii) 150 m2, 125 m3
(iv) 1014 m2, 2197 m3
3. 42 cm, 10584 cm2 4. 8 cm, 512 cm3 5. 51 m2
6. (i) 660 cm2 , 968 cm2 , 2310 cm3
(ii) 275 cm2 , 352 cm2 , 481.25 cm3
(iii) 3080 cm2 , 4312 cm2 , 21560 cm3
(iv) 1100 cm2 , 1408 cm2 , 3850 cm3
7. 297 m2 8. 660 m2 9. 336336 cm3 10. 528 cm2
11. 50 m 12. 2 m
13. (i) 154 m3, 137.5 m2, 176 m2
(ii) 1232 dm3, 550 dm2, 704 dm2
(iii) 12936 cm3, 2310 cm2, 3696 cm2
(iv) 1232 cm3, 550 cm2, 704 cm2
(v) 2816 cm3, 2200 cm2, 2816 cm2
14. 9856 cm3 15. 25 cm, 704 cm2 16. 1232 m3, 82,500
17. 5720 m2 , 54208 m3 18. 23408 cm3 ; 2750 cm2
19. 3.8 cm 20. 4.2 cm 22. 1334 23 cm3, 858 cm2
23. 42 24. 565.2 cm3 , 414.48 cm2 25. 7 cm
224 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
6. Find the curved surface area, the total surface area and the volume of a
right circular cylinder whose radius r and height h are given by
(i) r = 7 cm, h = 15 cm
(ii) r = 3.5 cm, h = 12.5 cm
(iii) r = 14 cm, h = 35 cm
(iv) r = 7 cm, h = 25 cm
7. The radius of a roller 1.4 m long, is 45 cm. Find the area it sweeps in 75
revolutions.
8. A garden roller of diameter 1 m is 2.1 m long. Find the area it covers in 100
revolutions.
9. A cylindrical metal pipe of thickness 1.4 cm and external diameter 56 cm is
14 m long. Find the volume of metal used in the construction of the pipe.
10. The volume of a right circular cylinder of height 24 cm is 924 cm3. Find the area
of the curved surface of the cylinder.
11. Find the depth of a well of radius 3.5 m if its capacity is equal to that of a
rectangular tank of dimensions 25 m 11 m 7 m.
12. A well of diameter 3.5 m is dug 16 m deep. The earth taken out is spread evenly
to form a rectangular platform of base 11 m 7 m. Find the height of the
platform.
13. Find the volume, the curved surface area and total surface area of a cone,
given that
(i) radius of base = 3.5 m and height = 12 m
(ii) radius of base = 0.7 m and slant height 2.5 m
(iii) radius of base 21 cm and slant height 35 cm
(iv) height = 24 cm and slant height = 25 cm
(v) perimeter of base = 88 cm and height = 48 cm.
14. The curved surface area of a cone of slant height 50 cm is 2200 cm2. Find the
volume of the cone.
15. The volume of a cone of height 24 cm is 1232 cm3. Find the slant height and total
surface area of the cone.
222 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Example 2 : How many spheres each of radius 1 cm will have their total
surface area equal to that of a single sphere of radius 5 cm ?
Solution : Surface area of a sphere of radius 1 cm = 4 cm2
Surface area of a sphere of radius 5 cm = 4.52 = 100 cm2
100
Required number of spheres = 4 = 25.
Example 3 : Assuming both the planets namely the Earth and the Saturn to
be spheres, compare their surface areas and volumes if the
diameter of the Saturn is 9 times that of the Earth.
Solution : Let r denote the radius of the Earth. The radius of the Saturn is then 9r.
Surface area of the Earth = 4r2
Surface area of the Saturn = 4(9r)2 = 81 4r2
Volume of the Earth = 4
3 r3
Volume of the Saturn = 4
3 (9r)3 = 729 43 r3
Thus, the surface area of the Saturn is 81 times that of the Earth and its volume
is 729 times that of the Earth.
Example 4 : A hemispherical bowl of internal diameter 60 cm is full of milk.
Cylindrical bottles each of diameter 6 cm and height 25 cm are to
be filled with milk from the bowl. How many bottles are necessary
to empty the bowl ?
Solution : Volume of milk contained in the bowl = 23 303
= 10 30 30 cm3
Volume of one cylindrical bottle = 32 25
= 9 25 cm3
2 10 30 30
Required number of bottles = 9 25
= 80.
220 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
A section of the frustum by any plane containing its axis i.e., the line through the
centres of the bases, is an isosceles trapezium (ABCD in Fig. 12.13). The length of any
of the pair of non-parallel sides (AD and BC) is the slant height of the frustum.
Let h be the height, l the slant height and r1 , r2 (r1 > r2) the radii of the bases
of a frustum of cone ABCD.
Then,
1
(i) volume of the frustum = h (r12 + r1r2 + r22)
3
(ii) curved surface area of the frustum = l(r1 + r2)
and (iii) total surface area of the frustum = (lr1 + lr2 + r12 + r22).
Example 1 : A conical vessel of height 24 cm and radius 10 cm is filled with
water and then poured into a cylindrical flask of radius 5 cm. Find
the height of water in the cylindrical flask.
Solution : Capacity of the conical vessel = 3 102 24 = 800 cm3.
Let the height of water in the flask be x cm.
Then volume of water in the flask = 52 x = 25x cm3.
25x = 800
x = 800
25 = 32
The height of water in the cylindrical flask is 32 cm.
12.7 Surface Area and Volume of a Sphere
The formulae for finding the surface area S and
volume V of a sphere of radius r are given by
(i) S = 4r2 (ii) V = 43 r3
These formulae will be proved in higher classes. d
However the formula for volume may be verified by
way of an activity as follows :
Take a solid sphere of diameter, say d and take
a cylindrical can of (inner) radius d2 and height d. Fill
Fig. 12.14
the can with water to the brim. Immerse the sphere
completely in water inside the can. Some quantity of water will spill out. Gently remove
the sphere out of water. You will observe that the can is about one-third full with water.
218 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
If V be the vertex, O the centre of the base and A any point on the circular edge
of the base of a right circular cone, then OV = h (say) is the height, OA = r is the base
radius and AV = l is the slant height of the cone. Since OA lies in the base while OV
is perpendicular to the base, therefore the AOV is right angled at O so that
AV 2 = OA2 + OV2
or l2 = r 2 + h2
This is the relation between the slant height, the base radius and the height of a
right circular cone.
In this unit, by a cone it shall be meant a right circular cone.
(a) Surface Area of a Right Circular Cone
Consider a hollow right circular cone of radius r and slant height l (Fig. 12.12).
Cut it along a generator VA. On spreading out the cut out sheet on a plane surface, a
sectorial region of radius l and arc length 2r will be obtained. The area of this sectorial
region is obviously l 2 22 rl i.e. rl (since the areas of sectors of the same circle
are proportional to their arc lengths). Hence, the area of the curved surface of the
cone = rl.
V V
l l
A A/
l
A r O
2r
Fig. 12.12
Also, the total surface area of the cone
= Area of the curved surface + Area of the base
= rl + r2
= r (l + r)
216 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Take a solid cylinder of height h and radius r. Take a jar
of known capacity which is large enough to contain the solid
cylinder inside it. Fill the jar with water upto the brim. Tie the
cylinder by a fine thread and immerse it completely in water
inside the jar. An amount of water of which the volume is the
same as that of the cylinder will spill over. Carefully lift the
cylinder out of the jar by means of the thread. Measure the
volume of water left in the jar. The difference between the
whole capacity of the jar and the volume of water left in the jar
gives the volume of the cylinder. Thus the volume of the cylinder
can be determined.
Now calculate the value of r2h. You will see that the
value is almost the same as the volume of the cylinder as
Fig. 12.10
determined above. This verifies the formula V = r2h for the
volume of a cylinder of radius r and height h.
Example 1 : Water is flowing at the rate of 10 km per hour through a pipe of
internal diameter 14 cm into a rectangular tank, 55 m long and 40
m wide. By how much will the level of water in the tank rise in 5
hours?
Solution : Radius of the pipe = 14
2 cm = 7
100 m
Amount of water flowing through the pipe per hour
= 22
7 7
100 7
100 10000 m3 [ 10 km = 10000 m]
= 154 m3
Amount of water that flows into the tank in 5 hrs.
= 154 5 m3
Surface area of water in the tank = 55 40 m2
154 5
Rise in water level in 5 hrs = 55 40 m
7
= 20 m = 35 cm.
Hence, in 5 hours the level of water in the tank will rise by 35 cm.
214 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
So, we can take
x = lb, y = bh and z = hl
The volume V of the cuboid is given by
V = lbh
V2 = l2 b2 h2
= lb bh hl
= xyz
V = xyz
Example 3 : The dimensions of a rectangular field are 75 m by 50 m. A
rectangular pool of length 35 m and breadth 15 m is dug inside the
field and the earth dug out is spread evenly over the remaining
portion of the field thereby raising the level by 42 cm. Find the
depth of the pool.
Solution : Area of the field = 75 50 = 3750 m2
Area covered by the pool = 35 15 = 525 m2
Area of the remaining portion of the field = 3750 – 525 = 3225 m2
Volume of the earth dug out = 3225 42
100 m3
Depth of the pool = 3225 42
100 525
= 2.58 m
= 2 m 58 cm.
12.5 Right Circular Cylinder
You have studied about solid figures known as circular cylinders in Class VII. Gas
cylinders, pipes, fish cans, rollers etc. are examples of circular cylinders. A solid circular
cylinder has a curved surface called lateral surface, bounded by two identical circular
plane faces. Either of the two circular plane faces is a base of the cylinder and the radius
of a base is referred to as the radius of the cylinder. The line joining the centres of the
two bases is the axis of the cylinder. If the axis is perpendicular to the bases, the cylinder
is said to be a right circular cylinder. The distance between the two parallel bases is called
the height or length of the right circular cylinder.
Cylinders considered in our discussion will be right circular cylinders only.
212 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
lengths customarily known as length, breadth and height (or thickness). The length,
breadth and height of a cuboid are referred to as its dimensions and are usually denoted
by the letters l, b and h respectively.
A point where three edges of a cuboid meet is called a vertex of the cuboid. A
cuboid has eight vertices.
A cuboid having all its edges equal is called a cube. Each of the equal edges of
a cube is called a side.
(a) Surface Area of a Cuboid
Consider the cuboid in Fig. 12.7. Here, the face ABCD is the base of the cuboid
and its length AB and breadth AD are the length and breadth of the cuboid. The distance
AA/ between the base ABCD and the opposite face A/B/C/D/ is the height or thickness
of the cuboid. Let l, b and h denote the length; breadth and height respectively for the
cuboid. Then
AB = A/B/ = D/C/ = DC = l
AD = A/D/ = B/C/ = BC = b
AA/ = BB/ = CC/ = DD/ = h
Area of the face ABCD = area of the face A/B/C/D/ = AB AD = lb
Area of the face ADD/A/ = area of the face BCC/B/ = AD AA/ = bh
Area of the face AA/B/B = area of the face DD/C/C = AA/ AB = hl
Total surface area of the cuboid = sum of areas of the six faces
= 2 (lb + bh + hl)
Excluding the base and the top (opposite face to the box), the four other faces
form the lateral surface of the cuboid. So the lateral surface area of the cuboid
= 2 (bh + hl)
= 2 (l + b)h
= perimeter of the base height.
In case of a cube of side a, l = b = h = a so that each of the six faces is a
square of side a. Hence, for a cube of side a,
surface area = 6a2 and lateral surface area = 4a2.
210 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
So, area of ABD = 15(15 9)(15 13)(15 8)
= 15 6 2 7
= 1260
= 35.5 m2 (approx.)
Also, area of BCD = 12 BC CD
= 12 12 5
= 30 m2
area of the park = 35.5 + 30
= 65.5 m2 (approx.).
EXERCISE 12.2
1. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD in which
(i) AB = 5 cm, BC = 4.5 cm, CD = 3.5 cm, DA = 4 cm and AC = 6.5 cm
(ii) AB = 3 cm, BC = 5 cm, CD = 6 cm, DA = 6 cm and BD = 5 cm
(iii) AB = 3.5 cm, BC = 4.5 cm, CD = 6 cm, DA = 3 cm and BD = 5.5 cm
(iv) AB = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm, CD = 4 cm, DA = 5 cm and AC = 6 cm.
2. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD in which
(i) AB = 3 cm, BC = 4 cm, CD = 5 cm, DA = 4 cm and B = 900
(ii) AB = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm, CD = 3 cm, DA = 5 cm and C = 900
3. Each side of a rhombus shaped field is 30 m and its longer diagonal is 48 m. Find
the area of the field.
4. A field is in the shape of a D 10 m C
trapezium whose parallel sides are
25 m and 10 m, and non-parallel 13 m
14 m
sides are 14 m and 13 m. Find the
area of the field.
[ Hint : Draw CE || DA.] A E N B
25 m
Fig. 12.6
208 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
ANSWERS
1. (i) 8 30 cm2 (ii) 6279 cm
2
(iii) 2 66 cm
2
2. 84 cm2
3. 2250 3 cm2 4. 36 3 cm2 5. 49 3 cm2 6. 60 cm2
3
7. 25 5 cm
2
8. 4
a2, 1225 3 cm2 9. 47,25,000 10. 12 cm2
12.2 Application of Heron’s Formula in Finding Area of Quadrilaterals
In the previous article you have learnt to D
find area of a triangle by Heron’s formula. In this
section we shall study about the calculation of area
of a quadrilateral using Heron’s formula. Let us C
take a quadrilateral ABCD. Suppose that we know
all the sides and one diagonal, say AC, of the
quadrilateral. We see that AC divides the
quadrilateral into two triangles, viz. ABC and ACD
(Fig. 12.3). We can find the areas of these two
triangles by Heron’s formula as we know the sides
A B
of these triangles. The sum of the areas of these Fig. 12.3
two triangles gives the area of the quadrilateral
ABCD.
Thus, we see that if the sides and one diagonal of a quadrilateral are known, then
we can find its area by using Heron’s formula.
Example 1 : Find the area of a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3 cm, BC =
4 cm, CD = 4 cm, DA = 5 cm and AC = 5 cm.
Solution : The sides of the ABC are C
4 cm
AB = 3 cm, B
BC = 4 cm and CA = 5 cm. 4 cm 5 cm
3 4 5 3 cm
s= 2
= 6 cm
Then by Heron’s formula, we have
D 5 cm A
Fig. 12.4
206 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
area of the triangle = s ( s a)( s b)( s c)
= 35 6 14 15
= 210 cm2.
Example 2 : Find the area of a triangle two sides of which are 18 cm and 10 cm
and the perimeter is 42 cm.
Solution : Here, perimeter of the triangle = 42 cm
a = 18 cm and b = 10 cm
Therefore, third side c = 42 – (18 + 10) = 14 cm
42
Then we have s = 2
= 21 cm
s – a = 21 – 18 = 3 cm
s – b = 21 – 10 = 11 cm
s – c = 21 – 14 = 7 cm
area of the triangle = s ( s a)(s b)( s c)
= 21 3 11 7
= 21 11 cm2.
Example 3 : The sides of a triangular plot are in the ratio 3 : 5 : 7 and its
perimeter is 450 m. Find its area.
Solution : Let the sides of the triangular plot, in metres, be 3x, 5x and 7x.
Then by question, we have
3x + 5x + 7x = 450
i.e., 15x = 450
x = 30
So, the sides of the plot are 3 30 m, 5 30 m and 7 30 m i.e., 90 m,
150 m and 210 m.
Taking a = 90 m, b = 150 m and c = 210 m,
450
we have s = 2
= 225 m
s – a = 225 – 90 = 135 m
s – b = 225 – 150 = 75 m
s – c = 225 – 210 = 15 m
204 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
CHAPTER
12 MENSURATION
12.1 Heron’s Formula
In the previous class you have learnt something about the calculation of the area
of a triangle. You know that :
Area of a triangle = 1
2 base altitude
Suppose that we know the three sides of a triangle. When the triangle is right
angled, we can find the area of the triangle by directly applying the above formula taking
on justifiable basis, the two sides containing the right angle as base and altitude. For
example, if ABC is a triangle in which AB = 24 cm, BC = 7 cm and AC = 25 cm
(Fig 12.1), then as AB2 + BC2 = 242 + 72 = 252 = AC2, it is right-angled at B. On taking
AB as the base, BC becomes the corresponding altitude and we have
area of ABC = 1
2 AB BC C
= 1
2 24 7 25cm
7cm
= 84 cm2
A 24cm B
Fig. 12.1
We can also take BC as the base and AB as the corresponding altitude. By doing
so we obtain the same area.
Again, suppose that the triangle is equilateral. In this case also we can find the
area of the triangle by the above formula. For example, let us take an equilateral DEF
with side 12 cm (Fig12.2). To find its area we need its height. If DN be the perpendicular
1
from D upon EF, then N will be the mid-point of EF. So, EN = 2 EF = 6 cm. As DEN
is a right triangle, using Pythagoras Theorem, we have
TRIGONOMETRY 243
ANSWER
\\ \\ \\
2 5 2
1. 66g 66\ 66 , 60g 55\ 55 , 120g 34\ 16
3 9 3
c c 2
c
27
c
2. , , ,
4 3 3 80
0 0
360 180
3. , , 450, 1350, 1200
1
0
1
g
c
4. 7 , 8 ,
2 3 24
2 4
5. , ,
9 3 9
9
c
6. 162 , 0
10
7. 11 m.
8. 8:5
9. 44 cm.
*******
266 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
(4600, 178)
(5000, 180)
(4000, 173)
(3800, 157)
(3500, 105)
(3000, 35)
(2500, 10)
Fig. 14.5
A free-hand curve is drawn through these points and we get smooth rising curve
which is the ogive of the data.
Note : We can extend the ogive both ways by assuming that there are classes
of zero frequencies on both ways lower than the last class and higher than
the upper class.
264 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Solution :
C
A
E
F
0
G10 20 30 40 50 60 70 H 80
Fig. 14.4
In this case, we first draw the histogram.
The mid-points of the various ractangles are A, B, C, D, E, F. Two assumed
classes 0 to 10 and 70 to 80 with frequency 0 are considered. Their corresponding
rectangles will lie on the X-axis.
The mid-points of these rectangles are G and H. Joining A to G and F to H we
get the closed frequency polygon.
The relation between the histogram and the frequency polygon is that areas
enclosed by the histogram and the closed frequency polygon must be the same.
14.7 Cumulative Frequency Curve or the Ogive
For a classified data the free-hand smooth curve obtained by joining the points
which are plotted by taking the upper limits of the various classes as the abscissae and
the cumulative frequencies of the corresponding classes as the ordinates is called the
cumulative frequency curve or ogive of the data.
An ogive is a never descending curve.
We consider the following example.
262 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
14.6 Frequency Polygon
The frequency polygon of a classified data is obtained first by plotting the points
whose abscissae are the class marks of the various classes and the ordinates are the
frequencies of the corresponding classes and then joining them by line segments.
However, if we are to draw both histogram and the frequency polygon we get
the latter by joining the mid-points of the tops of all rectangles by line segments.
Example 3: Draw the frequency polygon of the data given below :
Classes (Marks) Frequency (No. of students)
0 – 10 5
10 – 20 12
20 – 30 8
30 – 40 7
40 – 50 17
50 – 60 10
60 – 70 8
70 – 80 6
80 – 90 5
90 –100 1
Solution : For drawing the frequency-polygon we rewrite the data as follows :
Class Marks Frequency
5 5
15 12
25 8
35 7
45 17
55 10
65 8
75 6
85 5
95 1
260 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Thus, for equal width the height of the rectangle will be proportional to the
frequency of the class.
To illustrate the idea consider the following example.
Example 1 : The following is the data of marks secured by 100 students in an
examination of 50 marks.
Class : 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 40–45 45–50
No. of students : 6 10 14 24 20 12 7 5 2
Represent the data by a histogram.
Solution : Here the classes are of equal width.
25
20
15
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Fig. 14.1
There is no class below 5. So we make a kink along the X-axis near the origin
indicating that the graph is drawn to scale from 5 and not from 0. Similar method can be
used to case of the Y-axis if situation demands.
Example 2 : The following is the data of income groups and income tax payers
of a certain region.
Monthly income (in ) group No. of tax payers
1501 – 2000 150
2001 – 2500 200
2501 – 3500 300
3501 – 4400 100
4401 – 5303 55
258 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
1000 and above – 560
1500 and above – 320
2000 and above – 150
2500 and above – 75
3000 and above – 50
3500 and above – 24
4000 and above – 12
4500 and above – 6
From the above data construct a continuous frequency table and also find the
cumulative frequency of each class. Further, find the number of families whose weekly
income is at the most 1000.
ANSWERS
2. Secondary
3. Maximum number of students get B+
Minimum number of students get D
Median grade is B
Mean is not determinable
4. 6, 6; yes. It is 6
5. Mean = 33.45
Median = 32
Mode = 32
7. 267,361
8. 11490
256 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
EXERCISE 14.1
1. State a common experience in which you collect data to get an information.
2. Suppose you visited a meteorological centre and collected the record of the
maximum temperature on all days of the month July 2007. Is this a primary or
a secondary data ?
3. The performance given in grades of 45 students of a class are as follows
(A+, A, B+, B, C+, C and D are the 7 grades).
A, B, C+, C, C, D, A+, B, B+, B, B+, C, C+, D, A+
B+, A, A+, C, C+, A, B, B+, C, D, A+, B, B+, B+, C
B, B+, B, B+, B+, A+, C, C, C+, A, A+, B, B+, C, A.
Construct a frequency distribution to represent the data. Determine the grades
which are obtained by the maximum and minimum number of students. Find also
the median grade. Which one of the measures of central tendency is not
determinable for this non-numerical data ?
4. What are the mean and median of the first eleven natural numbers ? Can you
estimate the mode ? If so what is it ?
5. The following are the weight in kg of 20 pupils in a class
30, 37, 45, 32, 26, 40, 26, 31, 30, 35,
28, 32, 35, 41, 28, 27, 42, 36, 32, 36.
Using tally marks form an ungrouped frequency table thereby showing the
frequency and cumulative frequency columns. Also find the three measures of
central tendency of the data.
6. Taking 2 as the width of each class construct a continuous grouped frequency
table for the sample in article 7.2. Also show the columns of mid-values of the
classes and the cumulative frequencies.
7. For a certain locality, the data of monthly household consumption of
electricity measured in units of energy is given below :
278 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
ANSWER
1. 0.016 , 51 – 60
2. X , Probability of getting A+ > Probability of getting C+
3. 0.35
4. Yes.
*******
276 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
In fact,
x / 0 x /1
x1 =
2
x /1 x / 2
x2 = etc.,
2
x /i 1 x /i
xi = ; i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
2
If we look upon the above data as an ungrouped one with observations
x1, x2, ..., xn having respective frequencies f1, f2, ..., fn , then, the A.M. x is given by
n
f1 x1 f 2 x 2 ...+ f n x n
1
x = f1 f 2 ... f n N
f i xi
i 1
f1 f2 fn
x =
N 1
x N
x2 ... N
xn ––––– (i)
Now, the probability pi that any observation chosen at random may assume the
value xi is given by
f1
pi =
N
Thus, x = p1x1 + p2x2 + ... + pnxn
n
x = pi xi ... (ii)
i 1
Equation (ii) gives the A.M. in terms of probability.
The expression on the right side of (ii) is known as the expected value or
expectation of the variate x assuming the values x1, x2, ..., xn with respective
probabilities p1, p2, ..., pn.
We denote it by E(x).
Thus, E(x) = x , the A.M.
A variate or a stochastic variable x is a variable assuming the values x1, x2, ...., xn
with a specitive probabilities p1, p2, ..., pn.
274 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Example 3 : The following is the grouped frequency table of a number of
workers belonging to different weekly income groups.
Weekly Income in Rupees Number of Workers
130 – 150 7
150 – 170 15
170 – 190 30
190 – 210 35
210 – 230 18
230 – 250 10
250 – 270 5
If a worker is chosen at random find the probability that his weekly income is in
the group 170 – 190. Also find the probability that he belongs to the group whose
weekly income is 190 or above. If the events of a worker chosen at random to belong
separately to the above two groups are respectively denoted by E1 and E2, find
P(E1) + P(E2), and give reason why their sum is not 1. How can you modify event E 1
so that P(E1) + P(E2) = 1 ?
Solution : The frequency table is reproduced with the cumulative frequency table.
Income Group (Classes) No. of Workers (Frequency) Cumulative Frequency
130 – 150 7 7
150 – 170 15 22
170 – 190 30 52
190 – 210 35 87
210 – 230 18 105
230 – 250 10 115
250 – 270 5 120
Total = 120
Out of the 120 workers there are 30 in the income group of 170 – 190.
Hence, the probability of the event E1 in which the worker chosen at random may belong
to this group is given by
P(E1) 30
120
1
4
.
272 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
If a student is chosen at random from the class, find the probability that he is one
of the students who got the minimum marks. Also, find the probability that a student
chosen at random from the class gets 75% or above.
Solution : We construct the frequency and cumulative frequency table as follows :
Marks Frequencies Cumulative Frequencies
12 4 4
15 6 10
17 7 17
18 7 24
20 6 30
22 8 38
24 7 45
25 3 48
29 2 50
If E1 be the event in which the chosen student is one of the 4 who got minimum
marks i.e. 12.
No. of students who get 12 marks
Then, P(E1) =
Total number of students
4
= 50
2
= 25
Now, 75% of 30 = 75
100
30 = 22.5
From the cumulative frequency table we see that out of the 50 students 38 of
them get below 22.5 marks and (50 – 38) i.e. 12 of them get above 22.5 .
Thus, if E2 be the event in which a student chosen at random gets 75% or above.
No. of students who get above 22.5 marks
Then, P(E2) =
Total number of students
12
= 50
6
= 25 .
270 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
2
We shall not solve the problem. But the theoritical answer is d which involves
the important irrational number being the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its
diameter. By taking different pairs of values of and d and also by throwing the needle
a large number of times the empirical value of the probability has been determined
experimentally. Equating the two probabilities the value of has been estimated. It has
been found that the value so determined agrees to a very fair degree to the known value
of .
After A.N. Kolmogorov enunciated his set theoritic definition of probability in
1933, this branch of Mathematics has become a confluence of the two branches viz.
Measure theory and Probability theory with a wide range of applications in scientific and
industrial fields.
15.3 Terms Related to Probability
Probability is defined in three apparently different but reconcilable ways. One
of the definitions is the empirical or statistical definition. In lower classes we
considered this definition and solved problems. Here also, we shall use the same
definition but from another point of view. However, some terms associated with
probability will be discussed briefly in some way of recapitulation of what we
discussed in lower classes.
Trial :
In statistics a trial is an experiment whose outcomes can be labelled either a
success or a failure. For example, in the tossing of a coin if getting a head is taken as
a success and that of a tail a failure, then, the outcomes of a toss is either a success or
a failure. Thus, tossing a coin is a trial.
Event :
An event is an outcome or a collection of outcomes of a trial. E.g., In tossing a
coin once, getting a head is an event.
Randomness :
A trial is said to be random if there is no pre-arrangement to get a particular
outcome. For example, while drawing a lottery the selection of a winner is a random
choice.
APPENDIX 1 279
PROOF IN MATHEMATICS
APPENDIX 1
Introduction
In our daily social life there are some intuitive notions which are taken to be true
or false or uncertain. Whenever we assert something to be true or false it is not
unexpected if somebody demands the proof of the assertion.
For example, when a person claiming to be a voter enters a polling booth to cast
his/her vote, the polling officials demand documents to prove the identity of the voter. He/
she has to produce his/her identity card or some other document or at least there must
be some respectable person to prove the genuineness of the person in support of the
claim.
Thus, to prove some assertion a reference is always necessary.
A mathematical proof, in a similar way depends on some accepted premise. The
premise may be an axiom or postulate or some already accepted principles. Against the
backdrop of the premise arguments are built up using logic which is the science of
reasoning to prove or disprove the assertion. Sir Isaac Newton, postulated that light
travels along straight lines. Basing on this postulate many phenomena on light are
explained satisfactorily.
We shall discuss a little on the types of logic that we use to prove or diprove a
certain assertion.
Logic and Reasoning
In logic two types of approach of reasoning are used. One is inductive and the
other is deductive. In the inductive approach it is from individual to general and in the
deductive it is the other way round.
280 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
For example: Last Sunday night was cloudy and it was humid and hot. Yesternight was
also cloudy and it was humid and hot. To night it is cloudy and it is humid
and hot. Thus cloudy night are humid and hot. This type of reasoning is
inductive. But such conclusion drawn by induction may suffer from pit
falls.
For example: Lal is from Rajasthan and he is a vegetarian. Jadu is from Rajasthan, he
is a vegetarian. Rani is also from Rajasthan and she is also a vegetarian.
Therefore, all persons from Rajasthan are vegetarians. This conclusion may not
be correct. Some people from Rajasthan may be non vegetarians.
Let us also see the pattern :
12 1
2
11 121
2
111 12321
11112 1234321
All are strings of 1(one) All are palindrome numbers.
11111 123454321
2
An observation of the above pattern makes us so tempting to say that this pattern
of forming palindrome numbers by squaring repunit numbers which are formed by strings
of ones (1) holds for all strings of ones.
But 11111111112 = 1234567900987654321
(ten ones) which is not a palindrome number.
Again consider the Fermat numbers Fn given by
Fn = 22n + 1 ; n = 0,1,2,3, ...
Now, F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257, ...
These are all prime numbers. Fermat himself thought that Fn might generate
prime numbers. But, Euler in 1732, more than half a century after the death of Fermat
proved that
F5 = 4294967297
= 641 6700417 showing that F5 is not a prime number.
APPENDIX 1 281
Thus, inductive logic has a probable weak point which may lead to a pitfall.
However, in employing inductive method to prove a mathematical proposition due
care is taken to overcome such a weak point. This you will discuss in the principles of
Mathematical Induction.
The other approach used in reasoning where there are no such weak points is the
deductive way. We shall discuss a few examples.
Example :
All metals are conductors of heat and electricity. Iron is a metal. Iron is a
conductor of heat and electricity.
Here the approach is from general to indivisual. Again let us examine the
following :
The present age of a man is three times that of his son. When the son’s age is
double of his present age the father’s age will be only double of the son’s age.
To examine the truth of the statement let us think that the son’s present age is
10 years. Then the fathers present age is 30 years. When the son’s age is double of this
present age, it is 20 years which is 10 years hence. By that time the father’s age is
(30 + 10) is 40 years. Thus, the statement is true.
Again if we take the son’s present age as 15 years, then the father’s present age
is 45 years. When the son becomes 30 years old the father becomes (45 + 15) is 60 yrs.
old. Here also the statement is true.
But these two verifications are not sufficient to say that the statement is true for
all cases.
However, if we take x yrs. as the present age of the son then, the father’s
present age is 3x years.
The son’s age will be double that of his present age after x years. By that time
the father’s age is (3x + x) is 4x years.
Now, 4x = 2 2x
= 2 (x + x)
= 2 age of the son after x years
But 4x = 2 2x being an identity, holds for all values of x.
Thus, the statement is true in all cases.
282 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
The first approach of taking different present ages of the son in verifying the truth
is indivisual and inductive while the second is general and deductive. The second method
is a mathematically valid proof while the first is not.
Mathematical Logic
In Mathematical Logic a statement is one which is either true or false. A
statement which is true to somebody and false to some other, an uncertain statement, an
interrogation or an exclamation, a wish etc. are not considered as logical statements. Thus
statement like, “It is a nice song”, “It may rain today”, “Who are you ?” “What a nice
goal !” “Kindly help me” etc. are not logical statements.
Statements like “Imphal is the Capital of Manipur”. “2 + 7 = 10” are logical
statement in which the first is true while the second is false. They are also said to be
mathematically valid.
Concept of Mathematical Proof.
As stated earlier, a mathematical proof is a set of logical arguments based on
axioms or postulates or accepted principles.
We shall consider some terms first.
An axiom
An axiom is a self evident statement. The truth of an axiom is such that
everybody is ready to accept it without a proof.
For example, one of Euclid’s axioms
“Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other”.
Symbolically, If x = y and x = z
Then, y = z because y and z are equal to the same quantity x.
is taken or accepted without a proof.
A Postulate
A postulate is an assumption which is taken to be true without a proof. Euclid
classified axioms related to geometry as postulates. For example one of Euclid’s
postulates, “A straight line can be drawn from one point to another point” is accepted as
it states. But now a days mathematically, axioms and postulates are considered the same.
APPENDIX 1 283
The concept of postulates is also prevelent in other branches of science. For
example Newton’s postulate on the linear propagation of light is well known and accepted
in Geometrical optics.
Mathematical Theorems
A mathematical theorem is a proposition whose truth is established by giving
necessary arguments based on an axiom or axioms or some accepted principles.
For instance
Using the following two Euclid’s axioms
viz (i) Things equal to the same thing are equal,
and (ii) If equals are subtracted from equals the differences are the same.
We can establish the following Euclid’s theorem.
viz, If two straight lines intersect each other then, the vertically opposite angles
are equal.
The truth of this proposition can be established by using the above two axioms.
Let AB and CD be two straight lines intersecting at the point O. We are to
prove that the vertically opposite angles AOD and BOC are equal.
Similarly,
AOC and BOD are equal. C
Now, AOB = A straight angle =
two right angles and COD = A straight
angle = two right angles. A B
By axiom (i) AOB = COD O
AOC + AOD
= AOC + BOC D
Subtracting the same angle AOC
from both the sides by axiom (ii) AOD = BOC.
In a similar way we can prove that
AOC = BOD.
284 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Thus, from self evident axioms we can arrive at not so apparent and more
complicated results some of which are so important in the study of the subject that they
are taken as theorems or principles.
Some of Euclid’s theorems whose proofs were also given by himself are now
taken as postulates.
For example, the SAS postulate was earlier taken as a theorem.
Validity of a Statement
The correctness of a mathematical argument is dependent on the ambit of the
definition and validity of the connotations of the terms involved therein.
For example, when we say “The equation x2 – 2 = 0 has no solution”, the
statement is correct if the solutions are to be rational numbers.
However, if the roots are real numbers the statement is wrong.
Verification, General Proof and Counter Example
A set of examples of the validity of a proposition verified individually for specific
cases does not constitute a proof of the proposition.
On the other hand a single instance of violation of the same proposition negates
the validity of the proposition. Such an example is called a counter example.
Let us see the following examples.
Example 1 : Any square number when divided by 3 leaves either 0 or 1 as
remainder.
A few square numbers are
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ...
Each one when divided by 3 leaves 1 or 0 as the remainder.
APPENDIX 1 285
Because 1 = 0 3 + 1
4 = 1 3 + 1
9 = 3 3 + 0
16 = 5 3 + 1
25 = 8 3 + 1
36 = 12 3 + 0
49 = 16 3 + 1 etc.
But these are verifications and they do not constitute a proof of the proposition.
On the other hand let us proceed in the following way :
Any whole number when divided by 3 will leave one of the numbers 0, 1, 2 as
the remainder.
Thus, any whole number is in one of the three forms
viz, 3n, 3n + 1 and 3n + 2 where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........
Hence, any square number is in one of the three forms namely,
(3n)2, (3n + 1)2 and (3n + 2)2.
When the square number is of the form (3n)2 i.e. 9n2, on dividing by 3 the
remainder is 0
as 9n2 = 3 3n2
When the square number is of the form
(3n + 1)2 = 9n2 + 6n + 1
= 3(3n2 + 2n) + 1, the remainder is 1 on dividing by 3.
Again, when the square number is of the form
(3n + 2)2 = 9n2 + 12n + 4
= 9n2 + 12n + 3 + 1
= 3(3n2 + 4n + 1) + 1
the remainder is 1 on dividing by 3.
286 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Thus in all the cases, the remainder is either 0 or 1.
This is a general proof.
Example 2 : The sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180 0.
We can draw any number of triangles and by measuring the three angles in each
case and adding the three angles we can show that the sum is always 180 0. But these
verifications do not constitute a proof.
On the other hand, let ABC be any arbitrary triangle.
E
A
p q D
z
C
y
B
Produce the side BC to D and draw the line CE parallel to BA. Then, by the
properties of parallel lines and their transversals we see that x = p
y = q
So that x + y + z = p + q + z
= 1800
Thus, A + B + C = 1800.
Since, the result holds for any aribtrary triangle the proposition is true for all
triangles.
This is one of the basic theorems related to the angles of a triangle.
APPENDIX 1 287
Example 3 : Any quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c with integral co-efficients
can be factorized into linear factors with integral co-efficients.
We consider the expressions
x2 + 7x + 12, 2x2 + x – 1 and 6x2 – 11x + 3
We observe that
x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x + 4)
2x2 + x – 1 = (2x – 1)(x + 1)
and 6x – 11x + 3 =
2
(3x – 1)(2x – 3).
In these few cases the proposition is true.
But taking the expression x2 + x + 2 we see that it cannot be factorized into linear
factors with even rational co-efficients.
This simple instance is enough to negate the truth of the proposition.
Thus, to disprove a proposition one example, called a counter example is
sufficient.
On the other hand a number of verificiations or examples of the validity of a
proposition do not constitute a proof. Only a general proof is sufficient to establish the
validity of truth.
Conjecture
A conjecture is a statement whose truth is observable in any particular case but
eludes not only a general proof but also a counter example so far.
One very interesting conjecture is the famous Goldbach conjecture after the
Prussian born mathematician Christian Goldbach (1690 – 1764).
It states as follow : “Every even number except 2 is the sum of two prime
numbers.”
We can verify its validity by taking any even number greater than 2.
e.g. 4 = 2+2
6 = 3+3
8 = 3+5
10 = 3+7
12 = 5+7 etc.
288 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
We observe that the right side all the equations are prime numbers.
So far mathematicians are not successful either in giving a general proof of the
validity or a counter example of the proposition.
Thus a statement which neither proved nor disproved is a conjecture.
There are many such conjectures in Mathematics.
Had a conjecture been proved it would have been taken as a theorem. On the
other hand had it been disproved it would have been rejected.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumed proposition used as a promise to prove some other
proposition.
Let us consider the following examples.
Example 1: Show that one and only one circle can pass through three non-
collinear points.
P M
A C
O
L N
A, B, C are the three non-collinear points. LM and PN are the perpendicular
bisctors of the line segments AB and BC respectively. They intersect at O. By the
properties of perpendicular bisectors, O is equidistant from A, B, C. As such it is the
centre of the circle whose radius is OA ( = OB = OC).
Thus, it is possible to draw a circle with centre O and passing through the three
non-collinear points A, B and C. That is the first part of the proposition. The second part
is to show that there is no other circle which can pass through these three points. We
make the following hypothesis.
APPENDIX 1 289
If possible, let there be another circle passing through these three non-collinear
points. When we say another circle, three cases arise
(i) A circle with centre O but of different radius.
(ii) A circle of the same radius but of different centre.
(iii) A circle with different radius and different centre.
Now, a hypothesis is either wrong or right. It cannot be both. Thus, if the
hypothesis is wrong then it cannot be right.
In case (i) OA (= OB = OC) must have a value different from the earlier one
i.e. OA should have two values, which is impossible.
In (ii) and (iii), the two perpendicular bisectors intersect at more than one point
which is impossible in view of the principle that two distinct lines cannot have more than
one point in common which in turn is derived from the axiom that there is only one unique
line passing through two distinct points.
Thus, in all the cases there cannot be another circle.
In other words the hypothesis is wrong concluding thereby that it is not possible
to have another circle that passes through the three points A, B and C. Hence, there is
one and only one circle that passes through three non-collinear points.
In statistical experiments, we make a number of hypotheses. After due testings
the hypothesis is either accepted or rejected. We shall not discuss that type of hypothesis
here.
A set of axioms is said to be incosistent if they lead a statement to results which
are both true and false. An axiom is said to be independent of the others in a set of axioms
if it is not a consequence of the others.
******
294 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
(25, 4600)
(26, 45840)
Monthly income in rupees, R
The number of boarders, n
We do not draw continuous straight line graphs as the points are isolated from one
another. We observe that the monthly income when there are 26 boarders is Rs 45840
while it is Rs 46000 when there are only 25 boarders. Thus there is a reduction in income
even if the number of boarders is more at this juncture. The situation is indicated by the
sudden break in the pattern at this juncture corresponding to n = 25 and n = 26.
*******
292 MATHEMATICS FOR CLASS IX
Solution : From the similar s OAB and OPQ.
h
H = s
s x Hs = hs + hx
s (H – h) = hx
s = s
Hh .x –––– (i)
Now, equation (i) gives the relation between s and x. Since H and h are known
we can find the length of the shadow of the man when his distance from the foot of the
post is known.
When H = 3h equation (i) gives
s = h
2h .x s = 1
2 x.
This shows that, in this special case the length of the shadow is half of his
distance from the foot of the post.
Interpretation under special cases :
When H = h i.e. the post is as high as the man, then from (i)
s = h
0 .x s =
This case is interpreted as the total obstruction of light by a horizontal shadow
band of height h parallel to the ground and the shadow is endless.
Again when H < h, let H – h = – k (say).
Then from (i)
s = h
H h x
=
h
k x = kh x
i.e. s is –ve. But length cannot be negative. This shows that in this case there will be not
shadow.
Again, when the man is at the foot of the post, x = 0
Then, from (i) s = h
Hh 0 = 0
In this case the shadow is reduced to a point. In actual practice there will be a
shapless smudge at the foot of the post.
Thus from this simple mathematical model we can predict a number of special
cases.
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