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CHAPTER-7
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read
by an observer or by an instrument.
For example, a mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and
contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts
temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to
be calibrated against known standards.

In everyday life, sensors are used everywhere such as touch sensitive mobile phones, laptop’s touch
pad, touch controller light, etc. People use so many applications of sensors in their everyday lifestyle
that even they are not aware about it. Examples of such applications are in the field of medicine,
machines, cars, aerospace, robotics and manufacturing plants. The sensitivity of the sensors is the
change of sensor’s output when the measured quantity changes. For example, the output increases 1
volt when the temperature in the thermocouple junction increases 1°C. The sensitivity of the
thermocouple element is 1 volt/°C. To measure very small charges, the sensors should have very high
sensitivity.

A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic,

or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to another (generally electrical or
mechanical) for various measurement purposes including measurement or information transfer (for
example, pressure sensors).

The term transducer is commonly used in two senses; the sensor, used to detect a parameter in one
form and report it in another (usually an electrical or digital signal), and the audio loudspeaker, which
converts electrical voltage variations representing music or speech to mechanical cone vibration and
hence vibrates air molecules creating sound.

Basic Requirements of a Transducer

The main objective of a transducer is to react only for the measurement under specified limits for which
it is designed. It is, therefore, necessary to know the relationship between the input and output
quantities and it should be fixed. A transducer should have the following basic requirements:
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1. Linearity
Its input vs output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these characteristics in
balanced way.

2. Ruggedness
A transducer should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangements must be
provided with it for overload protection.

3. Repeatability
The device should reproduce the same output signal when the same input signal is applied again and
again under unchanged environmental conditions, e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.

4. High Reliability and Stability

The transducer should give minimum error in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and
other various changes in surroundings.

5. High Output Signal Quality

The quality of output signal should be good, i.e., the ratio of the signal to the noise should be high and
the amplitude of the output signal should be enough.

6. No Hysteresis
It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is varied from its low value to
high value and vice versa.

7. Residual Reformation

There should not be any deformation on removal of input signal after long period of use.

Selection of Transducer

Following are the factors which need to be considered while selecting a transducer:

 High input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid loading effect.

 Good resolution over is entire selected range.

 Highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.

 Preferably small in size.

 High degree of accuracy and repeatability.

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 Selected transducer must be free from errors

EXPECTED POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Define Sensor and explain it with some examples.

2. What is Transducer? Explain briefly with some examples.
3. What are the basic requirements of transducer? Explain each term briefly.
4. What are the factors need to be considered to select a transducer?

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The classification of transducers may be explained as follows:

Based on the physical phenomenon:
1. Primary Transducer
2. Secondary Transducer

On the basis of application transducer may be classified as primary and secondary transducer.
When the input signal is directly sense by the transducer, the non-electrical energy is converted
into electrical energy directly then, this type of transducer is known as primary transducer. For
example thermistor, senses the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with
the change in temperature.

When the input signal is first sensed by some sensor or detector, then its output signal is feed
to the other instrument as an input. The output of this instrument is given as the input of
transducer for converting into electrical energy. This type of transducer is in secondary
transducer classification. For example in the case of pressure measurement, we use bourdon
tube to convert pressure into displacement, then the pressure is converter into output voltage
with the help of LVDT. Here the secondary transducer is LVDT. We will discuss the bourdon tube
and LVDT in this chapter.

Based on the power type

1. Active transducer
2. Passive transducer

Active transducer does not require any auxiliary power source to produce their output. It is also
called self generating type transducer.

Active and Passive Transducers

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Active transducer is also known as self generating type transducer. It develops their own
voltage or current from the physical phenomenon being measured. Active transducers generate
electric current or voltage directly in response to environmental stimulation. Examples of active
transducers are thermocouples and piezoelectric accelerometers. Thermocouples produce a
voltage related to a temperature of two metals and if the two junctions are at different
temperatures, electricity is generated.

Passive transducers are also known as externally powered transducers. It derives the power
required for energy conversion from an external power source. Passive transducers produce a
change in some passive electrical quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as
result of stimulation. These usually require additional electrical energy for excitation. A simple
example of a passive transducer is a device containing a length of wire and a moving contact
touching the wire. The position of the contact determines the effective length of the wire,
varying the resistance of the length of wire. Other examples of passive transducers are strain
gauges, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and thermistors.

Based on the type of output

1. Analog transducer
2. Digital transducer

Based on the electrical phenomenon

1. Resistive transducer
2. Capacitive transducer
3. Inductive transducer
4. Photoelectric transducer
5. Photovoltaic transducer

Based on the non-electrical phenomenon

1. Linear displacement
2. Rotary displacement

Based on the transduction phenomenon,

1. Transducer
2. Inverse transducer.