Prepared by:

Dr. Taghreed Said

 Chapter 2:

Force , Torque and magnetic

materials
Electro-Magnet Dipole Magnetic Dipole

 The moment of the current loop  The moment of the small magnet
magnetic dipole is given by: equals to the value of the pole
strength 𝑷 multiplied by the
𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 distance between the poles 2L and
× 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 is given by:
= 𝐼𝑆 𝐴𝑚2 𝑚 = 𝑃. 2𝐿
 2L
Magnetic Dipole

Initial Position Final Position

𝒎=𝑰 𝑺
Electro-Magnet 𝑰 𝑰
𝑩
Dipole 𝑩

𝒎 =I𝑺
Initial Position Final Position
 The simple atomic model is a central positive
nucleus surrounded by electrons in various circular orbits.
 Figure gives the simple representation of the atom and its 𝒅𝒎
equivalent
Ib Ib

+ v ≡
dS

𝒅𝒎
Orbiting
electron Equivalent
Dipole
 Initially the magnetic field produced by the orbit electron has a randomly
direction in the material for the absence of the external magnetic field, as shown
in Fig. for a microscope volume.

 All the dipole moment rotate in random direction and the sum of the dipole
moment inside the material is zero. This is called non-magnetizing material.

𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0

𝑑𝑚𝑖 ≠ 0
𝑀=0
 After applying an external magnetic field 𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑡 to the material there will
be an alignment between the 𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑡 and the magnetic field of the orbit
electron.

 Thus, the resultant magnetic field at any point in the material will be
greater than it would at that point if the material were not present.
 Figure depicts the new arrangement of the magnetic dipole inside the
material.

 In other words, when the magnetic field is applied to the material,

𝒊 𝒅𝒎𝒊 ≠ 𝟎 due to magnetization effect on the material (alignment of
the magnetic dipole under the action of the magnetic field) and this
material is called magnetized material.
 Let us begin by defining the magnetization 𝑴 in
terms of magnetic dipole moment 𝒎. The bound current 𝑰𝒃
circulates about a path enclosing a differential area 𝒅𝑺,
established a dipole moment,
𝒅𝒎 = 𝑰𝒃𝒅𝑺
 If there are n magnetic dipoles per unit volume and we
consider ∆𝒗, then the total magnetic dipole moment is found
by the vector sum,
𝒏∆𝒗
𝒎𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝒎𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
 Each of the 𝒎𝒊 may be different. Next, we define the
magnetization 𝑴 at then magnetic dipole moment per unit
volume,
𝟏 𝒏∆𝒗
𝑴 = lim 𝒎𝒊
∆𝒗→𝟎 ∆𝒗 𝒊=𝟏
 and see that its units must be the same as for 𝑯, amperes per
meter
 Consider a slab of magnetic material with a uniform
magnetic field 𝑩𝒐 as suggested in Figure.

 The magnetization vector 𝑴 will thus be uniform and

give rise to a non zero bound
magnetization surface current density 𝑱𝒔𝒎 (𝑨𝒎−2 ) on
the surfaces of the material
  In this figure, the microscopic current loops of moment
𝒅𝒎 are used to illustrate the functionof the
surface currents.
 Within the material, the current due to adjacent current
loops will cancel to produce a bound magnetization
current density 𝑱𝒔𝒎 (𝑨𝒎−𝟐 ) equal to zero.

 A non zero bound magnetization current

density 𝑱𝒎 will occur within the material
when the magnetization vector 𝑴 varies,
as shown in Figure.
  The bound currents between the adjacent loops do not cancel, and thus
there exists a 𝑱𝒎 within the material. These magnetization currents are
commonly called amperian currents.
 We should note that the magnetization vector 𝑴 has a non zero 𝝏𝑴𝒚 𝝏𝒙.
This term can be recognizing as the z component of 𝛁 × 𝑴.

 To find expression for the 𝑱𝒔𝒎 and

𝑱𝒎 , let us consider a slab within a
magnetic material, as suggested
in Figure
 𝑱𝒎 is the current density within the loop and is given by:
𝑱𝒎 = 𝛁 × 𝑴
 The bound magnetization surface current
density𝑱𝒔𝒎 on the surface of the magnetic material can be
defined as
𝑱𝒔𝒎 = 𝑴 × 𝒂𝒏
Example (2-4)
A very long cylinder of magnetic material with radius
a is found along the z-axis. When the
magnetization 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟎𝒂𝒛 𝑨/𝒎 within the cylinder, find:
a) 𝑱𝒎 b) 𝑱𝒔𝒎
 𝑱𝒎 is the current density within the loop and is given by:

 Solution
 The magnetizing current density is given by,
𝑱𝒎 = 𝛁 × 𝑴 = 𝟎
 within the magnetic material ( because we have uniform
magnetization in this example).

 The magnetizing surface current density is given by,

𝑱𝒔𝒎 = 𝑴 × 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒂𝒛 × 𝒂𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒂∅ 𝑨/𝒎

 on the magnetic material surface (which is uniform)

 Due to magnetization in a material, we have seen the
formation of bound magnetization surface current density 𝑱𝒔𝒎 and the
bound magnetization current density 𝑱𝒎 .
 These bound currents produce a magnetic field, as they
were currents due to the movement of free charges.
 Thus, we must alter the free space magnetic field equation to be
𝑩
𝛁× = (𝑱 + 𝑱𝒎 )
𝝁𝒐
 where 𝑩 is the resultant magnetic field due to current associated with
free charges and currents associated with magnetization. Substituting
to get
𝑩
𝛁× = (𝑱 + 𝛁 × 𝑴)
𝝁𝒐
 Rearranging the above equation, we obtain
𝐵
𝛻 × ( − 𝑀) = 𝐽
𝜇𝑜
 This equation becomes
𝛻×𝐻 =𝐽
𝐵
 This is the general expression for 𝐻 that reduces to 𝐻 = for the free
𝜇𝑜
space since 𝑀 = 0.
 From the above equations, we can obtain
𝐵
−𝑀 =𝐻
𝜇𝑜
 Therefore
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
 The magnetization vector 𝑴 can be eliminated through the
relationship between 𝑀 and 𝐻. For linear isotropic magnetic material,
 The magnetization vector 𝑀 can be eliminated through the relationship
between 𝑀 and 𝐻. For linear isotropic magnetic material, 𝑀 = 𝑥𝑚 𝐻
where 𝑥𝑚 is the magnetic susceptibility of the material. Thus we have
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 + 𝑀 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 + 𝑥𝑚 𝐻
= 𝜇𝑜 1 + 𝑥𝑚 𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
 Where
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝑥𝑚
 𝜇𝑟 is defined as the relative permeability, and the permeability 𝜇 is
defined as
𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
 The relationship between 𝑩 and 𝑯 can be simplified as
𝐵=𝜇𝐻
where 𝜇 takes into account the magnetization of the material
 Find the magnetic field intensity within a magnetic
material where:
A. 𝑀 = 150 𝐴/𝑚 and 𝜇 = 1.5 ∗ 10−5 𝐻/𝑚
B. 𝐵 = 300𝜇𝑇 and 𝑥𝑚 15
C. There are 8.2 ∗ 1028 atom/m3, each atom has a dipole moment of
5 ∗ 10−27 and 𝜇𝑟 = 30.
 Solution
 a) The relative permeability can be found as
𝜇 1.5 ∗ 10−5
𝜇𝑟 = = −7
= 11.94
𝜇𝑜 4𝜋 ∗ 10
 and the magnetic susceptibility is
𝑥𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1 = 10.94
 Then, the magnetic field intensity is given by
𝑀 150
𝐻= = = 13.72 𝐴/𝑚
𝑥𝑚 10.94
 b) The relative permeability is given by
𝜇𝑟 = 𝑥𝑚 + 1 = 16
 the magnetic field intensity is given as
𝐵 300 ∗ 10−6
𝐻= = −7
= 14.92 𝐴/𝑚
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 4𝜋 ∗ 10

 c) The magnetization M is defined as magnetic dipole

moment per unit volume as given by:
𝟏 𝒏∆𝒗
𝑴 = lim 𝒎𝒊 = 8.2 ∗ 1028 ∗ 5 ∗ 10−27 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝑨/𝒎
∆𝒗→𝟎 ∆𝒗 𝒊=𝟏
 and the magnetic susceptibility is
𝑥𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1 = 29
 Then, the magnetic field intensity is given by
𝑀 410
𝐻= = = 14.14 𝐴/𝑚
𝑥𝑚 29
 The magnetic materials contain magnetic dipoles, which affected by
the application of the applied external magnetic field.
 The magnetic field can be classified to mainly three sorts:
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic.
A. Diamagnetic material
 A diamagnetic material contains no permanent dipoles,
but dipoles are induced by an external magnetic field.
 These induced magnetic dipole moments are in opposite
direction to the applied magnetic field.
 The relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 of such materials is
less than unity (𝜇𝑟 < 1).
 Material μR
Silver 0.99998
Copper 0.999991
Diamond 0.999979
Gold 0.999964
Silicon 0.999983
Glass 0.999987
B. Paramagnetic material
 For the paramagnetic materials, the atom as a whole has a small
magnetic moment, but the random orientation of the atoms in a large
sample produces an average magnetic moment of zero.
 The relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 of such materials is slightly more than
unity (𝜇𝑟 > 1), indicating that the paramagnetic materials slightly allow
the passage of the flux lines more than the air does.
 Material μR
Air 1.00000338
Aluminum 1.003023
Oxygen 1.0000019
Nitrogen 1.000000013
Platinum 1.0036
Tungsten 1.000076

C. Ferromagnetic material
 In ferromagnetic materials each atom has a relatively large dipole
moment, caused primarily by uncompensated electron spin moments.
 The relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 of such materials is very large as
compared with unity (𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1 ), indicating that the
ferromagnetic materials strongly changes due to the passage
of the external magnetic flux lines.
 Material μR
Cobalt 250
Nickel 600
Iron 5000
Silicon Iron 7000

D. Magnetization Curve
 More interesting and more practical problems arise when
ferromagnetic materials are present in the circuit.
 Let us begin by considering the relationship between 𝐵 and 𝐻 in such a
material.
 This relationship is known as hysteresis loop and is shown in Figure.
 Increasing H to high positive values lines up all
Domain wall shifting in ferromagnetic materials magnetic moments, and a single domain is left
introduces semi-permanent magnetization states that are (in the extreme case). The core is thus in
slow to respond to changes in applied magnetic fields. The saturation. Furtherincrease in H leads to an
increase in B through the free space
resulting magnetization curve demonstrates the hysteresis
permeability
phenomenon as shown here.

Decreasing the applied H field to zero leaves

many dipoles still aligned, and we have the
remanant magnetic flux density, Br . The material Coercive field in transitioning B from
has become a permanent magnet. negative to positive values.

The remanant flux density is reduced to

zero by applying an opposing magentic
field strength, -Hc known as the coercive Remanant magnetic flux density, for
field (or coercive force.) increasing H field from negative to positive
values

Increasing H to high negative values again

leads to saturation

23
E. Magnetic Field Boundary Conditions
 We should have no difficulty in arriving at the proper boundary
conditions to apply to 𝐵 , 𝐻, and 𝑀 at the interface between two
different magnetic materials.
 Figure shows a boundary between two isotropic homogenous linear
materials with permeabilities 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 .
 Normal Component
 Applying Gauss’s law for the magnetic field

𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 = 0

 We find that 𝐵𝑛1 ∆𝑆 − 𝐵𝑛2 ∆𝑆 = 0

 Or 𝐁𝐧𝟏 = 𝐁𝐧𝟐
 Thus
𝜇1
𝐻𝑛2 = 𝐻𝑛1
𝜇2
 The normal component of 𝐵 is continuous, but the normal component
of 𝐻 is discontinuous by the ratio 𝜇1 /𝜇2 .
 The relationship between the normal component of 𝑀, of course, is
fixed once the relationship between the normal component of 𝐻 is
known. For linear magnetic materials, the result is written simply as
𝑥𝑚2 𝜇1
𝑀𝑛2 = 𝑀𝑛1
𝑥𝑚1 𝜇2
 Tangential Component
 The boundary condition relating tangent field components can be obtained by
applying Ampere’s law to the loop of Figure, as ∆ℎ → 0, to yield

𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐

 Taking the clockwise trip around the path, we find that

𝐻𝑡1 ∆𝐿 − 𝐻𝑡2 ∆𝐿 = 𝐾𝑠 ∆𝐿
 where we assume that the boundary may carry a surface current whose
component normal to the plane of the closed path. Thus
𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡2 = 𝐾𝑠
 The directions are specified more exactly by using the cross
product to identify the tangential components,
(𝑯𝟏 −𝑯𝟐 ) × 𝒂𝒏𝟏𝟐 = 𝑲𝒔
 where 𝑎𝑛12 is the unit vector at the boundary directed from region 1 to region
2
 An equivalent formula in terms of the vector
tangential components may be more convenient for finding 𝐻 :
𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡2 = 𝑎𝑛12 × 𝐾𝑠
 For tangential 𝐵, we have
𝐵𝑡1 𝐵𝑡2
− = 𝐾𝑠
𝜇1 𝜇2
 The boundary condition on the tangential component of
the magnetization for linear materials is therefore,
𝑥𝑚2
𝑀𝑡2 = 𝑀𝑡1 − 𝑥𝑚2 𝐾𝑠
𝑥𝑚1
 The last three boundary conditions on the tangential components are
much simpler, of course, if the surface current density is zero.
 At a boundary between
two magnetic regions, show that
tan 𝑎1 tan 𝑎2 = 𝜇𝑟1 𝜇𝑟2
where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are defined as shown
in figure. Assume that the surface
current density is zero at the
boundary and that both regions
are isotropic

Solution
The magnetic material boundary conditions are
𝐵𝑛1 = 𝐵𝑛2 (𝐼)
and
𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡2 = 𝐾𝑠 (𝐼𝐼)
 but the surface current density at the boundary is
equal zero, then the two equation will be
𝐵𝑛1 = 𝐵𝑛2 (𝐼𝐼𝐼)
 and
𝐻𝑡1 = 𝐻𝑡2 (𝐼𝑉)
 Now, from the given figure we can obtain
𝐵𝑛1 = 𝐵1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎1
𝐵𝑛2 = 𝐵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎2
𝐻𝑡1 = 𝐻1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎1
𝐻𝑡2 = 𝐻2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎2
 and
 Substituting (i) and (ii) into (III) and (iii) and (iv) into (IV), we obtain
tan 𝑎1 𝜇1 𝜇𝑟1
= =
tan 𝑎2 𝜇2 𝜇𝑟2
 Region 1 where 𝑍 > 0 has 𝜇1 = 4 𝜇𝐻/𝑚, while 𝜇2 = 7 𝜇𝐻/𝑚 in
the region 2 wherever 𝑍 < 0. Moreover let 𝐾𝑠 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒂𝒙 𝑨/𝒎 on
the surface 𝑍 = 0. The magnetic flux density in the region 1
is given by 𝑩𝟏 = 𝟐𝑎𝑥 − 𝟑𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑚𝑇 , find the value of the
magnetic flux density in region 2?

 Solution:
 The normal component of 𝑩𝟏 is
𝑩𝑛𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 . 𝒂𝒏𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝟏𝟐
= 𝟐𝑎𝑥 − 𝟑𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 . −𝑎𝑧 (−𝑎𝑧 ) = 𝑎𝑧 𝑚𝑇
 Thus
𝑩𝑛𝟏 = 𝑩𝑛𝟐 = 𝑎𝑧 𝑚𝑇
 We next determine the tangential component:
𝑩𝒕𝟏 = 𝑩𝟏 − 𝑩𝑛𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑎𝑥 − 𝟑𝑎𝑦 𝒎𝑻
 and

𝐵𝑡1 𝟐 𝑎𝑥 − 𝟑𝑎𝑦 ∗ 10−3

𝑯𝒕1 = = −6
= 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑎𝑥 − 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑎𝑦 𝑨/𝒎
𝜇1 4 ∗ 10
 but,
𝑯𝒕𝟏 − 𝑯𝒕𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏𝟐 × 𝑲𝒔
thus,
𝑯𝒕2 = 𝑯𝒕𝟏 − 𝐾𝑠 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑎𝑥 − 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑎𝑦 − −𝑎𝑧 × 80𝑎𝑥
= 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑎𝑥 − 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑎𝑦 + 80𝑎𝑦 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑎𝑥 − 670𝑎𝑦 𝐴/𝑚
 and

𝑩𝒕2 = 𝜇2 𝐻𝑡2 = 7 ∗ 10−6 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑎𝑥 − 670𝑎𝑦 = 3.5𝑎𝑥 − 4.69𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑇

 Therefore,
𝑩2 = 𝑩𝑛 𝟐 + 𝑩𝒕𝟐 = 3.5𝑎𝑥 − 4.69𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑚𝑇