APPLIED BASIC ENGINEERING PHYSICS

A summarized abstract From South Sudan Certificate of Secondary Education Physics 4 (New Syllabus)

Authored by:

ENG. PETER MANOON MAJANGDIT

---------
SENIOR PHYSICS TEACHER

ST. LAWRENCE ACADEMY SECONDARY SCHOOL

JUBA, SOUTH SUDAN

3rd Edition
September, 2024

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S/N Topic Subtopic Page Range

1 About this extract 1. Foreword 3

2. About the Author

2 Circular Motion 1. Introduction

2. Terms used to describe circular motion
3. Horizontal circular motion
4. Applications of uniform horizontal circular motion
5. Vertical circular motion
6. Applications of vertical circular motion

3 Newton’s Law of 1. Introduction

Universal 2. Acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface.
Gravitation 3. Variation of the acceleration due to gravity with
altitude.
4. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
5. Satellites

4 Radiology 1. Cathode Rays

2. Cathode Rays Oscilloscope
3. X-Rays

Power Engineering 1. Power production & transmission

2. Power installation

5 Electromagnetism 1. Magnetic effect of an electric current

2. Electromagnetic induction

6 Radioactivity & 1. Introduction

Nuclear Energy 2. Half-life
3. Types & properties of radioactive radiations
4. Radioactive decay
5. Nuclear Reactions
6. Applications of radioactivity
7. Health Hazards of radioactivity
8. Safety precautions
7 Electronics 1. Definition of electronics
2. Conductors, semi-conductors and insulators
3. Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors
4. Doping in semi-conductors
5. Electronic components
6. Transistors

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 2

 7. Operational amplifier

FOREWORD
APPLIED BASIC ENGINEERING PHYSICS is a summarized extract that covers essential areas of oscillatory
motion, radiology, electromagnetism, power generation, connections & transmission systems among others for the
students of high schools preparing for South Sudan Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations.
It also covers examinable revision questions, usually at the end of each unit. It’s precisely written in simplified and
understandable language for the beneficiaries.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
This precise extract is prepared and written by Eng. Peter Manoon Majangdit. The author is a Former Senior
Physics Teacher at Development Secondary School – Juba, South Sudan a position he held since May 2021 to
December 2023. He currently teaches Physics, Basic Mathematics and Additional (Advanced) Mathematics at
St. Lawrence Academy Secondary School – Juba, South Sudan.
He is a graduate of Information Technology Management from Irish’s Alison University, class of
2019 and also a FINALIST of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering from the
University of Juba’s School of Applied & Industrial Sciences at the time of writing this
edition.
With over a decade of teaching experience in a number of schools, the author devoted much of
his energy and time to prepare this work with much emphasis on real-life applications of the
underlying topics.

For any inquiries,

Reach out to him via his email: petermanoonmajangditkuch88@gmail.com or via mobile telephone contacts:
+211980060891/+211912233316/+211924708448(WhatsApp)

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 3

 CHAPTER 1: CIRCULAR MOTION
A circular motion is a motion of a body in a circular path.

TYPES OF CIRCULAR MOTION

 Uniform Circular Motion: This is the motion of the body in a circular path at a constant speed.
 Non – Uniform Circular Motion: This is the motion of a body in a circular path at a changing speed.

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE CIRCULAR MOTION

Consider a particle moving in a circular path as shown below

I. Angular Displacement,θ
This is the angle swept through by the radius joining the particle to the centre of the circle. It’s measured in
radians.
arc length s
It’s given by θ= =
radius of the cricle r
NB: Radian is angle of sector of a circle whose arc length equals the radius of the circle.
s °
For a circle of radius, circumference¿ 2 π r 2 and in one revolution, θ= =360 ,
r
2 πr °
Therefore, θ= =360 ,
r
°
∴ 2 π rads=360
° °
360 180
∴ 1 rad= =
2π π

Or 360° =2 π

° 2π π
∴1 = °
rads= °
360 180

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 4

Therefore,
°
180
1. degree= × angle∈radians
π
π
2. radian= °
× angle∈degree
180

Example

The radius of a particle moving a circular path sweeps through an angle of 60° at the centre of the circle. Calculate
the angular displacement of the particle in radians.
Solution
From
π π ° π
θ= × angle∈degres= × 60 = radians
180
°
180
°
3

II. Angular Velocity, ω

Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement.
angular displacement θ
Angular velocity ,ω= =
time t

It’s measured in radian per second, rad/s.

III. Linear displacement, s
This is the distance covered in a specified direction. It’s measured in metres, m.
IV. Linear Velocity, V
This is the rate of change of linear displacement.
linear displacement s
Linear velocity= =
time t

It’s measured in metre per second, m/s.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEEN ω & f

For one complete cycle, θ=360°=2 π rads and time takent=T ( periodic),

θ 2π
Hence, ω= t = T

1
But since frequency, f = T ,

∴ Angular Velocity , ω=2 πf

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 5

NB:
▪ Period is the time taken to complete one oscillation. It’s measured in seconds.
1
▪ Frequency is the number of revolution covered per second. It’s given by f = and measured in hertz, Hz.
T

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEEN θ & v

Arc length, s=r θ …………………………………………………………………………. (1)

Dividing both sides of equation 1 above by t, we obtained:
s rθ
= ……………………………….…………………………………………………… (2)
t t
s particle∧θ
But =v , ( linear velocity ) of the rotating =ω ,(Angular Velocity) of the particle.
t t

∴ linear speed , v =radius , r × angular velocity , ω

∴ V =r ω

EXAMPLE

The radius of a circle is 6m. Calculate the length of the arc of the circle, if the angle subtended by the arc at the
centre is:
a. 180°
b. 60°

Solution
π °
a. Given arc length, s=rθ=6 × °
× 60 =18.85 m
180
π °
b. Arc length, s=rθ=6 × °
× 60 =6.28 m
180
EXERCISE
1. A particle revolves at 2Hz in a circle of radius 2 m. Calculate its:
a. Angular speed
b. Linear velocity
2. A fly wheel is rotating at 10 revolutions in every 2 seconds. Calculate its angular velocity.
3. Calculate the angular velocity of the minute hand of a wrist watches.
4. The car wheel of radius rotates at the frequency of 20 Hz. Calculate the linear velocity of the car.
5. The bicycle wheel makes 300 revolutions per minutes. Calculate the angular velocity of the wheel.
6. Calculate the angular velocity of the earth when it’s rotating about its own axis. (Time period for the Earth
about its own axis = 24 hours).

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 6

 7. A ball tied to a string is rotated at uniform speed in a circle of radius 10cm. It takes 1.5 s to describe an arc
of length of 6 cm. Calculate its:
a. Linear speed.
b. Angular speed.
c. Periodic time.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Centripetal force is the force which acts towards the centre of a circle keeping a body in a circular path.
Examples of a centripetal force
I. Movement of planets around the sun. The planets are kept revolving around the sun by the centripetal
force.
II. Piece of a stone tied to one end of the string and whirled vertically or horizontally. The centripetal path
is provided by the tension of the string.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE

a) Mass, m
The centripetal force is directly proportional to the mass of the body undergoing the circular motion, i.e. F α m
b) Angular velocity, ω

The centripetal force is directly proportional to the square of the angular velocity of the body, i.e. F α ω2

c) Radius, r
The centripetal force is directly proportional to the radius of the circle traced, i.e. F α r
2
∴ F α mω r
2
F=kmω r∧if k=1 , then;
2
F=mω r

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 7

 v
But v=rω , → ω= ,
r

()
2
v
f =m .r
r
2
mv
f=
r
CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
This is the acceleration experienced by a body undergoing circular motion and is directed towards the centre of the
circle.
2
mv
From the Newton’s 2 law of motion, f =ma , but the centripetal force f =
nd
r
2
mv
→ ma=
r
2
v
∴ a= , but also v=rω
r
2 2
r ω
a=
r
2
a=ω r
It is measured in m/s2.
EXAMPLES
1. A 5kg mass moves at a uniform speed of 18 m/s in a circular path of radius 0.5 m. Calculate the centripetal
force acting on the mass,
Solution
2
mv
f=
r
2
5× 18
¿
0.5
¿ 3240 N
2. A car of mass 1200 kg has to make a circular turn of radius 30 m. If it’s moving at a uniform speed of 10
m/s, calculate the centripetal force acting on the body.
Solution
2
mv
f=
r
2
1200× 10
¿
30
¿ 4000 N
3. A satellite orbits the earth once every 4 hrs. Calculate the:
a) Angular velocity of the satellite.
b) Centripetal acceleration of the satellite, if the radius of the satellite’s orbit is 1200 km.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 8

 c) Linear speed of the satellite
Solution
θ 2π −4
a) ω= = =4.4 × 10 rad /s
t 4 ×3600
2
b) a=ω 2 r =( 4.4 × 10− 4 rad /s ) × ( 1200000 )=0.232 m s−2
c) v=rω=( 1200000 ) × 4.4 ×10−4=528 m s−1
4. A particle of mass 6 kg revolves at 2 Hz in a circular path of radius 2 m, Calculate its:
a) Linear speed
Solution
¿ v=rω
¿ 2 πrf =2 π × 2× 2
¿ 25.14 m/ s

b) Centripetal acceleration
Solution
2
v
¿ a=
r

( 25.14 )2
¿
2
−2
¿ 316 m s
c) Angular velocity
Solution
v
¿ ω=
r
25.14
¿
2
¿ 12.57 rad / s
d) Centripetal force
Solution
2
mv
¿f=
r
2
6 ×(25.12)
¿
2
¿ 1896.06 N
5. An artificial earth satellite of mass 8000 kg describes a circular orbit close to the earth’s surface in 90
minutes. Calculate the acceleration of the satellite and the centripetal force, if the radius of the earth is
6400 km.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 9

 Solution
2
v θ 2π −3 −1
a) ¿ a= =ω2 r , but ω= = =1.16 ×10 rad s
r t 90× 60
−3 2
→ a=ω r=( 1.16 × 10 ) ×6400000
2

−2
¿ 8.665 m s

b) ¿ F=mω2 r
2
→ F=8000× ( 8.665 ) ×6400000

¿ 68894.7 N

APPLICATIONS OF UNIFORM HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR MOTION

1. A car negotiating a circular path on a leveled horizontal road.

When a car is going round a circular path on a horizontal road, the centripetal force required for circular
motion is provided by the frictional force, f between the tyres and the road.
2
mv
Centripetal force, f = ,
r

v max=
√ fr
m
, where :

v max−maximum safe speed that keeps the motorist ¿ skidding off the road ,

m −mass of the body

r −radius of the circular path taken by the car.
f −¿ Centripetal force

2. Banked tracks
Banking a track is a phenomenon in which the outer edge of the road is raised above the inner side so that the
track is sloping towards the centre of the curve.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 10

 Reaction force, R

RCosθ

Mg
Fig. : Car on a banked road

The above figure shows part of the normal reaction force acting towards the centre of the circle providing the
required centripetal force for a car negotiating a turn.
θ−Banking angle

RCosθ – Horizontal component of normal reaction force which provides the necessary centripetal force for the
car on the banked road.

3. Leaning inward of a cyclist

Fig. A cyclist leans inwards when going round a curved track

A cyclist going round a curve leans inwards to provide a centripetal force so as to go along the curved track.
Just as a car on banked track, part of reaction force provides the required force acting towards the centre of the
track.
4. An aircraft taking a circular turn.
When an aircraft takes a turn in horizontal plane, it must make a correct banking angle in mid-air in order to
successfully the curved path.
R

Centripetal
force

mg

Fig. An aircraft tilted inwards while taking a circular turn

5. Conical Pendulum

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 11

 Consider a simple pendulum held in hand with the bob of the pendulum hanging freely. Suppose it is whirled
in horizontal circle as shown below;

θ
T

Bob r

mg

If the speed of the bob is increased gradually, the radius of the circle in which the bob revolves also increases.
At any stage, part of the tension T developed in the string provides the required centripetal force for the bob to
execute circular motion.
If the speed of the bob is increased gradually, at a certain maximum value, the string may break. If the string
breaks, then the tension developed in the string is not able to provide required centripetal force. At this critical
2
mv
stage, the string becomes horizontal and the maximum tension in the string, T =
r

6. Centrifuge
This is a device that separates liquids of different densities or solids suspended in liquids.

 The mixture is poured into a tube in the centrifuge, which is then rotated at a high speed in a horizontal
circle, either mechanically or with the help of a motor.
 The tube is initially in the vertical position and takes up the horizontal position once the centrifuge starts
operating.
 The less dense matter moves inwards towards the centre of rotation.
 On stopping the rotation, the tubes returns to the vertical position with less dense matter at the top.
It is worthwhile to note that though the angular velocity of each part of the tube is the same, the linear speeds
are different due to different radii for matters of different densities (masses).
This instrument is being used to separate cream from milk as well as blood cells from blood fluids.
 In a cream separator, when the milk is churned rapidly, cream being lighter comes towards the top of the
tube and can be removed.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 12

  In the same manner when blood is rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge, red blood cells and the blood
fluid are separated.
 Viruses and germs in the blood fluid can be separated in a similar manner. Very high speed centrifuges
called ultra-centrifuges have been developed which can be rotated at more than a million rotations per
minute and are extremely useful in medical researches.

MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE

Consider a ball whirled in a vertical circle by applying a tension through the string tied to it.

C
VC

mg
VB
TC

r
TB B
TA

A vA
mg

At Position A, the tension in the string, T A provides the centripetal force as well as the force to balance the weight,
mg of the ball.
2
mvA
Therefore, tension at A, T A= +mg where v A is the speed of the ball at A and r is the radius of the circle.
r

 At B, the tension in the string, T A provides the centripetal force.

2
m vB
→ T B= , where v B is the speed of the ball at point B.
r

 At the top most point C, the tension in the string, T C and the force of gravity, mg acting on the ball both
provides the centripetal force.
2
m vC
→ T C= −mg , where v C is the speed of the ball at point C.
r
2
m vC
 As long as the centripetal force, is greater than or equal to mg, the ball will stay in a circular path at
r
C and the string will remain taut in this position.
2
m vC
 If =mg, hence v C =√ gr
r

This speed, v C is called the “Critical speed”, for the ball to stay in a circular path at C.

 If the speed at C is less than √ gr the string will get slack and the ball won’t reach the topmost position of
the circle.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 13

  Tension is least at C and the greatest at A and is string is most likely to break at point A.

APPLICATIONS OF MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE

1. In a circus, an acrobat rides a motorcycle and makes a loop along a circular track in a vertical plane as
shown below.

A D
B

The critical speed at the topmost point C is√ gr . This is the motorcycle will stay in track as long as the centripetal
2
mv
force ≥ mg the total weight of the motorcycle & acrobat.
r
2. A bucket of water can be swung round in a vertical circle without spilling water. The water in the bucket will
stay in the track as long as the centripetal force is greater than or equal to the total weight of water and the
bucket.
3. Wet clothes are rotated in a cylindrical drum containing a lot of perforations. Initially the wet clothes move in a
circular motion along with the drum. As the speed of the drum increases, the adhesive force of the water in the
clothes ‘gives up’ and water breaks off from the clothes and flies off through the perforations.

EXAMPLE

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 14

 Calculate the minimum speed with which the ball, suspended by a string of length, l (See the figure below),
should be projected from point A, so that it is just able to reach the topmost point in the circle.

Solution
Radius of the circle, r = length of the string, l
For circular motion, the critical speed at C is given by, V c = √ gr
By the law of conservation of energy, kinetic energy at A should be equal to the sum of the kinetic energy and the
gravitational potential energy at C, i.e. K . E A= ( K . E+G . P . E )C
1 2 1 2
m v A= mv c +mgh
2 2
Substituting v 2c =gr ∧h=2r
1 2 1
∴ m v A = m ( gr )+ mg ( 2 r )
2 2
1 2 1
∴ m v A = mgr +2 mgr
2 2
2
∴ v A =gr +4 gr
∴ V A =√ 5 gr

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following statements:
(a) A cyclist going round a curve leans inwards towards the centre.
(b) Curved tracks are usually banked.
(c) A pilot who is not fastened to the seat in an aircraft can “loop the loop” without falling downwards at the
top of the circular loop.
2. Describe the action of the centrifuge.
3. A car of mass 1000 kg is negotiating a circular path of radius 20 m on a level horizontal road, where the
frictional force between the tyres and the road is 7200 N. Calculate the maximum speed with which the motorist
can travel so as not to skid.
4. A metal ball of mass 10 kg is rotated horizontally by means of a rope 4 m long. If the linear speed is 20 m/s, find
the force that will snap the rope.
5. A bus of mass 1.2 tons is moving a circular section of a bridge of radius 25 m with a speed of 12m/s. Calculate
the centripetal force that will enables the bus not skid over the bridge.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 15

6. An artificial earth satellite of mass 8000 kg describes a circular orbit close to the earth’s surface in 90 minutes.
Calculate the acceleration of the satellite and centripetal force, if the radius of the earth is 6400 km.

CHAPTER 2: NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

In uniform circular motion, we learnt that an object moving in a circular path experiences a centripetal force
towards the centre of the path.
We also found out that the force is directly proportional to the mass of the object, square of its linear velocity and
inversely proportional to the radius.

Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that “any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a
force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely to the square of the distance
between them”.
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r as shown below.

m1 m2
F

The separation distance r, is from the centres of masses of the two objects.
According to Newton’s Universal law of gravitation, the force of attraction existing between two bodies is
expressed mathematically as follows;

m1 m2
Fα 2
r

m1 m2
∴ F=G 2
r

Where G is called universal gravitational constant¿ 6.67 ×10−11 N m2 /kg 2.

This is the mathematical expression of the Newton’s universal law of gravitation.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 16

This law applies to small objects, planets etc.

EXAMPLES
1. Determine the force of gravitational attraction between a student of mass 60 kg and the earth if the student is
standing on the earth surface at a distance of 6.4 × 106 m from the centre of the earth.
( mass of the earth, M E =5.98 ×1024 kg ,G=6.67 ×10−11 N m2 /kg 2)
Solution
m1 m2 −11
6.67 ×10 ×60 ×5.98 ×10
24
2
F=G 2
= 6 2
=5.84 ×10 N
r (6.4 ×10 )
2. Athil is 28 kg and is standing 1.2 m away from Awien. What is the mass of Awien if the gravitational force of
attraction of 3.2 ×10−8 N is acting on each of them? ( Assume G=6.67 ×10−11 N m2 /kg 2)
Solution
m1 m2
From F=G 2 ,
r
2 −8 2
fr 3.2× 10 × ( 1.2 )
m 2= = =24.66 kg
G m1 6.67 ×10−11 × 28
3. What is the separation distance between a stone block 20 kg and another of mass 35 kg if the gravitational force
of attraction of 3.6 ×10−9 N acts between them?
Solution
m 1 m2
From F=G 2
r

From r = G
√ m1 m2
f
=3.6 m

ASSIGNMENT
4. What is the gravitational force of attraction between the earth and a car of mass 1500 kg resting on the
surface of the earth? ( Assume M E =5.98 ×10 kg ,G=6.67 ×10 N m /kg )ANS: 1.46 ×10 4 N
24 −11 2 2

5. A gravitational force of attraction of 4.4 ×10−10 N exists between a cow of mass 80 kg and a goat when
both are 18 m apart. What is the mass of the goat? ANS: 26.7 kg
6. What is the separation distance between of mass 85 kg and woman of mass 95 kg if the gravitational force
of attraction between them is2.58 ×10−7 N ? ANS: 1.45 m
7. Determine the earth’s gravitational force of attraction on a satellite of mass 500 kg at a 50 km distance
above the surface of the earth. ANS: 61,515 N

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY AT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH

Consider a body of mass, m on the surface of the earth as shown in the figure below. The distance from the centre of the
earth is R (radius of the earth).

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 17

 mg
R

Earth

Mm
The gravitational force experienced by the body is F=G 2
, where M is the earth’s mass and m is the body’s
R
mass.
From Newton’s 2nd law of motion F=mg ,
Equating these two forces,
Mm
G 2
=mg
R
GM
g= 2 ………………………………………………………………………………………… (1)
R

VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY WITH ALTITUDE

Let P be a point on the surface of the earth and Q be a point at an altitude h. Let the mass of the
earth be M and radius of the earth be R. Consider the earth as a spherical body

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 18

 P

Let the body be placed at Q at a height h from the surface of the earth. The gravitational force of attraction acting
between the body of mass, m at altitude h and the earth is given by:
GMm
F= 2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………. (2)
(R+ h)

This force equals the weight of the body at the altitude. Thus;

' GMm
mg =
( R+ h )2

' GM
g=
( )
2
2 h
R 1+
R

[( ) ]
GM 1
g=
R2 h 2
……………………………….. (3)
1+
R

Substitute (1) into (3)

(( ) )
1
g' =g 2
h
1+
R

( )
−2
' h
g =g 1+ …………………………………………. (4)
R

From binomial theorem, (1+ x )−n ≅ ( 1−nx ) for x ≪ 1

( ) ≅ (1−2 Rh ) , for hR ≪ 1
−2
h
Similarly, 1+
R

Therefore,

'
g =g 1− ( 2h
R )
ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 19
 …………………………………...(5)

This is an expression for the acceleration due to gravity at an altitude h.

From the above expression, it can clearly be observed that the value of the acceleration due to gravity decreases
with increase in the height above the surface of the earth (altitude).

VARIATION OF THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY WITH THE DEPTH, d

When a body is at a point d inside the earth surface, the gravitational force is only due to the inner solid sphere
radius, R−d .

The earth is considered to be consists of a small solid sphere on which the body below the earth’s surface is
apparently resting. With an assumption that the earth is spherical in shape and with uniform density, the density of
the entire earth and that of the small sphere within are taken to be the same.

mass of the object , M

From the density of any object, ρ=
volume of the object , V
mass of the earth M
Therefore, density of the earth ρ= …………………………….. (6)
volume of the earth ,V
4 3
But since the earth is assumed to be spherical in shape, its volume is thus given by V = π R
3
M
Hence , density of the earth ρ=
4 ……………………… (7)
π R3
3
4 3
Therefore the mass of earth is given by M = π R ρ ………………………….……… (8)
3
mass of the small sphere , ms
Similarly, density of the small solid sphere is ρ= ……………… (9)
volume of the small sphere , V
4 3
But since the volume of small solid sphere is given by V = π (R−d )
3
ms
Hence , density of the small sphere ρ=
4 3 ……………………… (10)
π (R−d)
3

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 20

 4 3
Therefore the mass of small solid sphere is given by m s = π (R−d ) ρ ………………….……… (11)
3
Divide equation (11) by (8)
4
π (R−d )3 ρ
ms 3
=
M 4
π R3 ρ
3
ms (R−d)3
= 3
………………………… (12)
M R
3
(R−d)
∴ ms=M ……………………… (13)
R3
The gravitational force of attraction exists between the body and the small solid sphere and is given by

Gm ms
F= ………………………… (14)
¿¿
This force equals the weight of the body at depth, d below the earth’s surface.
Gm ms
Hence, m g '' =
¿¿
G ms
''
g = …………………………….. (15)
¿¿
Substitute (13) into (15)

'' G
g =
¿¿
'' GM
g = 2 ¿
R
GM (R−d )
g' ' = 2
R R [ ]
………………………………….. (16)
Substitute (1) into (16)

g' ' =g [
(R−d)
R ]
R d
g' ' =g −
R R[ ]
''
∴ g =g 1− ( dR )
……………………….. (17)

This is an expression of the gravitational acceleration that acts on body beneath the earth’s surface.
From the above, the value of gravitational acceleration decreases with the increase of depth, d.
The following graph shows the variation of acceleration due to gravity against the distance to the centre of the
earth (depth) and distance above the earth’s surface (altitude).

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 21

 g

Inside Outside
the the
earth earth

R r

Examples
1. A body of mass m is 500 km above the surface of the earth. If the gravitational field strength on the earth is
10 m/s2, and the earth’s radius is 6400 km, determine the acceleration due gravity at this point.
Solution
' 2h
¿ g =g(1− )
R

'
g =10 1−
( 2× 500× 1000
6.4 ×10
6 )
=8.4375 ms
−2

2. An object of mass m is 300 km below the surface of the earth. If the gravitational field strength on the
earth’s surface is 10 m/s2, and the earth’s radius is 6400 km, determine the acceleration due gravity at this
point.
Solution
' d
¿ g =g(1− )
R

g' =10 1− ( 300 km

6400 km )
=9.53125 ms−2

3. If the gravitational acceleration acting on the body above the surface of the earth is found to be 3.4 ms−2, find the
distance of the body from the surface of the earth. ( Take g=9.8 ms−2∧R=6378 km )

Solution
' d
¿ g =g(1− )
R
'
R(g−g )
d= '
=12,005.6 km
g

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 22

CHAPTER 3: KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION
Planetary motion is the motion of planets in the solar system.
1ST LAW: ALSO KNOWN AS LAW OF ORBIT.
It states that “all planets move in elliptical path with the sun at one of the foci.”

An eclipse is a special curve in which the sum of the two distances from every point on the curve to two other
points is a constant. The two other points (represented the two tacks in the ellipse) are known as the foci of the
ellipse.
a + b = constant
The sun is not at the centre of the ellipse, but is at one focus (generally there is nothing at the other focus of the
ellipse). The sum of distances of any planet from two foci is constant. Every planet follows the elliptical path
(orbit) meaning that planet – sun distance is changing as the planet goes around its orbit.
The point at which the planet is close to the sun is “perihelion” and the point at which the planet is further from
the sun is “aphelion”.

2ND LAW: ALSO KNOWN AS KNOWN LAW OF AREAS

It states that “a line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet
travels around the eclipse”.
All the sections have the same area and are swept out at equal time by the line joining the centres of the planet and
the sun.

3RD LAW: ALSO KNOWN AS “LAW OF PERIODS”

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 23

It states that “the square of the orbital period of any planet is directly proportional to the cube of the average
distance from the planet sun”.

2 3
T αR
2
T
∴ 3
=Constant
R
2 2
T 1 T 2
Thus 3
= 3
R 1 R 2

This means that the period for a planet to orbit the sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit. For instance
Mercury, the innermost planet takes only 88 days to orbit the sun but the outermost planet (Pluto) takes 248 years
to the same.

PROOF OF KEPLER’S 3RD LAW

2
m v
The centripetal force acts on the planet towards the sun as the centre, f c = p .
r
This is equal to the gravitational force of attraction between the sun and the planet.
2
mp v G Ms M p
= 2
r r

2 G Ms 1 2 πr
V = , but V =2 πrf , where f = ; V =
r T T

( )
2 πr
2
G Ms
=
T r

4 π r G Ms
2 2

2
=
T r

Make T as the subject,

2 2
T 4π
3
=
r G Ms
2 2
4π T
Since is constant, then 3 =constant hence proven.
G Ms r

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 24

SATELLITES
A body moving in an orbit around another bigger body is called a satellite. Therefore, a satellite is a body that
moves around a planet.

Fig. Communication Satellite

TYPES OF SATELLITES
 Natural Satellites
 Artificial Satellites

Natural Satellites
These are satellites that orbit the planet by nature.
For example, moon is the natural satellite for the earth. The earth is a satellite for the sun.

Artificial Satellites
These are satellites that are launched by man to orbit the desired planets. They’re carried by rockets to the
predetermined height, a few hundreds kilometres above the surface of the earth.
At this height, the air is at rarefied state and hence air friction is negligible.
After reaching the predetermined height, the satellite is given very high horizontal velocity so that it remains
moving in a nearly circular orbit.

ESCAPE VELOCITY AND ORBITAL VELOCITY

ESCAPE VELOCITY, VE
When a body is thrown vertically upwards, it will return to the earth’s surface after attaining certain height. If the
velocity of projection is increased, the height attained by the body becomes greater and then the body returns to
the earth.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 25

This is due to the gravitational force of attraction of the earth. If the body is to be projected with a particular
greater velocity, the body escapes from the gravitational pull so that it never returns to the earth.
This velocity of projection is called “escape velocity”, and it is different for different planets. The minimum
velocity required to project a body in upward direction from the surface of the earth so that it escapes from the
earth’s gravitational pull/influence is called “escape velocity”.

AN EXPRESSION FOR ESCAPE VELOCITY, VE:

Consider a body of mass m which is to be projected with escape velocity Ve from the surface of the
Earth. If the body is placed on the surface of the earth, then

The weight of the body = mg …………………………………………………………………………… (1)

Mm
Let M be mass of the earth and R its radius. According to the Newton’s law of gravitation, F=G
R

The gravitational force acting on the body in the earth’s atmosphere is also equal to the weight if the body
Mm
G =mg
R
2
GM =R g ………………………………………………………………………………………………. (2)
1 2
Since V e is the escape velocity given to the body, the given kinetic energy K . E= m V e ………..…… (3)
2

This kinetic energy is converted into work done to escape the body from gravitational pull. If the body moves
distance dR in a vertical direction against the force F, then;
Work =force ×distance
W =FdR
GMm
¿ 2
dR
R

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 26

 R
GMm
¿∫ 2
dR
0 R
1 2 GMm
mV e =
2 R

V e=
√ 2GM
R
= √ 2 gR

This is an expression for escape velocity.

ORBITAL VELOCITY, VO
In order to put a satellite into the orbit around the earth, the satellite must be projected to the particular height and
then it must be turned in a direction perpendicular to the line from the centre of the earth so that it moves in an
orbit around the earth.
Therefore, the minimum velocity required to maintain the satellite along its orbit around the earth is what is
referred to as “orbital velocity”.

AN EXPRESSION FOR THE ORBITAL VELOCITY

As learnt in the recent topic, any object undergoing a circular motion possess centripetal force that keeps it on
track. This therefore means that the centripetal force keeps the satellites towards the planet. This force equals the
weight of the planet.

F c =W p
2
Mp V o
=M p
r
2
Vo
g =g
r

∴ V o= √ gr

This is the expression for the orbital velocity.

Where r is the distance of the satellite from the planet.

EXAMPLES
1. A communication satellite of mass 300 kg orbits the earth at a height of 35 km. Given
24 −11 2 −2
m E=5.98 ×10 kg ,G=6.67 × 10 N m kg , r E=¿6.4 ×10 m ¿. Find:
6

a) How far the satellite is from the centre of the earth

Solution
Distance from the centre of the earth¿ r E−h=6.4 × 106−3.5 ×10 4=6365 km

b) The earth’s force attraction onto the satellite

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 27

 Solution
−11 24
GMm 6.67 × 10 ×5.98 ×10 ×300
F= 2 = 2
=2890 N
R ( 6.4 ×106 +3.5 ×10 4 )
2. Calculate the orbital speed & orbital energy of a rocket of mass 4000 kg and a radius of 7600 km above the
centre of the earth.
Solution
√
a) Orbital speed , V 0=√ gr= 10 × ( ( 7.6 × 106 ) + ( 6.4 ×106 ) ) =√ 10 ×1.4 × 107=1.18 ×10 4 m s−1
1 2 11
b) Orbital energy = mV o =2.8× 10 J
2
3. A satellite was launched into the orbit in space. If the period of the satellite is 9.64 × 104 s and the mass of the
earth is 5.98 ×1024 kg , find the distance of the satellite from the ground.
Solution
2 2
T 4π
From Kepler’s 3rd law, 3 =
r GM

√ √
2
T 2 GM 3 ( 9.64 ×10 ) ×6.67 × 10 ×5.98 ×10
4 −11 24
3
Therefore , r= 2
= 2
4π 4π
7
r =4.55 ×10 m
Hence the satellites’ distance from the ground is given by:
h = r – R = 4.55 x 107 – 6.4 x 106 = 3.91 x 107 m

4. If the radius of the Earth is 6400 km and the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2, calculate the escape
velocity.
Solution
2
√
V e =√ 2 g R = 2× 9.8 × ( 6.4 × 10 ) =2.83 × 10 m s
6 2 7 −1

5. Explain why sometimes some objects in the sky appear stationary.

Sometimes, objects such as satellites and others appear stationary (not moving when observed from the
earth. This only happens because due to the equality of the satellite’s period to that of the earth. At such
point, the orbit is known as geostationary orbit and has the same altitude as the radius of the earth. Its

altitude, r (distance from earth) is given as r =

4π√
T 2 GM
3
2

EXERCISE
1. A satellite is revolving round the earth at distance of 182 km from the surface of the earth. If the radius of
the Earth is 6400 km and the acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2, calculate the orbital velocity of the
satellite.
2. Find the escape velocity at the surface of the moon, given that radius of the moon is 2 ×106 m and the
acceleration due to gravity, g on the surface of the moon is 1.69 m/s2
3. Find the escape velocity from the surface of the Earth is 11.2 km/s. Find the escape velocity from the
surface of another whose mass and diameter are twice that of the Earth.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 28

 USES OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
The artificial satellites are launched for many purposes by different countries. The important uses of artificial
satellite are:
▪ Collection of scientific data
▪ Weather monitoring
▪ Military Spying
▪ Remote sensing
▪ Communication purpose – the satellite receives microwaves and TV signals from the earth and amplifies
them and transmits them back to various stations on the earth.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 29

CHAPTER 4: CATHODE RAYS
Cathode rays are streams of fast moving electrons that travels from a cathode (negative electrode) toward an
anode (positive) in a vacuum tube.

PRODUCTION OF CATHODE RAYS

Cathode rays are produced when a potential difference of few kilovolts is applied across two electrodes placed in
an evacuated glass tube called “cathode ray tube” in a process called “thermionic emission”.
“Thermionic emission” is the release of electrons from the hot metal surfaces.

Evacuated glass tube

6 V C A
( L.T ) F

4 000 V
– + mA

Fig 4.1: CRT

Where F = filament
C = cathode
A = Anode
L.T = low voltage
The filament is heated by the low voltage supply of about 6 V, which thus in turn heats the cathode. As the
temperature of the cathode rises, the thermal speed of the free electrons in the cathode increases and the electrons
therefore escape from the atoms of the metal plate. Therefore, heating a metal to a high temperature, can boil off
the electrons. This process is known as “thermionic emission” and the emitted electrons “thermions”.

The high potential difference applied across the electrode ie 4000 V, accelerates the electrons to move from the
cathode to the anode at a very a high speed.
The stream of these fast moving electrons are what are known as “cathode rays”.

N.B!!
 The cathode ray tube is purposely evacuated to avoid the collision ns of electrons produced with the air
particles.
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS
1. They travel in straight lines and cast sharp shadows of objects in their paths.
For instance, if an aluminum maltese cross is introduced between the anode and a fluorenscent screen as shown
in the figure below, the light beam from the cathode casts a shadow of the aluminium cross on the fluorescent
screen. The fact that cathode rays cast a shadow shows that they travel in straight lines.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 30

 Fig. 4.2: cathode rays travel in straight lines
2. They cause fluorescence to certain materials.

Fluorescent
Electron screen
s

6 F
V C A Cathode
ray
4 000 s
–V + Evacuated glass
tube

Fig. 4.3: Cathode rays cause fluorescence

Cathode rays are produced by an electron gun. An electron gun in a cathode ray tube consists of the filament,
cathode and the accelerating anode.
The cathode rays travel freely across the tube. They produce a ‘glow’ when they collide with the screen which is
coated with a fluorescent materials like phosphor on the inside and lose their energy. The ‘glow’ produced
shows the existence of cathode rays. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into light energy by a process
called “fluorescence”.

3. They possess momentum and energy.

The figure below shows one type of cathode ray tube which houses a small paddle wheel with mica vanes
capable of rotating on the horizontal rails inside the tube. The cathode and the anode are so arranged that when
cathode rays are produced, they collide with the vanes of the paddle wheel which are above the horizontal axis,
as shown in figure below.
Cathode ray Paddle wheel Horizontal rails

C A

V
– +

Fig. 4.4: Cathode rays possess a lot of energy

When the electric field is set up between the cathode and the anode, the wheel starts rotating on the rails. When
the field is switched off, the wheel tends to stop, showing that the wheel rotates due to the energy provided by the
cathode rays. The speed of the electrons can be found as follows:
1 2
The average kinetic energy of an electron = K . E= m v , where m is the mass of electron and v is its
2
speed. By definition, the potential difference V between the two electrodes is given by:

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 31

 work done∨Energy spent W
V= =
charge Q

The work done by the electric field on the electron is given by W =QV =eV =K . E
1 2
m v =eV
2
4. They are negatively charged since they’re streams of electrons.
5. Cathode rays can ionize the gas through they travel.
When cathode rays are incident on gas molecules, ionization takes place i.e. electrons are knocked off from the
orbits of the atoms.

6. They generate heat when they strike a target.

7. They travel at a speed of about 107 to 109 m/s.
8. They produce x-rays when stopped by a heavy metal.
9. They darkened the photographic plates/papers when they fall on them.
When cathode rays are incident on a photographic paper in a dark room, the paper gets ‘fogged’.
10. They are deflected by the electric fields.
The figure below shows a cathode ray deflection tube. The path of the cathode rays is made visible on a
phosphor-coated mica screen mounted inside the tube.

+
V P
– d
C D
A C
6V F
O
A B

4 kV
– +

Fig 4.5: Deflection of cathode rays in an electric field

Two parallel metal-plates AB and CD, which are close together, are housed inside the tube. A deflecting voltage,
V, is applied between them. In the absence of an electric field between AB and CD, the cathode rays travel in a
straight line and hit the screen at O. When an electric field is applied as shown in the figure below. The cathode
rays get deflected upwards, away from the negative plate AB.

This proves that cathode rays are negatively charged since they are repelled by the negative plate AB. If the
polarities of the plates are reversed, the deflection, d, is in the opposite direction.

11. The cathode rays are emitted normally from the surface of the cathode irrespective of the position
of the anode.
12. They are deflected by the electric fields.
If a magnetic field is suitably applied to the path of the cathode rays in the evacuated tube so that the field is
perpendicular to the motion of the cathode rays, the rays get deflected downwards as shown in the figure below.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 32

 × × × ×

Cathode ray e( – ) × × × × Original path Conventional

current
Speed = v
× × × ×
e– +I
× × × ×
×
Uniform magnetic field (B)
Circular path into the paper

Fig 4.6: Deflection of cathode rays in a magnetic field.

The path of the cathode rays inside the magnetic field is circular. The direction of the conventional current is
opposite to the direction of flow of electrons (e–). The magnetic field B is at 90º to the plane of the paper and also
into the paper. The field is also perpendicular to the direction of the flow of cathode rays.
By applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, the magnetic force, F, on the moving charge is downwards, at 90º to the
path of the cathode rays and is along the plane of the paper.

EXAMPLE
In a CRT, an electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 2000 V. Calculate the speed of the electron
−31 −19
(Take me =9.11×10 kg , e=1.6 × 10 C)
Solution

1 2
m v =eV
2

√ √
−19
2 eV 2× 1.6 ×10 ×2000 7
v= = =2.65 × 10 m/ s
m 9.11× 10
−31

USES OF CATHODE RAYS

I. They produce x-rays when stopped by a heavy material.
II. They cause fluorescence in TV, CRO and computer monitors.
III. They are used to complete the circuit in diodes.
IV. They are used in CRO to display waveforms on the screen.
V. They are used in the electronic microscopes to magnify objects.
VI. They are used to project images on the screen in TV, computer monitors.

CATHODE RAYS OSCILLOSCOPE

Cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic device that uses cathode rays to display waveforms on the fluorescent
screen.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 33

 Fig 4.7: Block diagram of CRO

The main features of the CRO are the “electron gun, deflection system, time base, and the display system”.
A cathode ray oscilloscope is basically a cathode ray tube with addition of the deflection system. The electron gun
consists of filament, which is surrounded by a cathode, two anodes A1 & A2 and a control grid, G.
The deflection system consists of two pairs of plates, i.e. the horizontal pair called “Y–Plates” and a vertical pair
called the “X-Plates”.
At the end of the evacuated glass tube is the “Fluorescent Screen, S” coated with a fluorescent materials such as
phosphor or zinc sulphide.

OPERATIONS OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

 The filament is heated by a current from low voltage supply. This in turn heats the cathode causing it to
thermionically emit electrons.
 The control grid, G controls the number of electrons passing through it per second hence it controls the
brightness of the screen. If the grid is made more potentially negative than the cathode, the number of electrons
that will pass through it per second decreases hence the spot on the screen becomes less bright. The reverse is
when the grid is made less potentially negative with respect to the cathode.
The emitted electrons are focused and accelerated by the anodes A1 & A2 respectively which are maintained at
positive voltage with respect to the cathode. For this reason, A1 is called focusing anode & A2 is called
accelerating anode.

 The focusing anode provides further focusing of the electrons along the axis of the tube and gives small
acceleration to the electrons.
 The accelerating anode is of higher potential than the focusing anode. It accelerates the electrons along the axis
of the tube to higher velocity, thus giving them high kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is also referred to as
“accelerating energy” and it moves electrons along the axis of the tube till they strike the screen a bright spot is
seen on the screen. The shapes and potential of the anodes are so chosen that the electric fields between them
converge the beam into a fine spot on the fluorescent screen S.
 The Y-Plates, the horizontal metal plates deflect the electron beam vertically. When connected, the bright spot is
moved up or down on the screen.
 The X-Plates, the vertical metal plates deflect the electron beam horizontally. When connected, the bright spot is
moved to the left up or right of the screen/monitor.
 Finally, when the screen is hit by the fast moving beam of electrons, a bright spot is produced on the
screen/monitor.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 34

The Y-plates of the deflection system are connected internally to the input terminals (one of which is earthed) of
the cathode ray oscilloscope.
The X-plates are connected to a system inside the cathode ray oscilloscope known as the time-base circuit.
X and Y-shift controls are used to move the spot “manually” in the X and Y direction respectively. They apply a
positive or a negative voltage to one of the deflecting plates according to the shift required. The Y-gain control is
an amplifier control. The input voltages go through an amplifier before reaching the Y-plates. The amplification is
altered by the Y-gain control which is calibrated in volts per division. These divisions are usually marked in
centimeters on the plastic filter fitted in front of the screen.

Fig 4.8: Various control knobs of the CRO

THE PROCEDURES FOR OPERATING A CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

a. Switch on the oscilloscope and make sure that the time base knob is in the ‘off’ position.
b. Adjust the X-shift and Y-shift till the spot appears.
c. Set the spot to the centre of the screen by adjusting the X and Y-shift controls.
d. Adjust the focus and brightness control to obtain a sharply focused bright spot.

Y–DEFLECTION SYSEM
This refers to the system of horizontal plates that deflect the accelerating electrons in vertical direction, as
they travel towards the fluorescent screen.

When the time base is switched off and a potential difference is applied to the Y-plates, the electron spot is
deflected up or down along the y-axis. Sometimes the deflection produced on the y-axis of the screen may be too
small. This deflection can be adjusted with the help of Y-gain knob calibrated in volts per centimeter. The Y-gain
is merely a scale used on the y-axis.

DEMONSTRATION OF THE DEFLECTING ACTION OF THE Y-PLATES USING A DC SOURCE

Material Required
 DC Source
 CRO
Procedures

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 35

 i. Switch on the cathode ray oscilloscope and make sure that the time-base knob is in the “off” position.
ii. Adjust the control knobs until a sharply focused bright spot is obtained at the centre of the cathode ray
oscilloscope screen. The potential difference between the Y-plates is zero and the deflection of the spot is
zero, see figure 4.9(a).
iii. Connect a dc voltage to the Y-plates as shown in figure 4.9 (b) and observe the effect on the screen.
Explain your observation.
iv. Reverse the polarities of the Y-plates and observe the effect. Explain what happens in each case.

In figure (b), the input dc voltage applied to the lower plate is negative and repels the negatively charged beam of
electrons upwards and the spot on the screen is deflected upwards (see fig. 4.9 (c)). In figure 4.9 (d), the reverse
effect is seen.

Fig. 4.9: Deflecting action of the Y-plate

In each of the cases (b) and (c), note the Y-gain setting (V/cm) and observe the deflection, d, produced on the
cathode ray oscilloscope screen. Therefore, the value of the input dc voltage applied to the Y-plates is obtained by
V ¿ =Y −gain setting ×distance of deflection

For instance, if the Y-gain control is at 5.0 V/cm and the deflection, d, is 4 cm,
Then, the input dc voltage is 5.0 (V/cm) × 4 (cm) = 20 V

DEMONSTRATION OF THE DEFLECTING ACTION OF THE Y-PLATES USING AN AC SOURCE

Materials Required

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 36

  AC power supply
 CRO
STEPS

i. Switch on the cathode ray oscilloscope and make sure that the time-base knob is in the “off” position.
ii. Adjust the control knobs until a sharply focused bright spot is obtained at the centre of the cathode ray
oscilloscope screen. The potential difference between the Y-plates is zero and the deflection of the spot is
zero, see figure 4.10(a).
iii. Connect an AC voltage to the Y-plates as shown in figure 4.10 (b), observe the effect on the screen and
explain the deflection on the screen.

Fig 4.10: ac voltage to Y-plates

Take note of the Y-gain setting (V/cm) and observe the total length, 2d, of the vertical line. The ac voltage applied
to the Y-plates makes the beam move up and down at a particular frequency and the electron spot appears as a
continuous vertical line on the screen (see fig. 4.10(b)).
Therefore, the value of the input dc voltage applied to the Y-plates is obtained by
V ¿ =Y −gain setting ×distance of deflection

For instance, if the Y-gain control is at 50.0 V/cm and the deflection, d, is (±) 4 cm
Then, the peak value input ac voltage is 50 (V/cm) × 4 (cm) = 200 V

THE X-DEFLECTION SYSTEM

This refers to the system of vertical plates that deflect the accelerating electron beam horizontally, as they travel to
the fluorescent screen.
The X-plates are internally connected to the time-base circuit, which applies a saw-tooth voltage to the X-plates as
shown in fig 4.11.

Fig 4.11: Saw-tooth voltage waveform

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 37

The electron beam is moved from the left hand side of the screen to the right during the time that the voltage rises
to maximum and then is returned rapidly to the left as the voltage returns to zero. This mechanism is called the fly
back mechanism. The fly back mechanism ‘sweeps’ the spot along the X-axis from left to the right hand side of
the screen.
The frequency of motion of the electron along the X axis can be adjusted with the help of the time-base knob and
can be varied from 1 s to 1µs per division. For example, if the time-base is set at 1 s/cm (1 second per division),
then the electron spot takes 1 s to move through 1 cm along the X-axis. If the time-base is set at 1 ms/cm, then the
time taken is 0.001 s for the spot to move 1 cm etc.

DEMONSTRATION OF THE VARIATIONS OF TIME-BASE WITH NO INPUT VOLTAGE TO THE Y-PLATES

Materials
 Cathode ray oscilloscope
 Time-base
Steps
a. Switch on the cathode ray oscilloscope and make sure that the time-base is in the “off” position.
b. Adjust the control knobs until you obtain a sharply focused bright spot at the centre of the CRO screen. The
potential difference between the Y-plates is zero and the Y-deflection is zero.
c. Set the time-base at 1 s/cm and observe what happens to the spot.
d. Repeat the activity by setting the base at 1 ms/cm and observe what happens.
Observations
 When the time-base is set at 1 s/cm, the potential difference between the X-plates changes at such a rate
that the spot starts moving along the X-axis and it takes 1.0 s for the spot to travel 1.0 cm on the screen
(see Fig. 4.12(a)).
 When the time-base is set at 1 ms/cm, the potential difference between the X-plates changes so rapidly that
the spot starts moving faster along the X-axis and a horizontal line is seen on the cathode ray oscilloscope
screen (see Fig. 4.12(b)).

Fig 4.12: Time-base ‘on’ with no input voltage to the Y-plates

DEMONSTRATION OF THE VARIATIONS OF THE TIME-BASE WITH A D.C VOLTAGE ON THE Y-PLATES
Materials
 Cathode ray oscilloscope
 DC voltage

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 38

Procedures
i. Switch on the cathode ray oscilloscope and make sure that the time-base knob is in the “off” position.
ii. Adjust the control knobs until a sharply focused bright spot is obtained at the centre of the cathode ray
oscilloscope screen. The potential difference between the Y-plates is zero and the deflection of the spot is
zero, see figure 4.13(a).
iii. Set the time-base set at 1 ms/cm and connect a dc voltage to the Y-plates as shown in figure 4.13(b) and
observe the effect on the screen. Explain your observation.
iv. Reverse the polarities of the Y-plates by interchanging the terminals of the d.c voltage supply and explain
the observation seen on the screen.
v. Repeat the Activity by replacing the dc voltage source by an a.c voltage source and observe the effect on
the cathode ray oscilloscope screen.
vi. Change the input voltage or the time-base setting and observe the effect.

OBSERVATIONS
 When a d.c voltage is applied to the Y-plates, the horizontal line is seen to move up i.e. deflected upwards
due to the lower plate (Y2 ) being at a negative potential (Fig.4.13(a)).
 When the polarities of the Y-plates are reversed, the horizontal line seen in Fig. 4.13 (b) moves down i.e.
deflected downwards.

Fig 4.13: Time- base ‘on’ with dc voltage to the Y-plates

In Fig. 4.14 (a), a ‘sine curve’ can be seen on the screen. When the input alternating voltage to the Y-plates is
increased, the peak value of the sine curve increases (Fig. 4.14 (b)). When the time-base setting is changed, we get
more crests of the sine curve on the screen (Fig. 4.14 (c)).

Fig. 4.14: Time-base ‘on’ with alternating current voltage to the Y-plates

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 39

 USES OF CATHODE RAYS OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Measurement of voltages & currents
CRO is used as a voltmeter and ammeter to accurately measure both the dc & ac voltages. This is possibly by
connecting the y-plate to dc or ac supply while the time base is off, in the dc or ac signal appears as a “deflected
spot” or as a “vertical line” respectively. The cathode ray oscilloscope is particularly useful for measuring voltage,
because no current is taken by it, i.e. there is no resistance wire or coil across the input terminals. Hence the
cathode ray oscilloscope tends to have an infinite resistance, which is the condition required for an ideal voltmeter.
The cathode ray oscilloscope can be used to measure direct current, alternating current or voltage accurately. “The
deflection (d) produced on the screen along the y-axis is directly proportional to the input voltage”.
Unlike a moving coil voltmeter, there is no coil in an oscilloscope which can burn out due to excess current. Also
the electrons behave like a virtually weightless pointer enabling instantaneous response to direct current or
alternating current voltages. However, compared to a moving coil voltmeter, the cathode ray oscilloscope is rather
expensive, cumbersome and not very sensitive.

The voltage signal is displayed on the screen as if it was a time function. The signal's amplitude is consistent, but
using the volt/division button on top of the CRO board, we can adjust how many divisions are used to conceal the
voltage signal in a vertical direction. So, using the method below, we can measure the signal's amplitude as it
appears on the CRO screen.

𝐴 = 𝑗×𝑛𝑣
Where,
A = Amplitude of the signal
j = is the volt/division value
nv = no. of partitions that cover the displayed signal in vertical axis

Voltage = distance in cm×volts/cm

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 40

 2. Measurement of the frequencies of waves.
The horizontal scale on the CRO screen makes it very simple to measure time and frequency. The size of the
signal on your CRO display should be increased if you want to ensure precision while measuring a frequency so
that the waveform can be converted more easily. Initially, the time can be determined by counting the number of
flat partitions from one end of the signal to the other whenever it passes the flat line and using the horizontal scale
on the CRO. The signal's time period can then be determined by increasing the number of flat segments through
time or division.
1
Frequency=
Time Period

3. Measurement of small time intervals.

On its screen, CRO shows the voltage signal as a function of time. The time duration of that periodic voltage
signal is fixed, but by adjusting the time/division knob on the CRO panel, we may change the number of divisions
that span one full cycle of the voltage signal in the horizontal direction. Therefore, by applying the following
formula, we will be able to determine the Time duration of the signal that is visible on the CRO screen. The time
taken for the signal to complete one cycle is called time duration

𝑇 = j × 𝑛v
Where,
T = time period of the signal
j = is the time/division value

1ms=0.001s and 1μs=0.000001s1𝑚𝑠=0.001𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1𝜇𝑠=0.000001𝑠

nv = no. of partitions that cover up one whole cycle of the periodic signal on horizontal axis

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 41

Fig 6: Measurement of Time

Other uses of Cathode Rays Oscilloscope

4. It can be used to displace pictures on the TV set.
5. This device is also used to check the AM and FM circuits characteristics.
6. This device is used to monitor the signal properties as well as characteristics and also controls the analog
signals.
7. The CRO is used through the resonance circuit to view the shape of the signal, bandwidth, etc.
8. The shape of voltage and current waveform can be observed by CRO which helps to take the necessary
decision in a radio station or communication station.
9. It is used in laboratories for the purpose of research. Once researchers design a new circuit, then they use
CRO to verify the waveforms of voltage and current of every element of the circuit.
10. Used for comparing phase & frequency
11. It is used in TV, Radar, and analysis of engine pressure
12. To check the reactions of nervous and heartbeat.

EXAMPLES
1. The figure below shows the waveform displayed on the cathode ray oscilloscope screen when an
alternating voltage is applied to the Y-input. The time-base is set at 1ms/cm and the Y-gain at 10 V/cm.
Calculate:

a) The amplitude of the ac input voltage

Solution
Since the peak value is 2 cm on the screen and the Y-gain is 10V/cm,
Then the amplitude of the ac input voltage = 10 × 2 = 20 V.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 42

 b) The frequency of the ac input voltage signal.
Solution
There are 2 complete waves in 5.0cm. Since the time base is 1 ms/cm, the time taken by the spot to travel 5.0 cm is
5 ms. hence, the time period, T, of a wave is 2.5 ms.
1 1
Frequency f = = =400 Hz
T 2.5 ×10−3 s

2. In the figure below, the length of the vertical line on the screen of a cathode ray oscilloscope is 7.2 cm and the
Y-gain is set at 80.0 V/cm. Calculate the amplitude of the ac input voltage.

Solution
Since the length of the vertical line is 7.2 cm, the deflection, d, is 3.6 cm. The Y-gain is 80 V/cm. Hence the amplitude of the
ac voltage input = 80 × 3.6 = 288 V

3. Draw the trace on a graph paper to show the waveform of an ac voltage of frequency 100 Hz and amplitude
10V. The following are the settings of the cathode ray oscilloscope:
i. The time-base is 10 ms/cm.
ii. The Y-gain is 5 V/cm.
Solution
1 1
The frequency f of ac voltage = 100 Hz. ∴ The time period ,T = = =0.01 s
f 100

The time-base is set at 10 ms/cm = 10 × 10-3 s/cm = 0.01 s/cm. Since the time period is 0.01 s and the time-base is
0.01 s/cm, then the wave length λ is 1 cm. Since the Y-gain is set at 5 V/cm and the amplitude of the ac voltage is
10 V, the amplitude on the Y-axis should be 2 cm. Hence, a sine wave of amplitude 2 cm and wavelength 1 cm, is
drawn as shown below.

4. Two South Sudanese athletes completed a race very close to each other in the 2024 Olympic Games held in
Paris, France. A cathode ray oscilloscope, with a time-base set at 50 ms/cm had been deployed to see the
time interval between the athletes. Two ‘pulses’ produced on the screen are shown in the figure below.
Calculate the time interval separating the two athletes.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 43

Solution
From the cathode ray oscilloscope screen, the distance between the pulses = 2 cm.
The time-base = 50 ms/cm = 0.05 s/cm
Since the distance between the pulses is 2 cm, the time interval between them = 2 × 0.05 s = 0.10 s.

The time interval between the two athletes is 0.10 s.

ADVANTAGES OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

a. It can measures both ac & dc voltage and current.
b. It is very sensitive and accurate.
c. It has no coil to burn out.
d. It has infinite resistance hence draw no current from the circuit.
e. It is not affected by high voltages/currents.

LIMITATIONS OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

a. They are expensive.

b. Once damaged or had trouble, they are difficult to repair.
c. These gadgets require total isolation.
d. These are enormous, weights more, big, and require more energy.
e. It requires a skilled personnel to operate.
f. Its operation is time-consuming.
g. It doesn’t gives direct results.

X-RAYS
X-rays are electromagnetic (radiations) waves with short wavelength produced by an abrupt & sudden stoppage of
cathode rays by the heavy metal target. They’ve high energy and short wavelengths. Historically, they were
discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Röentgen, a professor at Würzburg University in Germany.

PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS IN X-RAY TUBE

X-rays are produced when the fast-moving electrons (cathode rays) strike a metal target. Such electrons are
stopped by the metal target and give up all their kinetic energy to form x-rays.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 44

Molybdenum & tungsten are the common metals used as targets because they have high melting points and
therefore provide a good target.

Fig. X-ray Tube

The cathode is heated is heated using a low voltage supply and it therefore thermionically emits electrons. The
emitted electrons (cathode rays) are then accelerated toward the anode by the high voltage supplied across the
cathode and the anode.
When the cathode rays strike the metal target, much (approx. 99%) of their kinetic energy is converted into heat
and the rest (1%) is turned into x-rays. The heat generated at the target is cooled by the means of copper cooling
fins and then conducted away by conduction & radiation.

INTENSITY/QUANTITY OF X-RAYS
The intensity of the x-rays is controlled by the filament current. The higher the filament current, the greater of
thermionically emitted electrons and hence the higher the intensity of x-rays formed. This is done by connecting
the rheostat (variable resistor) to the x-rays tube to control the filament current.
IMPORTANT NOTE
 The x-rays tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with the air particles hence the vacuum
allows free movement of electrons in the tube.
 The tungsten is used as the best target because it has high melting point that can withstand the heat
generated when the electrons hit target.

ENERGY CHANGES IN AN X-RAYS TUBE

Electrical energy supplied to the filament cathode is converted to heat energy as the filament heats up. This
energy (heat energy) is then converted to kinetic energy of the emitted electrons ad they are accelerated towards
the anode. Upon striking the metal target, the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat energy & x-
rays.
In summary,
Electrical Energy Heat Energy Kinetic Energy X-rays + Heat Energy

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 45

PENETRATING POWER/QUALITY OF X-RAYS
Penetrating power of x-rays is the ability of x-rays to enter the matter.
The penetrating power of x-rays depends on the kinetic energy of electrons reaching the target. The penetrating
power of x-rays is determined by the kind of potential difference applied across the x-rays tube.
The higher the accelerating voltage, the faster the electrons produced and the greater the kinetic energy of the
electrons hence the higher the penetration power of the x-rays produced and vice versa.

TYPES OF X-RAYS
1. Hard X-rays
These are x-rays which have a very high penetrating power. They are produced when electrons with very high
velocities are rapidly decelerated. This can be achieved by using a very high tube voltage between the cathode and
the anode of the x-ray tube.
The higher the tube voltage, the greater is the acceleration of the electrons to the target and consequently the
greater the kinetic energy of the electrons when they strike the target.
Since the x-rays produced are proportional to the kinetic energy of the decelerated electrons, it follows that the
higher the velocity of the incident electrons that strike the metal target, the higher is the frequency and energy of
the x-rays so produced.
Tube voltage of 50kV—100kV produces hard x-rays. Hard x-rays are also known as “high quality x-rays”.
2. Soft x-rays
These are x-rays which have a low penetrating power. They're produced when electrons with much lower kinetic
energy than those produce hard x-rays, are decelerated. Soft x-rays can be obtained by a much lower tube voltage
like 20kV.
Due to much lower voltage, the acceleration of the electrons to the target metal is lower leading to the lower
velocity electrons being decelerated upon striking the target. The result is the production of the x-rays of lower
frequency and consequently lower energy. Soft x-rays are also known as “low quality x-rays”.

PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
I. They travel in straight line.
II. They propagate through vacuum because they are electromagnetic waves.
III. They affect the photographic plate ie the greater the x-rays intensity, the higher the decomposition of the
photographic plate.
IV. X-rays cause some materials such as zinc sulfide to fluoresce.
V. They are neither deflected by the magnetic nor electric fields because they are neutral.
VI. They cause photoelectric emission.
VII. They travel at the speed of light i.e 3 X 108 m/s in vacuum.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 46

VIII. X-rays penetrate matter. Their penetration depends on the density of matter. The higher the density of
matter, the lower is the penetration. X-rays penetrate less sense materials such as flesh but stopped by the
bones because they are dense.
IX. They undergo reflection, diffraction and interference.
X. They ionize the material through which they pass.
XI. They are hardly refracted because they have refractive index close to 1.

APPLICATIONS/USES OF X-RAYS
a. They are used in radiography for the study of bones in the human body.
b. X-ray photograph is used to locate foreign objects in the body e.g. swallowed buttons and stomach ulcers.
c. They are used to destroy cancerous cells of the patients in the hospitals (radiotherapy).
d. X-rays are used in mammography.
e. Due to their high penetrating power, x-rays are used in airports to inspect luggage (for security checkup).
f. They are used for checking the purity of crystals.
g. They are used for detecting fractures in human bones in the hospitals.
h. X-rays are used in industries to detect flaws (defects) in steel plates.
i. They can also be used to diagnose Tuberculosis, and other diseases such as Asthma.
j. X-ray microscopes are used in crystallography i.e. study of the arrangements of molecules of crystalline
substances. For instance, the study of the structure of wool to improve the fiber.

DANGERS OF X-RAYS
 They destroy the living cells in the body.
 They damage blood cells & eyesight.
 They cause genetic mutation.
 They cause deep seated burns due to their high penetrating power.
 They cause cancer, leukemia and even death.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TAKEN WHEN USING X-RAYS

 The exposure time should be short as much as possible.
 Avoid exposing x-rays to unborn babies and young children.
 X-rays machines should be should be operated remotely.
 The rooms where x-rays machines are kept should be made of thick walls of concrete.
 Restrict the x-ray beam to the party for the body whose image is required. Use lead shutters to control the
x-rays.
 X-rays machines should be shielded with a thick lead.
 Use modern x-ray machines which use intensifying screens. This makes it possible to obtain an x-ray
image from a much weaker beam.
 Wear a protective clothing when operating x-ray machines.

NOTICE!

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 47

  Soft x-rays are preferred when taking photography of the internal organs of the human body because they
are less penetrative and less destructive to the cells unlike hard x-rays which have much more energy,
highly penetrative and extremely destructive to the cells.

HOW X-RAYS ARE USED TO LOCATE BONE FRACTURES IN THE BODY

A photographic film is placed behind the suspected part of the body. The x-rays are then directed onto the
suspected broken section and are then absorbed.
When the film is developed, the broken part (fracture) appears dark while the unbroken part appears light

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CATHODE RAYS & X-RAYS

S/N Cathode rays X-rays

1. Are negatively charged because they are electrons They have no charge because they're
electromagnetic radiations

2. Originate from the cathode itself Emitted when highly energetic electrons are
suddenly stopped

3. Have low penetrating power Have high penetrating power

4. Travel at the speed given by the potential difference Always travel at the speed of light
between the cathode & the anode

5. Are deflected by electric & magnetic fields They aren't deflected by electric & magnetic
fields because they've no charge

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CATHODE RAYS & X-RAYS

I. Both rays are capable of ionizing materials through which they pass.
II. Both rays cause fluorescence when they strike any fluorescent material such as ZnS.
III. Both travels in straight line.
IV. Both rays affect photographic plates.

REVISION QUESTIONS
I. State three conditions under which electrons can be used to generate x-rays.
 The electrons must be highly energetic.
 They must pass through the vacuum so as to avoid energy loss due to collision with air molecules.
 These electrons must hit a metal target.
II. What adjustment will you make while using x-ray tube to obtain hard x-ray instead of soft x-rays?
 Increase the filament current by adjusting the variable resistor to a lower resistance.
 Increase the potential difference across the tube.
III. State 3 reasons why it is possible to detect fractures in bones using x-rays

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 48

  They travel in straight line.
 They have high penetrative power.
 They pass through flesh but are absorbed by the bones as they have a higher density.
IV. Why is tungsten suitable as a target in an x-ray tube?
 Because it has high melting point.
V. Why is the x-ray tube evacuated?
 This is to avoid the accelerating electrons to lose energy due to collision with the air molecules which
would be in the tube when it is not evacuated.
VI. Briefly explain how x-rays may be used to locate a broken part of a bone.
A photographic film is placed behind the suspected part of the body. The x-rays are then directed onto the
suspected broken section and are then absorbed. When the film is developed, the broken part (fracture)
appears dark while the unbroken part appears light
VII. Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays.

S/N Soft X-rays Hard X-rays

1. They are produced by low voltages. They are produced by high voltages.

2. They have low penetrating power. They have high penetrating power.

3. They possess low energy. They possess high energy.

4. They possess long wavelength. They possess short wavelength.

5. They have low frequency. They have high frequency.

6. They are used in x-ray photography. They are used in radiotherapy.

VIII. With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe the structure & the operation of an x-ray tube.
IX. State 4 ways in which x-rays are similar to gamma rays.
X.
XI. State two factors that affect the intensity of x-rays produced in an x-ray tube? Which factor has the greater
effect on the intensity?
 Amount of filament current.
 Amount of tube voltage.
The amount of the tube applied between the electrodes has a greater effect on the x-ray intensity.
XII. Why are x-rays used in crystallography? This is because when they are passed through a crystal, a
pattern of intense spots around a central image is formed on a photographic plate. This is possible as
a result of x-rays scattering produced when interacting with the electrons in the crystal’s atom.
XIII. Enormous amount of heat is produced at the anode of an x-ray tube. Identify and explain 3 features of an x-
ray tube that are designed to facilitate the cooling of the tube.
 Use of cooling fins.
 Use of running water.
 Use of cooling oil.
XIV. Explain the reasons behind the following statements.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 49

 a. A low variable voltage filament current is used to heat the cathode of the x-ray tube.
 A variable low voltage filament current is used to heat the cathode in order to produce soft x-rays in
hospitals for treating cancers and detecting broken bones. Therefore, x-rays produced using variable
low voltage filament current are less dangerous to human’s body cells.
b. The rooms where x-rays machines are kept in the hospitals are made of thick concrete walls.
 This matches with the fact that a thicker the matter, the higher its density and because of this, x-rays
can’t pass through thick concrete walls.

CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

Introduction
In 1819, Oersted observed that a compass needle deflected when brought near a current-carrying conductor. He
also observed that direction on the compass needle depended on the relative position of the compass from the
wire, and the direction of the current.
From Oersted’s experiment, it was realized that there exists a relationship between an electric current and
magnetism.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 50

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR
NB: Magnetic Field is a region around a magnet where the force of attraction is felt.
An experiment to demonstrate the magnetic field due to a straight current-carrying conductor
Apparatus
 Source of electric current  Cardboard  Switch
 Straight wire  Plotting compasses  Variable Resistor
 Iron fillings  Clamped stand
Procedures
1. Step up the apparatus as shown as shown in the figure below

2. Sprinkle the iron filings thinly onto the card and switch on the current and tap the card gently.
3. Draw the final pattern of the of the iron filings.
4. Place the plotting compasses at various positions around the wire on the cardboard and take note of the
direction of its direction.
5. Sketch the line formed by the directions of the plotting compasses and indicate the direction of the
magnetic field on that line.
6. Reverse the terminals and observe what will happens in term of the direction of the magnetic field.

Observations
 When the card is tapped, the iron filings settle in series of concentric circles around the wire.
 With the plotting compasses placed around the wire, it is observed that the direction of magnetic field
around a straight current-carrying conductor is a circular path around the conductor.

CurrentI

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 51

  When the current direction is reversed, the compass needles point in the opposite direction. This shows
that the direction of the field reverses when the current direction is reversed.

Conclusion
 Thus, a magnetic field around a straight current-carrying conductor is a pattern of concentric circles
around the conductor.

DETERMINATION OF THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

(a) Right hand grip rule (thumb rule)

The right-hand grip rule states that when a right hand holds a current-carrying conductor with the thumb pointing
in the current ‘s direction, then the other fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field due to the current
in the conductor.

Magnetic Field
hand

wire

Current

Fig. Right hand grip rule

(b) Maxwell’s corkscrew rule

Maxwell’s corkscrew rule states that if a corkscrew is being screwed along the current carrying conductor in the
direction of the current, then the clockwise rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic field due to
the current in the conductor.

Direction of
field directionof driving screw
directionof current I

Fig. Maxwell’s corkscrew rule

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT-CARRYING SOLENOID

A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil made up of a number of turns of a closely packed wire. It is made by winding
an insulated copper wire around a cylindrical pipe and then mounted on a stiff cardboard. When a direct current is
passed through it, the pattern serves like the bar magnet as shown below.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 52

The direction of the magnetic field in a current-carrying solenoid is determined by the clock rule which states that
“when looking at the side of the solenoid and the current flows in clockwise direction, then that side is the
South Pole and if the current flows in the anticlockwise direction, then that side is North Pole”.

solenoid

N I S

Fig. Magnetic field due to a solenoid

(a) Anticlockwise (b) Clockwise

Fig. Polarity of the solenoid
Magnetic Field Around the current-carrying circular coil
An Experiment to determine a field around a short current-circular coil
Apparatus
 Cardboard  Short circular coil  Iron filings
 Current Source  Variable resistor  Plotting compass

Procedures
1. Mount a short circular coil on a cardboard and set up the circuit as seen in the figure below.

2. Sprinkle the iron filings around it and tap it and then draw the pattern formed.
3. Use the plotting compass to determine the field pattern due to the current electric current flowing in the
coil.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 53

Observations
When viewed from above, it can be seen that at point A, the current is coming out of the cardboard and at B the
current is going into the cardboard. We use the symbol to represent current coming out of paper and × to
represent current going into the paper. Applying the right-Maxwell corkscrew rule or the Right-hand grip rule at
points A and B, the direction of the field is as shown in the figure below.

field
lines
×

Fig. Top View of magnetic field around the circular coil

CHARGED PARTICLE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

A charged particle e.g. passing through a magnetic field follows a path as shown in the figure below:

× × × ×

×
× × ×
electron
e
×
× r ×
×

The deflection varies depending on the strength of the magnetic field.

2
mV
The centripetal force acting on the electron towards the centre of the circular path is given by F C =
r
Since the charge on the particle and the magnetic field are at a right angle, 900.
We get F = qVB
The Lorentz magnetic force supplies the centripetal force, so
2
mV
qVB =
r
Making r the subject,
mV
⁘r= ,
Bq

Where,
q – Charge m - Mass of the charged particle
B - Magnetic Field

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 54

V- Velocity at which the charged particle moves
around the circular path.
R - Cyclotron radius

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 55

BIOT-SAVART’S LAW OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Biot-Savart’s law of magnetic field states that “magnetic field near a long straight conductor is directly
proportional to the current in the conductor and inversely proportional to the square distance from the
conductor”.

I
Bα 2
r

a) For a straight conductor,

μo I
B= , Where B – magnitude of magnetic field
2 πr
−7 −1
μo −Permeability of free space , 4 π ×10 mA

R Q

b) For a loop,

μo I
The magnetic field is given by B = , where r is the radius of the loop carrying the current.
4r
c) For the solenoid,

x x x x x x x x x

At any point in the solenoid, the magnetic field is given by B = μo ∋¿, Where n – number of turns per unit length.
Important Note
 When two parallel straight current-carrying conductors are close to each other (as shown in
the figure below) and the current is flowing is flowing in the same direction, they experience
a force of attraction between them.

 When two parallel straight current-carrying conductors are close to each other and the
current is flowing in different directions, then they experience a force of repulsion between
them.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 56

 r
I1 I
B1 F F B2

Q Q

Wire 1 Wire 2
Fig. Two parallel straight current carrying conductors with currents flowing in the same directions.
Force due to current I at distance r is
μ I
B1 = o 1
2 πr
The force due to field,
F2 = I2B1l,

From the Newton’s 3rd law of motion, F1= - F2 and dividing both sides by l,
f μo I 1 I 2
=
l 2 πr

Examples
1. A solenoid of length 2.0 m has 1 cm radius and a total of 100 turns, carries a current of 6 A. Calculate the
magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid, if one electron was to move with a speed of 104 m/s
along the axis of this current carrying solenoid (Take μo =4 π ×10−7mA-1)
Solution
B = μo ∋¿,
−7 100
= 4 π × 10 × ×6
2
= 3.768 ×10-4 T (T means Tesla, the SI unit of Magnetic Field)

2. A circular coil is of 100 turns and 1 m. If a current of 5 A flows through it. Calculate the magnetic field in
the coil from the distance of 2 m.
( μo =4 π ×10−7mA-1)

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 57

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 58
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
A current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field experiences a force. The force experienced is a result of the
interaction between the magnetic field around a conductor and the magnetic field in which the conductor is situated.
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FORCE
The direction of the magnetic force experienced by a current-carrying conductor is determined by FLEMING’S
LEFT-HAND RULE which states that “when the left hand is held with the thumb and the first finger mutually at
right angles with the first finger in the direction of the field, the second finger in the direction of current then the
thumb will point to the direction of motion (force)”.

Thumb ( Force )

F irst finger
( F ield)

se C ond finger
( C urrent)

Fig. Fleming’s left hand rule

FACTORS AFFECTING THE FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN

MAGNETIC FIELD
 Current
The force on the current carrying conductor increases with the increase in the in current and decrease with the
decrease in current, hence the force on a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing in the conductor.
 Strength of the Magnetic Field
The force increases with increase in the strength of the magnetic field. The stronger the magnetic field, the larger
the force acting on the conductor and the weaker the magnetic field, the smaller the force acting on the field.
Therefore, the force acting on the conductor is directly proportional to the magnetic flux density.
 Length of the conductor
The force increases with the increase in the length of the conductor and vice versa.
 Area of the conductor in the field (Number of turns in the field)
The larger the area in the field, larger the force acting on the conductor and the smaller the area of the conductor in
the magnetic field, the smaller is the force acting on the conductor.
NB: This process in which a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force is known as
“Electric motor effect”.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 59

APPLICATIONS OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR EFFECT
A. SIMPLE ELECTRIC DC MOTOR
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Examples of devices
which use electric motors include electric drill, vacuum cleaner, electric shaving machine, electric bell, electric fan
etc. A simple electric motor consists of a rectangular coil of wire placed between the poles of a strong magnet as
shown in the figure below:

The end of each wire is connected to a section of a split ring called the commutator. The commutator rotates with
the coil. Two carbon brushes are fixed just by touching the commutators. Current enters the coil through the
brushes.
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, wire AB experiences a force downwards while wire CD experiences an
upward force. These two equal forces in opposite directions cause the loop ABCD to rotate in anticlockwise
direction. The commutator reverses the current flow in the coil every half-cycle. This ensures that the coil continues
to rotate in the same direction. The motor is found to work faster when
 The current in the coil is increased.
 A stronger magnet is used.
 More turns of the coil of the wire are used.
 The area of the coil in magnetic field is increased.
 Many coils are used with more split ring parts in many planes.

B. THE MOVING COIL LOUDSPEAKER

The moving coil loudspeaker works on the same principle as the earpiece. It converts
electrical energy to sound energy.
The figure below shows the different parts of a moving coil loudspeaker.

The turns of the cylindrical coil (voice coil) are at right angles to the magnetic field between the ring pole and the
central pole. The coil experiences a force in accordance with Fleming’s left-hand rule, when a current flows through

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 60

it. A varying force on the coil (in response to the varying current) causes the paper cone connected to it to move
thus producing sound waves which travel through the surrounding air to the ear of the listener.

CHAPTER 6: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

This is the process by which an electric current is induced in a coil due to the change in the magnetic flux linking
the coil. Whenever the magnetic flux linking the coil changes an emf is induced in the coil which causes the current
to flow in the coil.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED EMF

The magnitude of the induced emf in the coil is directly proportional to the:
 Strength of the magnetic field
 Number of turns in the coil
 Presence of soft iron coil
 Area of the coil in the magnetic field
 Speed of the cutting magnetic flux

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGETIC INDUCTION

 Lenz’s Law
When an electromotive force is induced in a circuit, a current flow in the circuit. The direction that an induced
current take was developed by a German Physicist called Lenz.
S S

N N

N S

0 0

(a) (b)
Fig. Direction of the induced current

Lenz’s law states that “the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change producing it”.

 Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

This law relates the directions of the field motion and the induced current for a straight conductor placed in
magnetic field. It states that “when the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand are mutually
perpendicular to each other, the First finger pointing in the direction of the Field and the thuMb in the

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 61

direction of Motion of the conductor, then the seCond finger points in the direction of the induced
Current”. (See the figure below).
First Finger
e
l
SeCond d
u
r ThuMb
o
r t
e i
n o
t n

First finger
Thumb

Second finger

Fig. Fleming’s Right Rule

 Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is the summary of the factors affecting the magnitude of an emf
induced in the coil. It states that the “induced the electromotive force induced in a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linked to the conductor”.

TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 Self-Induction
This is the process in which an emf is induced in the coil due to the changing current within the coil itself. The
induced emf tends to oppose the main emf. This induction method is experienced by generators.

GENERATORS
A generator is device that converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. In other words, it’s an electrical
device that produces emf by changing the number of magnetic field lines passing through the coil.
There are two types of generators namely:

1. AC GENERATOR

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 62

STRUCTURE OF A SIMPLE AC GENERATOR
The generator consists of a rectangular coil of conductor wire whose ends are connected to two slip rings.
The slip rings make contact with carbon brushes which connect them to an external circuit. Two light springs are
used to make the carbon brush press lightly on the slip rings thus making a good contact between the carbon
brushes and the slip rings. The coil is placed in between two poles of a permanent magnet. The poles are annular in
shape so as to concentrate the magnetic field lines on the coil.

Annular magnet

N S
Coil
Carbon brush Slip rings

Resistor
Springs

Fig. ac generator

OPERATIONS OF THE AC GENERATOR

The rectangular coil connected to the slip rings is made to rotate with a uniform speed in the magnetic field. Due
to the change in the field linking the coil, an emf is induced is induced in the coil. When the coil is in the
horizontal position, the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage is maximum and the maximum emf is induced.
In the vertical position, the rate of change o the magnetic linkage is zero and no emf is induced.

W X

X
Z
N S
Y N S
Z

0
0

Beyond the vertical position, the induced emf reverses because of the change in the change in direction of side WZ
and XY. This hence results into the change in the current in the load resistor hence an “alternating current”.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 63

 2. DC GENERATOR
This kind of generator consists of a permanent magnet that provides a strong magnetic field, a rectangular coil that
brings about the electromagnetic induction in a generator, split rings which provides a conducive atmosphere for
current tapping by carbon brushes and carbon brushes that convey the current between the moving coil and the
stationary parts of the generator.

Fig. DC Generator

Mode of Operations
The rectangular coil ABCD is connected to the commutator as shown in the above figure. When the coil is rotated
about the axis in the magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic flux and an emf is induced. In the vertical plane, the coil
does not cut the magnetic flux and induced emf is zero whereas in the horizontal position, the induced emf is
maximum. During the second half of rotation, the two halves of the commutator change contacts with the carbon
brushes and the induced reverses with but the current flow though the external load in one direction hence “a
direct current”.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 64

 MOVING COIL MICROPHONE
A moving coil microphone is a device for changing sound energy into electrical energy. It consists of a
diaphragm with a light coil connected to it. This coilis placed in between two poles of a strong cylindrical pot
magnet as shown in the figure below.
Cylindrical pot
magnet
S
A small alternating current
Sound waves N

Coil To
Diaphragm
Fig. A moving coil microphone

When a person speaks in front of a microphone, the sound energy set the diaphragm into vibration. This moves
the coil back and forth between the poles of the magnet. A small alternating current is induced in the coil. When
this alternating current is made larger (amplified), it operates a loudspeaker.

 Mutual Induction
This is a process by which an emf is induced in the coil (secondary) due to changing current in the nearby coil
(primary).
Mutual induction occurs when switching the current on and off in the primary circuit. The switching on and off of
the current can also be achieved by replacing the battery and the switch with an a.c power supply as shown in Fig
(a) & Fig (b) shows how the induced current varies with time.
current

0
time

(a) (b)
This kind of electromagnetic induction is experienced by transformers.

REVISION QUESTIONS

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 65

 1. With well labelled illustration, state any two laws of electromagnetic induction
2. State the use of commutator in a dc generator.
3. Explain the factors that affect the magnitude of the emf induced by the generator.

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is an electric device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by electromagnetic
induction without altering the frequency of the transmitted energy. In transferring this energy, a transformer steps
up or steps down the voltage or electromotive force from the source.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 66

 STRUCTURE AND OPERATIONS OF A TRANSFORMER

A simple transformer consists of two coils insulated from each other and wound on the same soft-iron core.
One coil contains a few turns of thick wire and the other coil contains many turns of thin wire. The coil that is
connected to a.c mains is called the primary coil (p) while the one through which the stepped up or stepped down
electrical current output is delivered to the outer circuit is called the secondary coil (s).

The figure below shows the structure of a transformer in which P is the primary coil and S is the secondary coil.
Laminated soft iron core

Output

a.c Coil P Coil S

Output
Input

Fig: The structure of a transformer

When the current is switched on or off in one coil, an electromotive force is induced in another coil. The circuit
that induces the electromotive force is called the primary circuit, while the circuit where the electromotive force
is induced is called the secondary circuit. Although the two coils are not connected, changes in current in the
primary circuit induces an electromotive force in the secondary circuit.
When an alternating voltage, Vp is applied to the primary coil, the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil
changes due to the induced current in the primary coil. The change in the magnetic flux induces the emf (voltage)
Vs in the secondary coil which causes the current to flow in the secondary coil. The induced emf is directly
proportional to the number of turns on the secondary coil and the rate of change of magnetic flux.
NB: A transformer uses ac but not dc because it requires a continuous changing magnetic +flux which is
provided by an ac but not a dc.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
There are two types of transformers namely:
I. Step-up transformer
This is the type of transformer in which the number of turns in the secondary coil Ns is more than the number of
turns in the primary coil Np. (Fig. (a)). This increases the voltage and as a result, the voltage in the secondary
circuit is greater than that in the primary. They are used between the power generator and the power grid.

II. Step-down transformer.

In this kind of a transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the number of turns in the
primary coil (Fig. (b)). This reduces the voltage and as a result, the voltage in the secondary circuit is less than that
in the primary circuit. These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary supply to low voltage
secondary output. They are usually placed near homes or facilities where the final power consumption takes place.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 67

~ ~ ~ ~

(a) Step-up transformer (b)Step-down transformer

Fig. (c) commercial step-down transformer.

Secondary
coil Primary Secondary
Primary coil coil coil

(d) Step-up transformer (e) Step-down transformer

Fig. Circuit symbols for transformers

TRANSFORMER EQUATIONS
The magnitude of the voltage across the primary coil, Vp is directly proportional to the number of turns in the
primary coil, Np and the magnitude of the induced emf on the secondary coil (voltage across the secondary coil), Vs
is directly proportional to the number of turns in the secondary coil, Ns.
That is to say;
For Primary Coil, For Secondary Coil,
Vp α Np Vs α Ns
Vp = kNp Vs = kNs

V p Np
∴ = ………………………………………(1)
V s Ns

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 68

 Voltage∈the primary coil Number of turns∈the primary coil
∴ =
Voltage ∈the secondary coil Number of turns∈the secondary coil

Or else,
Input voltage Primary turns
∴ =
Output voltage Secondary turns
EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
As stated earlier, a transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to the other. The energy per second,
supplied to the primary coil is called the power input, while the energy obtained per second from the secondary coil
is the power output.
The term efficiency is used to indicate how effective a transformer is in transferring the input energy to output
energy.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power output to power input expressed as a percentage.
Power output
Efficiency, ƞ = × 100 % …………………………………………..(2)
Power input
In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss. This therefore means that electric power (P= VI) in the primary coil
is equal to that in the secondary coil hence the transformer is 100% efficient.
Therefore,
Input Power=Output Power
Vs Ip
∴ = …………………………………………………………………………………….(3)
V p Is

But practically, there is no transformer that’s 100% efficient due to energy (power) losses.
Example 1
An alternating emf of 240V is applied to a step-up transformer having 200 turns on its primary coil and 4000 turns
on its secondary coil. The secondary current is 0.2 A. Calculate the:
(a) Secondary electromotive force
(b) Primary current
(c) Power input
(d) Efficiency
(e) Comment on the answer you got in (d) above
Solution
V p Np
(a) From =
V s Ns
N s ×V p
∴ V s=
Np

240 × 4000
∴ V s=
200

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 69

 ∴ V s=4800 V

Is N p
(b) From =
I p Ns
N s× I s
∴ I p=
Np
4000 ×0.2
∴ I p=
200
∴ I p =4.0 A

(c) Power input, Pin = VpIp

= 4 × 240
= 960 W

Power output
(d) Efficiency, ƞ = × 100 %
Power input
I ×V s
= s ×100 %
960
0.2× 4800
= ×100 %
960
= 100%
(e) Since the efficiency of this gransformer is 100%, then it’s an ideal transformer.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 70

 POWER LOSSES IN A REAL TRANSFORMER
As mentioned earlier, a real transformer is never 100% efficient due to the reduction in energy supplied in its
primary circuit. The following are some of the way through which energy (power) is lost in a real transformer
which afterword affect its efficiency:
1. Resistance of the coils
As the current flows in the coils, the wires heat up and energy is lost in form of heat.
Energy lost = I 2 × R × t
Power lost = I2R
This method of losing energy is called joule-heating.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 71

To minimize energy loss in this way, thick copper wires of low resistance are used where large currents are to be
carried.

2. Eddy currents

When the magnetic field changes, small amount of current called eddy currents, are induced in the core of
the transformer. This heats up the core and energy is lost in form of heat.
To minimize this loss of energy, the core is laminated and insulated between the laminations. This reduces the
magnitude of the eddy currents.

3. Hysteresis losses
The magnetization and demagnetization of the core by the alternating magnetic field requires energy. This
energy heats up the core and is lost as heat energy. This method oflosing energy is called hysteresis loss.
To minimize this form of energy, the core is made of a soft magnetic material that is easy to magnetize and
demagnetize e.g. soft iron.

4. Flux or magnetic leakage

Not all the magnetic field lines of force due to the primary coil may link the secondary coil resulting in what
is called flux leakage as shown on figure below.
To reduce this loss, the core is designed in such a way that almost all the magnetic effect due to the primary coil is
transferred to the secondary coil e.g. using a loop.
.

(a) Incomplete core (b) Complete core (loop)

Fig. Magnetic or flux leakage

However, since it’s is impossible to completely reduce energy (power) losses in transformers, very large
transformers are oil-cooled to reduce overheating otherwise they have extreme potential of causing massive
destruction to the surroundings.

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS
1. Transformers are used in electric power transmission Grid systems to step-up or down voltage and
current.
Electric power is usually transmitted over long distances at very high voltage e.g. 11,000V and at low
current to minimize power loss due to internal heating (P = I²R).
Transformers are used to step-up voltage at the power station and step-down e.g. 240 V for use in a home.

2. Transformers are used in electric welding

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 72

Electrical welding machines use electricity at high current to melt metals.
For instance, a transformer with 800 turns in the secondary coil and only 5 turns as primary, steps-up current in
the ratio of 160:1.
In a perfect transformer (step-up), the current is stepped up in the same ratio. A current of 1A in the primary might
give a current of 160 A in the secondary. This large current heat the metal until it melts. The current can be used
to weld two metals together.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Name two types of transformers.
2. Explain the structure of each of type of transformer
3. Describe the working principle of transformer.
4. A student designed a transformer to supply a current of 10 A at the potential difference of 60V. If the
efficiency of the transformer is 80% and the mains supply voltage is 250V, calculate:
i Power supplied by the transformer.
ii The current in the primary coil.
5. Give any two factors that affect the efficiency of a transformer.
6. A step-down transformer has a primary coil with 800 turns and secondary coil with 100 turns. The primary
coil is connected to a 240V supply.
i Find the output voltage
ii If the transformer has a primary current of 0.1A and of secondary 0.72A, calculate its efficiency.
7. If one wishes to step down voltage from 240V to 10V, determine the number of turns needed in the
secondary coil if the primary coil has 4800 turns.
8. Why is it that a transformer doesn’t use direct current but rather alternating current?
9. How would you modify an ac generator to be a dc generator?
10. Draw a graph of for the variation of emf with time of:
i A dc generator
ii An ac generator
11. A 3Ω resistor is connected to a secondary coil of 60 turns. If the primary coil with 1200 turns is connected to
240V ac supply with a current of 1.6V flow, calculate the:
i Pd across the secondary coil.
ii Current through a 3Ω resistor.
iii Efficiency of the transformer
12. Find the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary coils if the
voltage of 12V is stepped up to 18V.
13. The figure below shows a transformer with 400 turns in the primary coil and 1000 turns in the secondary
coil.

a) What type of transformer is it?

b) Find the potential difference across BC.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 73

 c) What assumption(s) have you made?
14. A transformer is used to operate a 9 V ac shaving machine as seen below.

a) Explain why the primary coils should be made of thicker wire than that of the secondary coils.
b) How many turns are there in the primary coil?
c) Explain what would happen to the transformer if a 240 V dc power supply is used instead of 240 V mains.
d) What happens to the primary current when the machine is being used?
15. A step-down transformer has a primary coil with 800 turns and secondary coil with 100 turns. The primary
coil is connected to 240 V supply.
a. Find the voltage output.
b. If the transformer has a primary current of 0.10 A and of secondary 0.72 A, calculate its efficiency.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 74

CHAPTER 7: ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION & HOUSE INSTALLATION
After electricity is produced at the power plants, it has to get to the consumers that use it. Many countries have a
national grid with power lines that transmit electricity from the power stations to homes, towns and industries.
ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION
This is the movement of electrical energy from a power station through transmission lines.
In electric power transmission, ac usually of a frequency of about 50 Hz is commonly used and before transmission,
it is first stepped up using a step-up transformer.
The high voltage transmission increases the efficiency that is; stepping up the voltage steps down the current
flowing which thus minimizes energy loss as heat in the transmission lines.
The electrical energy generated at the power station is delivered to customers through the cables. It is distributed to
the consumers all the country through the national grid system which consists of a network of transmission cables
carried over through structures called “Pylons”.

Fig. 1 Pylons & Electricity Transmission Cables

Electrical power is generated at a relatively high current (e.g. 100 A & 25 kV), its voltage is immediately stepped
up using a step-up transformer at the generating station, automatically stepping down its current for transmission
through the grid (e.g. 6.25 A and 400 kV). On reaching the consumer, the voltage is stepped down to a lower value
e.g. 240 V for use in home by a step-down transformer the home.

Fig. 2 National Grid System

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 75

 POWER LOSS IN TRANSMISSION CABLES
Due to electrical resistance, R of the transmission cables, some electric power is lost in form of heat in the
transmission cables.
Remember that the electrical resistance of a wire (conductor) is directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area.
L L
i.e. R α ⁘ R= ꝭ
A A

This means that a long thin wire has greater electrical resistance than a short thick wire. As such, a very high
quantity of electricity would be lost if the electric power is transmitted at high current and through the think wires in
the national grid.
To reduce the power loss in transmission cables, the following conditions must be considered:
 Very thick transmission wires must be used.
 The transmission wires must be made of metals like copper which are good conductors of electricity hence
have very low electrical resistance.
 Electric power must be transmitted at very high voltage and very low current.
Advantages of ac over dc power transmission
b. An ac can be transmitted at a minimum power loss while dc can’t,
c. An ac can be transmitted at high voltage over a long distance while can’t.
d. An ac can easily and cheaply be stepped up or down using a transformer while dc can’t.
e. Ac is cheaper to generate than dc.
Disadvantages of ac over dc power transmission
XII. The ac transmission wires require a lot of insulation.
XIII. The ac power can’t be transmitted over a short distance.
XIV. There is high voltage drop in ac transmission.
XV. High voltage is required in a transmission.
XVI. It is costly due to large cross-sectional conductors required.

DANGERS OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION

Due to the high voltages in the transmission cables, a strong electric field is set up between the cables and the earth.
Air, an insulator under normal conditions, may start to conduct electricity especially on rainy days. People or
animals in the vicinity may get electrocuted.
To minimize this danger, the transmission cables carrying high voltages are supported high above the ground by
“Pylons”. When the cables enter the towns and cities, they are buried underground.

HAZARDS OF LIVING & WORKING NEAR HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES

Living and working near high-voltage power lines and towers exposes one to electrical & magnetic radiations
produced by these high-voltage wires.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 76

Long-term exposure is likely to cause some hazards to the people. These include:
 Risk of electric shock.
There is high risk of electric shock involved when transmitting high-voltage power. For instance, if the pole or
cables hang too low, they can give electric to human beings and animals when they come into contact which
may result into death.
 Risk of fire outbreak.
When the high-voltage cables fall on structures and vegetations, they cause fire. This leads to massive
destruction of property and plants.
 Childhood leukemia.
A research conducted in 1979 indicates that children living near the high-voltage power lines and towers are at
higher risks of suffering from leukemia than their counterparts who live far away.
 Other cancers.
Long exposure to electromagnetic radiations from high-voltage power lines and towers, may result in incidences
of cancer. Research has indicated that that people living within a 50 M radius of power have twice the chance of
developing a cancer compared to those who are 500 M away.
 Depression
A research conducted on the psychological effects of living close to high-voltage power lines shows that the
exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields might contribute to the number of depression-
related suicides in people living close to the high-voltage power sources.
ENVIRONMENETAL IMPACTS OF POWER GENERATION & TRANSMISSION
Power generation & transmission have both the positive & negative impacts on the environment. Before a power
plant is constructed, it’s important to assess and know the environmental & health consequences of electricity
generation & transmission.
Electric power is generated through sources like hydroelectric, nuclear reactions, fossil fuels, solar,
geothermal energy and biomass. Hydroelectric power is one of the most commonly generated powers in the
world. This method of power generation is cheaper, has low operating costs and less contaminative compared to
other methods of generating electricity like electricity from fossil fuels or nuclear energy. The following are
some of the negative impacts of power generation and transmission from water as well as other sources on the
environment are:
 Displacement of people living around the place where a dam has to be constructed.
 Releasing carbon dioxide during construction and flooding of the reservoir.
 Disrupting the aquatic ecosystems and animal life.
 It can be catastrophic if the dam wall collapses, for instance can cause flooding which can be so destructive.
 The dam becomes a breeding site of mosquitoes which carry and transmit malaria.
 Air pollution due to release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during the generation.
 Dangers of exposure to radioactive materials from nuclear generation.

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 77

 REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the risks involved in the high voltage power transmission.

 Risk of electric shock.

There is high risk of electric shock involved when transmitting high-voltage power. For instance, if the
pole or cables hang too low, they can give electric to human beings and animals when they come into
contact which may result into death.
 Risk of fire outbreak.
When the high-voltage cables fall on structures and vegetation, they cause fire. This leads to massive
destruction of property and plants.
 Childhood leukemia.
A research conducted in 1979 indicates that children living near the high-voltage power lines and towers
are at higher risks of suffering from leukemia than their counterparts who live far away.
 Other cancers.
Long exposure to electromagnetic radiations from high-voltage power lines and towers, may result in
incidences of cancer. Research has indicated that that people living within a 50 M radius of power have
twice the chance of developing a cancer compared to those who are 500 M away.
 Depression
A research conducted on the psychological effects of living close to high-voltage power lines shows that
the exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields might contribute to the number of
depression-related suicides in people living close to the high-voltage power sources.

2. The resistance of a length of power transmitting cables is 10 Ω and is used to transmit 11 kV at a current
of 1A. If this stepped-up to 16 kV by a transformer, determine the power loss.
Solution
Given R= 10 Ω, Vp =11 kV, Ip=1A, Vs =16 kV, Is = ?, Ploss=?
For 100% efficient transformers, input power (primary power) = power output (secondary
power),
VpIp = VsIs
Vp× Ip 11000 ×1
⁘ Is = =
Vs 16000
⁘ Is = 0.69 A,
From Ploss= I2R ,
⁘ Ploss = 0.692(10),
⁘ Ploss = 4.76 W
3. A generator produces 660 kW at a voltage of 10 kV. The voltage is stepped up to 132 kV and the power
is transmitted through cables of resistance of 200 Ω to a step-down transformer in a sub-station.
Assuming that both the transformers are 100% efficient:
a. Calculate the:
I. Current produced by the generator.
Solution

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 78

 Given Pin=660 kW, Vp= 10kV, Ip= ?
From Pin = VpIp,
Pin
⁘ Ip = ,
Vp
660000
⁘ Ip= ,
10000

⁘ Ip = 66 A
II. Current that flows through the transmission cables.
Solution
Given Pin=660 kW, Vp= 10kV, Ip= 66 A, Vs = 132 kV, Is=?
From VsIs = VpIp
VpIp
⁘ Is = ,
Vs
10000× 66
⁘ Is = ,
132000

⁘ Is = 2 A
III. Voltage drop across the transmission cables.
Solution
Given Is = 2 A, R= 200 Ω, V=?
From Vdrop= IsR,
⁘ Vdrop = 2 × 200,
⁘ Vdrop = 400 V
IV. Power lost during the transmission.
Solution
Given Is = 2 A, R= 200 Ω, Ploss=?
From Ploss= I2R,
⁘ Ploss = 22(200),
⁘ Ploss = 800 W
V. Power that reaches the sub-station.
Power that reached the sub-station = Initial power produced by the generator – power lost
during transmission,
Pout = Pin – Ploss, But Pin= 660 kW, Ploss = 0.8 kW, Pout =?
Pout = 660 kW – 0.8kW,

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 79

 Pout = 659.2 kW
b. Repeat a (i) to (v), but this time the 10 kV is stepped up only to 20 kV instead of 132 kV for
transmission.
N.B: Students’ Assignment
4. State the ways through which power loss in transmission cables can be minimized.
a) Very thick transmission wires must be used.
b) The transmission wires must be made of metals like copper which are good conductors of
electricity hence have very low electrical resistance.
c) Electric power must be transmitted at very high voltage and very low current.

HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Household electrical installation is the connection of various electrical devices within the house for domestic
consumption.
It is one of the most important skills that should be learnt by every able person to purposely avoid high cost of
hiring a technician to do it. It is simple to understand and practice.
The electrical power from the source is taken to a house by thick wires or cables known as the mains. The cable
contains two wires one of which is a live cable and the other is a neutral cable, which is connected to the earth at
the sub-station so that the house is at zero potential.

STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION DEVICES

Most of the electrical devices are made in different styles, appearances and colors according to the users’
requirements. However, standard symbols are used to represent various electrical and electronic devices in
schematic diagrams of electrical and electronic circuits. They’re easy to understand.
The table below show the standard symbols for some common household electrical devices

Device Symbol Device Symbol

Cell Battery

Lamp ac supply

Ammeter A Voltmeter V

Galvanometer Transformer

Heating Element Switch

2-way switch Bell

ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 80

 Fuse Fixed resistor

Variable resistor
Potentiometer
(rheostat)

Electrical Lamps
An electrical lamp is a light emitting electrical device used in electric circuits, mainly for lighting and indicator
purposes. It has a filament surrounded by a transparent glass. The filament of the lamp is usually made of
tungsten since it has high-melting point.
When current flows through lamp, the tungsten filament glows without melting, producing light energy.

Types of lamps
There are three main categories of electrical lamps namely incandescent lamp, LED lamps and gas-discharge
lamps.
(a) Incandescent lamps
These are lamps which produce light from a filament heated white-hot by an electric current. They are also
known as “tungsten lamps”.

Fig 3. An incandescent lamp

They are often considered least efficient and are commonly found in residential buildings. Although inefficient,
incandescent lamps are cheap, turn on instantly, are available in a huge array of sizes and shapes and
provide a pleasant, warm light with excellent colour rendition.
An example of incandescent lamps is a vacuum lamp. As the name suggest, the vacuum lamp has the glass
enclosing the tungsten filament has no gas in it. It has a vacuum. The tungsten filament is heated to a
temperature at which visible light is emitted. The light from the low temperature lamps appear reddish-
yellow while that from the high temperature lamps has a white appearance. The filament acts as an
electrical filament resistor that dissipates power proportional to the product of the voltage applied and the
current through the filament. When the power supplied is sufficient to raise the temperature to above 1000 K,
visible light is produced. As the power dissipated is increased, the amount of light produced increases.

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 Fig. 4 Vacuum lamp

(b) LED lamps

A LED lamp is made using light emitting diodes (LED). A LED consists of a junction diode made from a
semi-conducting material usually gallium-arsenide phosphide. When current is passed through the diode, it emits
light. LED lamps are cheap and highly efficient because they emit almost no heat.

Fig 5. LED lamp

(c) Gas-filled lamps

Gas-filled lamps produce light from an incandescent filament operated in an inert gas atmosphere. The inert
gas suppresses the evaporation of the tungsten filament, increasing the lifetime of the lamp and allow the lamp to
operate at higher temperature. The commonly used gases are neon, argon, xenon, sodium & mercury. The cost
of gas-filled lamps depends on the gases used. For instance, the one filled with xenon is more expensive due to
its low natural abundance.
The other disadvantage of a gas-filled lamp is that they require more power to achieve the same temperature than
incandescent lamps.

Fig. 6 Gas-filled lamp

FUSES
A fuse is a short thin piece of wire of low melting point, which melts as soon as the current flowing through it
exceeds its rated value.

Fig 7. A fuse

They are usually fitted in all electrical circuits to prevent dangerously large currents from flowing. They melt or
“blow off” and stops the current flow hence protecting the electrical appliances against the risk of fire caused by
the heat. The fuses are therefore fitted on the live wire. Thus, the fuses though very cheap, protect expensive
electrical devices from damages caused by electrical faults.
FUSE RATING
Fuse rating is the current needed to blow (melt) the fuse, usually printed on the fuse surface.

Fuse rating is written on the fuse – 13 amps

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 Fig 8. Fuse rating

The fuse used in any electrical appliance should be of a value just slightly higher than the normal current required
by the appliance. The common standard values of available fuses are 2A, 5A and 13A although 1A, 3A, 7A and
10A fuses are also made.
If the power rating of an electrical appliance is “2000 W, 250 V”, the required current through it is 8 A. Therefore,
the correct fuse to protect the appliance is 10 A. Similarly, if the required current for an appliance is 4 A,
the appropriate fuse to be used is 5 A.

CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker (Fig. 9) is an automatically operated electrical switch designed toprotect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by either excess current, overload or short circuit.

Fig. 9. Circuit breaker

The main function of a circuit breaker is to put off the circuit to discontinue current flow after a fault has been
detected. Unlike a fuse which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resumenormal current flow after the fault is solved.

REVISION QUESTIONS (Students’ Assignment)

1. The Table below shows standard symbols for electrical installation. Name the symbols
and
. draw the symbolic diagram wherever necessary
Name Standard symbol
(a) Bulb/lamp

(b)

(c) Fuse

(d)

(e) Capacitor

(f) D.C

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g) Manoon Majangdit 2024 83

(h) Circuit breaker

2. Explain why tungsten is used in lamps and not any other metal.
3. What is a fuse? Explain its function in an electrical circuit.
4. A microwave is rated 1500 W, 240 V. What is the appropriate fuse used in its circuit?
5. What is a circuit breaker? Explain how it functions.
6. Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CABLES, PLUG AND THEIR SIZES

Usually, the terms “wire & cable” are used interchangeably to mean the same thing, but they are actually quite
different. A wire is a single electrical conductor whereas a cable is a group of wires covered in a sheath.
A cable usually has three wires namely the live wire (L), neutral wire (N) and Earth wire.

The figure below shows a cable with the live, neutral and earth wires.

Fig.10: Electrical cable

The domestic supplies in most countries including the Republic of South Sudan are 240 V AC with a frequency
of 50Hz.
This voltage is supplied by two cables from a local sub-station to different homes, industries and offices for
consumption.

LIVE (L), NEUTRAL (N) AND EARTH (E) WIRES

The live wire maybe linked to the positive terminal of a cell or a battery and the neutral wire to the negative
terminal (Fig.11 (a) and (b)).

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 Lamp Lamp

Neutral
I

Live
I + –

(a) a.c (b) d.c

Fig.11: Live and neutral wires

All electrical appliances need a live and a neutral wire to form a complete circuit from thepower supply through
the appliance and back to the power supply. The live wire delivers the current to the appliance. It is dangerous,
because it is capable of giving electric shocks, if handled carelessly. All switches in a circuit should be fitted in
the live wire, so that when the switch is off, the high voltage is disconnected from the appliance. The current
returns to the supply through the neutral wire. Some electrical appliances have a third wire known as the earth
wire (E) for safety.

COLOUR CODES FOR THE WIRES USED IN HOUSE CIRCUITS

The insulation,usually of plastic, on the three wires of a cable is distinctively colored to denote the live, neutral
and earth wires. The basic idea of using different colours is to easily identify the wires so that correct connections
are made with care. The present international convention is brown for live, blue for neutral and green with yellow
stripes for earth. Electrical wiring should be checked to ensure that the earth wire lead to (connected to) the
outside case of the appliance to protect users from shock.
Figure 12 below shows a 3-pin plug. It is usually marked with letters L, N and E to stand for live, neutral and
earth respectively.

(green/yellow) Earth pin

Fuse

L
Neutral pin

Live Live
(brown)

(a) Inner view (b) outer view

Fig 12: 3-pin plug

It is important to note that the earth pin is slightly longer than the other two pins and that the live pin is on the
right-hand side of the plug when connected to the socket.

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EARTH CONNECTION

The earth wire connects the metal case of an appliance (e.g. an electric iron) to the ground and prevents it from
becoming live, if a fault develops. If, for instance, the cable insulation wears out due to the heating effectof the
current, there are chances thata few fine strands of the bare (naked) live wire could touch the metal case.
When such a fault occurs, a current flow through the live wire and the earth wire in series. The fuse in the live
wire will blow and cut off the power supply. If on the other hand, there was no earth wire connection, a person
touching the metal case would get an electric shock.
In appliances like television set, record player, etc. the outer case is not metallic and hence 2-pin plugs are
sufficient. It is dangerous to use the 2-pin plug with any appliance which has an outer metal case.

SHORT CIRCUITS

If a few strands of the fine bare live wire touch, by chance, those of neutral wire, a large current can flow between
the live and the neutral wires of the supply cables. This is due to the fact that current tends to take the path of
least resistance. This is called short-circuiting of the appliance.
On such occasions, the fuse usually blows off. Otherwise if no fuse was fitted in the circuit the ‘sparking’
produced by the large current might burn the cable and there are risks of fire being produced.
In a socket for 3-pin plug, the holes for the live and the neutral pins are usually closed by an insulating material
called a ‘blind’ (Fig. 13). This is a safety measure, especially to children who may like to play with the circuit
and might cause short circuiting by putting wires in the socket.
The ‘blinds’ are opened by the longer earth pin of the 3-pin plug. The moment the earth pin touches and opens the
socket, any leakage current through the metal case will straightaway be earthed hence making the appliance safe.

Generally, a short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel along an unintended path with no
electrical problem. A short circuit occurs when exposed electrical wires touch each other which results in damage
of an electrical appliance.

Insulating
Material (blind)

Fig. 13 Socket

HOUSEHOLD WIRING

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Figure 14 shows the schematic drawing of the domestic wiring system consisting the main fuse, electricity meter,
consumer unit or the fuse box, lighting circuit and the ring main circuit.

Fig.14: Domestic wiring system

Electricity is supplied from a transformer to the house via two wire (L and N) cables. Earthing for one of the wires
is done at the transformer. It then goes through a fuse which usually differ depending on the amount of the current
required. It is then wired to the meter box which contains all the fuses and circuit breakers.
The circuit breakers are normally labelled clearly to show to which each circuit breaker belongs. Wiring for each
part of the house is done starting at this unit box also referred to as consumer unit.
Every circuit is connected in parallel with the power supply, i.e. across the live and the neutral wires. Every
circuit receives 240V AC. There is no connection between the live and the neutral wires except through an
electrical appliance.
The electricity meter recordsthe electric energy consumed in the whole house.
The consumer unit is a junction box which distributes current to several separate circuits. The consumer unit also
houses the main switch which can switch off all the circuits in the house, if required.
The lighting circuit contains lights for different places and the 2-way switches for places like the staircases. Each
lamp is connected in parallel at a suitable point along the cable. The lighting circuit does not require the earth
connection, as the current is normally quite low.

The ring main circuit provides parallel circuit connections to each electrical appliance plugged into the sockets.
Since the current drawn is high, the ring main circuit incorporates the earth wire connection.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
A hazard is a situation that poses a threat to life, health, property or environment.
The following are some common electrical hazards in our homes, offices and factories.
• Poor wiring and defective electric wires can lead to electric shock and fires.

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• Water outlets being close to electric outlets.
• Pouring water on electrical naked wire. This can lead to electric shock.
• Covering electrical cords and wires with heavy cover can lead to overheating.
• Overloading the outlets leading to overheating and electrical fire.
• Use of long extension cords which can cause tripping or accident.
• Touching electrical appliances with wet hands leading to shocks.
• Broken sockets and electrical appliances leading to electric shock.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Every electricity user should observe safety measures when using electricity and electrical appliances. The
following are some of the electrical safety measures.
 Do not touch naked electric cables with bare hands to avoid electric shock.
 Always pay attention to the warning signals given out by your appliances. For instance, if a circuit breaker
repeatedly trips, you should confirm the problem.
 Use the right size circuit breakers and fuses to avoid overloading.
 Ensure that potentially dangerous electrical devices or naked wires are out of reach of children.
 Avoid cube taps, also known as splilters or adapters and other outlet-stretching devices.
 Always replace broken plugs and naked wires.
 Use the correct appliances in a socket to avoid overload.
 The wires must be insulated to avoid shock when incidentally touched.
 An earth wire should be installed.
 The color codes must be followed strictly.
 All the switches should be connected to the live wire.
 Fuses should be installed to safeguard various components.
All the household wirings are connected in parallel. This is because of the benefits:
i. Series connection cause dimming of light bulbs.
ii. Parallel connection ensures that all appliances at the same potential difference.
iii. It enables that switching on & off lights of appliances independently.
iv. Parallel connection enables independent operation of appliances.

REVISON QUESTIONS
1. State the international standard colors for the live (line), neutral and earth leads of a 3-core flex.
2. Define 'fuse' and state its function in an electrical circuit.
3. Sketch and label a three-pin plug.
4. Explain why the earth connection is important to an appliance at home.
5. (a) Explain how to install lightning arrestor in a house.
(b) Highlight the general design rule that must be followed to ensure highest level of electrical safety of
modern houses.

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 6. A laboratory building in a Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) Centre is to be supplied with
electricity. Briefly explain how wiring would be done in thelaboratory building for effective supply of
electricity.

7. (a) Name five components used in house wiring.

(b) Briefly explain the functions of each of the components you named in (a) above.
8. The figure below shows an electrical cable. Name the earth, live and neutral wire.

9. (a) Name three types of electric lamps

(b) List any two gases used in lamps.
(c) What is the purpose of the presence of gases inside the bulb?
10. An electric iron rated 240V, 750 W is to be connected to a 240 V mains supply through a 3 A fuse.
Determine whether the fuse is suitable or not?
11. Find the maximum number of 75 W bulbs that can be connected to a 3 A fuse on mains power supply of 240
V.
12. Explain why a fuse is always fitted to the live wire.

CHAPTER 8: RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR ENERGY

We’re already familiar with sources such as sunlight, wind, hydroelectric power and geothermal power which have
been in use for so long.
In 1896, Henry Becquerel discovered another source of energy that occurs due to changes that occur inside the
nucleus of an atom. This change is known as “radioactivity”.

DEFINITION OF RADIOACTIVITY
It should be noted that experiments have proven that as the atomic number of the elements increases, the number of
neutrons also increases.
Usually, the increase in the number of neutrons, (N) is more than the increase in the number of protons, (P).
Atoms whose ratio of N: P = 1:1 are said to be stable. Most of these are atoms of elements with atomic numbers
between 1 and 20.
When the ratio N: P is much greater or much smaller, then the atoms become unstable and therefore disintegrates
and emit some particles or radiations to stabilise.
This process of disintegration is known “radioactivity or radioactive decay”.
It is important to note that this process is random and spontaneous.

Therefore, “radioactivity” is the process by which an unstable nucleus spontaneously disintegrate to release energy
by emitting radiations or particles.

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IMPORTANT NOTE!!!
 Experiments have revealed that any radioactive elements has definite rate of decay known as “activity of
the element”.
 “Activity” is therefore defined as the rate of disintegration or the number of disintegrations per second of
the radioactive substance. It’s measured in becquerel, Bq. 1 Bq = 1 decay/s

HALF-LIFE
This is the time interval/average time taken for the activity of a sample to reduces to the half of initial value or
It is the time taken for half of the number of radioactive nuclei present to decay.

If the original activity or number of nuclei present in a sample is A0 or N 0 then;

A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0
A 0 →t →t →t →t →t →t →t
1
2 2 1
2 4 1
2 8 1
2 16 1
232 1
2 64 1
2128
Or
N0 N0 N0 N0 N0 N0 N0
N 0 →t →t →t →t →t →t →t
1
2 2 1
2 4 1
2 8 1
2 16 1
232 1
2 64 1281
2

A0 N0
Hence, A0 ∨N 0 reduces to ∨ after 7 half-lives.
128 128

The activity decreases exponentially with time. Half-life periods of the radioelements range from milliseconds to
millions of years.
Half-life is unique to each radioactive element.

The below shows the half-life of some common radioactive elements.

ELEMENTS MASS NUMBER HALF-LIFE
9
Uranium 238 4.5 × 10 years
Plutonium 239 24000 years
Carbon 14 5600 years
Radium 226 1600 years
Caesium 137 30 years
Iodine 131 8 days
Bismuth 210 5 days
Sodium 24 15 minutes

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 Potassium 218 3 minutes
Radon 220 54 seconds

GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR THE HALF-LIFE

If N 0 is the quantity of initial radioactive material, then the remaining quantity N after a given time T is given by:

()
T
1 t
N=N 0
2

Where t = half-life of the material.

EXAMPLES
1. The half-life of iodine -131 is 8 days. If at time t = 0 s, the mass of the iodine is 1 g, how much of the iodine-
131 will be left after 48 days?
Solution

()
T
1 t
From N=N 0
2

N=1 ( )
48
1 8
2

N=( )
6
1
2
1
∴ N= g
64
1
2. The radioactive substance has decayed to its th of its original activity after 49 days. What is its half-life?
128
Solution

()
T
1 t
From N=N 0
2
Let N 0= x
1
→N= x , T =49 days, t=?
128

()
49
1 1 t
→ x=x
128 2

→ ( ) =( )
7 49
1 1 t
2 2
49
→ =7
t
→ 7 t=49
∴ Half −life , t=7 days

EXERCISE
1. Radioactive substance has a half-life of 2 hours. What will remain after six hours?
2. Radium-226 has half-life of 1559 years. How long would it taken seven-eighths if a radium-226 sample to
decay?

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 3. A radioactive element is giving a count rate of 15 counts per seconds. What was the count rate8 hours ago if
its half-life is 2 hours?
4. At t = 0s, the activity of iodine-131 is 512 counts per minute and after 40 days, it decreased to 16 counts per
minute. Calculate the half-life of iodine-131.
5. A radioactive element of mass 12 g has a half-life of 7 years. Find the half-life taken for the element to
decay to 0.75 g.
6. The half-life of Polonium is 24 days. Calculate the mass of the polonium which remains after 120 days if the
initial mass is 128g.
7. A radioactive element of 8g has a half-life of 8 days. Find the:
a. Mass of the element after 24 days.
b. Mass decayed after 24 days.
c. Mass decayed

TYPES OF RADIATIONS EMITTED BY RADIOACTIVE NUCLEUS DURING RADIOACTIVITY

Physicist Ernest Rutherford carried out a number of experiments to investigate the exact nature of radiations emitted
by a radioactive substance during the process of disintegration.

During such experiments, he found out that a radioactive substance emits three different types of radiations namely:
 Alpha particle ,α
 Beta particle , β
 Gamma ray , γ
It should be noted that every radioactive element doesn’t necessarily emits out all three types of radiations.

1. Alpha particle ,α
Alpha particle is a high speed helium nucleus emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive substance.
It is symbolized by 42He meaning that alpha particle has a mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2. It carries a
positive charge.
Hence, it carries two protons and two neutrons in its nucleus.

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 Fig. Detection of α – particle

PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES

i. Alpha particles travel in straight lines in free space.
ii. They are deflected in both magnetic field and electric fields.
iii. An alpha particle is a Helium nucleus i.e. Helium atom without two orbital electrons. An alpha particle is
about 8000 times heavier than the electron.
iv. It has a positive charge of +2e.
v. It has mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2.
vi. They travel almost with the same speed, approximately1 ×106 m/s .
vii. They possess a lot of kinetic energy due to their heavy mass.
viii. They are also mono-energetic, since they all have approximately the same energy
ix. They affect the photographic papers i.e. “fogging” is prominent.
x. They cause fluorescence when incident on certain materials such as zinc sulphide, barium, etc.
xi. They ionizes the air particles through which they travel and lose energy almost completely.
xii. Since they can easily lose their energy in the ionization process, they therefore have least penetrating power.
xiii. Alpha particles get scattered while passing through thin metal foils.

2. Beta Particles, β
A beta particle is a negatively charged moving electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive substance. The
symbol for beta particle is −10e , thus beta particle has no mass number and carries a negative charge. A beta particle
is produced as a result of the heavier neutron emitting electron and changed to proton.
1 1 0
0n → 1 p + −1n

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 Fig. Detection of β – particle

PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLES

a. They are negatively charged fast moving electron emitted from the nucleus a radioactive substance.
During a beta emission, a neutron which is slightly heavier than a proton, emits an electron and becomes a proton.
Neutron → proton + electron
b. They don’t have well defined path like alpha particles.
c. They have higher speed, approximately 10 – 15 times than that of alpha particles. The most energetic beta
particles are emitted with the speed almost the same as the speed of light.
d. Beta particles ionise the gas through which they travel, but their ionizing power is less than alpha particles.
e. They cause fluorescence when incident on certain materials like zinc sulphide and other fluorescent materials.
f. Beta particles affect photographic paper but the effect is slightly less than that of alpha particles
g. They are easily deflected by both the magnetic and electric fields because they’re lighter.
h. Beta particles are emitted with different energies.
i. The ‘range’ in air of beta particles is a few metres, the maximum range being about 5 m.
j. The penetrating power of beta particles is more than that of the alpha particles.

3. GAMMA, γ RAYS
This is a high energy electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength emitted from the nucleus of the
radioactive substance. Gamma rays have no mass number and carry no charge. They are produced when an excited
atomic nucleus loses energy and give it out as gamma rays

Fig. Detection of γ – particle

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 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA, γ RAYS
Gamma rays:
i. Are uncharged electromagnetic radiation having no mass and no charge.
They are like visible light or X-rays, but of very short wavelength (10-11 – 10-13 m) and high frequencies. They
originate from the energy changes in the nucleus of an atom. There is no change in the composition of the
nucleus during gamma ray emission.
ii. Travel in a straight line, but have no well-defined path.
iii. Travel with a speed of light (3 × 108 m/s) in air.
iv. Possess energy called photon energy. Each gamma ray photon has an energy E = hf, where h is the Planck’s
constant and f is the frequency of the gamma rays emitted.
v. Affect photographic papers, but the effect is the least as compared to alpha and beta particles.
vi. Ionise the gas through which they travel.
vii. Cause fluorescence on certain materials.
viii. Have an almost infinite range in air.
ix. Have the highest penetrating power when compared to alpha and beta particles.
x. Are not deflected in either electric or magnetic field.
xi. Show diffraction effect in crystals and they are transverse in nature.

SUMMARY OF THE TYPES OF RADIATIONS EMITTED BY RADIOACTIVE SOURCES

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ENG. Peter Manoon Majangdit 2024 96
DETECTORS OF RADIATIONS
A. GEIGER – MULLER TUBE & CLOUD CHAMBER
This instrument is probably the most versatile and useful devices available for detecting radiations from radioactive
substances.
They detects radiation and each time they absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical to a digital scale counter,
which counts the actual number of pulses or to a ratemeter, which measures the average number of pulses over an
interval of time.
This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate. The greater the frequency of clicks, the higher the count rate
and the more radiation the Geiger – Muller Tube or Cloud Chamber is absorbing.

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 B. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS
The photographic plate goes darker when it absorbs radiations, just like it does when it absorbs visible light. The
more radiation it absorbs, the darker it becomes.
Scientists working with radiations wear sealed badges which are regularly checked to monitor the levels of
radiations absorbed. They are replaced when their exposure exceeds certain levels as seen by the blackening of the
film.

C. SCINTILLATION COUNTER
This device uses a fluorescence screen together with a microscope of a fluorescent crystal placed in contact with a
photomultiplier. As the radioactive rays strike the crystal, light rays (scintillations) are produced. These light rays
(scintillations) are detected by the photomultiplier.

PENETRATING POWER OF THE RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS

The ability of each type of radiation to pass through matter is referred “penetration power”. The more material the
radiation can pass through, the greater the penetration power and the more dangerous they are. In general, the
greater mass present the greater the ionizing power and the lower the penetration power.

 Alpha particles

Alpha particles are relatively large, consisting of two protons and two neutrons (essentially a helium nucleus). Due to their
size and positive charge, they have a low penetrating power. They can be stopped by a few centimeters of air, a sheet of paper
or human skin.

 Beta particles

Beta particles are high energy, fast moving electrons. They are smaller and lighter than alpha particles, giving them moderate
penetrating power than the alpha particles. Beta particles can pass through a paper, a few centimeters of materials such as
wood, plastic, aluminium or the outer layer of the human skin.

 Gamma rays

Gamma rays are highly energetic waves and carry no charge making it difficult to interact with the particles of the material in
which they travel, hence the most penetrating radiation and can only be stopped by a thick block of lead.

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IONIZING POWER OF THE RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS

Alpha particles carry a double positive charge and therefore they tend to interact with many particles of the material through
which they travel hence they are most ionizing.

Gamma rays carry no charge and therefore they tend to interact with less particles of the material through which they travel,
hence, they are the least ionizing.

Alpha particles produce straight traces because they are heavy and they cause greater ionization of the gases through which
they pass. Beta particles produce irregular and light traces while gamma rays don’t produce any trace.

DEFLECTION OF THE RADIATION IN ELCTRIC FIELDS

 Alpha and beta particles are deflected by electric fields because they are charged particles. When the radiations from
the radioactive nucleus are passed through a strong electric field, the beta particles are deflected towards the positive
plate showing that they carry a negative charge.
 Alpha particles are deflected are towards a negative plate in a direction opposite to that of the beta particles, showing
that they carry a positive charge.
 Gamma rays aren’t deflected at all showing that they carry no charge.

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DEFLECTION OF THE RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Alpha and beta particles are deflected by magnetic field because they consist of charged particles. When the
radiations from the radioactive nucleus are passed through a strong magnetic field, the beta particles are deflected
according to the Fleming’s right hand rule showing that they carry a negative charge.
Meanwhile, the alpha particles are deflected to the direction opposite to that of the beta particles showing that they
carry a positive charge but heavier than the beta particles. The gamma rays are not deflected at all showing that they
carry no charge.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
This is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a stable nucleus in which a radiation released in
the form of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays. In otherwords, it is a process spontaneous breakdown of
radioactive nuclide with a release of radiation.
N.B: A radioactive nuclide is an unstable atom of a radioactive substance with excess nuclear energy.

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

A. ALPHA DECAY: This is a process through an alpha particle is emitted alongside an energy from an
unstable radioactive substance.
When a nuclide undergoes an alpha decay, it losses two protons and two neutrons. Therefore, its mass number
reduces by four its atomic number reduces by two and the daughter nuclide is two steps to the left in the periodic
table. The unstable nucleus is called “parent nuclide” while the resulting stable nucleus is referred to as “daughter
nuclide” and the reaction is generally known as “nuclear reaction”.

If a radioactive element, AZ X undergoes an alpha decay to from an element Y and energy, the general reaction
equation is given by: parent nuclide → daughter nuclide +α − particle+energy OR
A A −4 4
Z X → Z−2Y + 2 He + Energy .

It should be noted that A and Z are balanced across the equation (both atomic and mass number are conserved).

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 B. BETA DECAY: This is a spontaneous disintegration process in which a beta particle is released from the
unstable nuclide. A beta particle is a fast moving electron emitted from the nucleus of an unstable
radioactive atom.

It is symbolized by −10e ∨−10 β . During beta emission, the neutron inside the nucleus becomes a proton i.e. the neutron
number reduces by 1 whereas the proton number increases by 1. Hence, the atomic number (Z) increases by 1
whereas the mass number (A) remains unchanged. The daughter nuclide is one step to the right in the periodic
table.

If a radioactive element, AZ X undergoes a beta decay to from an element Y and energy, the general nuclear reaction
equation is given by: parent nuclide → daughter nuclide + β− particle+energy OR
A A 0
Z X → Z +1Y + −1 β + Energy .

C. GAMMA DECAY: This is the process in which the radioactive nuclide releases gamma rays. Gamma rays are
represented by 0 γ .
0

They have no atomic number, atomic mass and a charge. Gamma rays aren’t particles and therefore when a nuclide
emits gamma rays, its atomic and mass number do not change but the nucleus becomes more stable.
The general equation for γ −emission is given below:
A A
Z X → Z X +γ + Energy .

EXAMPLES

1. Radium ( 226
88 Ra) decays to become Radon, Rn with an emission of an alpha particle.

i. Write the nuclear reaction equation for the decay

226 A 4
88 Ra → Z Rn + 2 He+ energy

226=A + 4 ∴ A=222
88=Z +2 ∴ Z=86
226 222 4
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He+ energy

ii. State the atomic and mass number of Radon.

The atomic and mass number of radon are 86 and 222 respectively.
2. Uranium ( 238
92 U ) decays to become Thorium, Th with emission of an alpha particle. Write the nuclear reaction

equation for the decay.

238 A 4
92 U → Z Th + 2 He+energy

238=A +4 ∴ A=234
92=Z +2 ∴ Z=90
238 234 4
92 U→ 90 Th + 2 He +energy

3. Carbon, 146C decays to become nitrogen, N with an emission of a beta particle. Write the nuclear reaction
equation for the decay and state the atomic and mass number of nitrogen.
14 14 0
6C → 7 N +−1 β + energy

The atomic and mass number of nitrogen are 7 and 14 respectively.

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 4. The nuclide 22688 Ra decays to nuclide Y by emission of two alpha particles and one beta particle. Write the

nuclear reaction equation for the decay and state the atomic and mass number of Y.
226 218 4 0
88 Ra → 85 Rn +2 2 He +−1 β +energy

The atomic and mass number of nuclide Y are 85 and 218 respectively.
EXERCISE

1. A radon nucleus, 222

86 Rn emits an alpha particle followed by a beta particle. What is the atomic and mass number

of the nucleus after the emission?

2. Balance the nuclear reaction equation below:
24 A 0
11 Na → Z Y + −1 β + energy

3. Alpha particles have a higher ionizing power than beta particles. Give one reason for this.
→ Ans :This is because α − particles double charge which makes it interact more readily and easily with many
particles of the material through which they travel.

4. A radioactive substance 238

92 X decays by emission of two alpha particles and one beta particle. Write a balanced

equation of this emission

5. Uranium-228 disintegrates by emitting an alpha particle to form nuclide Y. Nuclide Y emits a beta particle to
form substance Z. Write down nuclear equation(s) to show how substance Y and substance Z are formed.
6. The following is a part of uranium decay series.
→ → →
238
92 U I 234 234 A
90Th II 91 Pa III Z X

a. Which particles are emitted in steps I and II?

b. If a beta particle is emitted in step III, find Z and A?

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
I. Natural radioactivity
This is a kind of radioactivity by which the unstable radioactive atoms disintegrate on their own to be become
stable. Elements that undergo natural radioactivity have extremely long half-lives. They are not useful in research,
treatment and technology because of their long half-lives.
The table below shows some naturally radioactive elements with their half-lives.
Natural Nuclide Half-life
238 9
Uranium-238, 92U 4.5 × 10 years
Carbon-14, 146C 3
5.7 ×10 years
Radium-226, 226
88 Ra
3
1.6 ×10 years

II. Artificial Radioactivity

This is an artificially induced disintegration of the naturally stable elements. This occurs when the atoms of the
stable elements are bombarded with neutrons.
Examples include:
 10n + 31 32
15 P → 15 P :

Since 32 32
15 P being heavier than the stable isotopes, it undergoes beta decay to become sulphur, 16 S

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32 32 0
15 P → 16S +−1 β
1 14 15 14 1
 0 n + 7 N → 7 N → 6C + 1 H

Artificial radioactive isotopes have very short half-lives. The shorter half-lives of the radioisotopes, the more suitable they
become for scientific use because they easily decay. The table below shows some artificial radioisotopes.

Artificial radioisotope Half-life

Phosphorus-32, 32
15 P
14 days
Iodine-131, 131
53 I
8.1 days
Bismuth-214, 214
83 Bi
19.7 minutes

It is important to note that:

 Phosphorous – 32, has been used to study the uptake and metabolism of phosphorous by plants from
phosphate fertilizers.
 Carbon – 14 has been extensively used in the study of carbon pathways including photosynthesis and protein
synthesis.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS
These are reactions that occurs in the atomic nucleus, which result into the emission of energy.
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
a. Nuclear Fusion: This is a process where energy is released when two lighter nuclei are fused together
(combined) to form a heavy nucleus. The energy is emitted in the form of heat energy. It occurs at the sun,
stars, formation of hydrogen bomb and during fertilization in which the sperm and ovum fuses to form a
zygote.
Example
Two deuterium nuclei combine to form Helium-3 and a neutron with the release of energy.
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1 H → 2 H + 0n + energy
CONDITIONS FOR THE OCCURENCE OF NUCLEAR FUSION
 It requires the presence of two light nuclei.
 It requires high-speed moving nuclei.
 It occurs at very high temperatures i.e. about 108 K.

b. Nuclear Fission: This is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with the emission of energy. It
occurs in the nuclear reactors and in the atomic bombs. Example include Uranium-235 being bombarded
with a neutron making it splits into Barium-139 and Krypton-94 with the release of energy.
1 235 139 94 1
0n + 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 0n

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CONDITIONS FOR THE OCCURRENCE OF NUCLEAR FISSION
 It occurs at very low temperatures.
 It requires the presence of a heavy nucleus.
 It requires the presence of energetic slowly moving neutron.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
a) Medical Uses
 Radiations are used in radiotherapy (treatment of cancerous cells)
 Radiations such as gamma radiations are used to sterilize medical equipments.
 Radiations are used to detect brain tumors.
 Radiations are used to locate blood clot.
 They are also used in diagnosing thyroiditis.
 To determine the amount of blood in the body.
b) Industrial Uses
 Radioactive radiation can be used to detect flaws.
 It acts as a source of energy i.e. nuclear energy, which is reconverted to electrical power.
 To harden polythene, plastic and rubber during the manufacturing process.
 To measure fluid flow, including the leakage in the underground pipes/on-ground pipes.
 To determine the thickness of the manufactured metal sheet.
 Radioactive radiation can be used in food preservation.
c) Agricultural Uses
 Radioactive elements are used in pests’ controls both on the farm and in the store.
 Radioactive elements are to produce varieties of plants with new characteristics.
 Radioactive elements such as phosphorus-32, are used to study the uptake of fertilizers of plants.
d) Archeology

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Radioactivity has several important applications in archaeology, particularly in dating ancient materials and
studying past environments. Here are some key ways in which radioactivity is applied in archaeology:
 Radiocarbon Dating (Carbon-14 Dating)
Radiocarbon dating is one of the most widely used techniques in archaeology. It is based on the radioactive decay of
Carbon-14 (¹⁴C), a radioactive isotope of carbon. Living organisms absorb carbon, including a small proportion of
Carbon-14, from the atmosphere during their lifetimes. When the organism dies, it stops absorbing carbon, and the
Carbon-14 in its body begins to decay at a known rate (its half-life is approximately 5,730 years). By measuring the
remaining amount of Carbon-14 in organic material, archaeologists can estimate the time since the organism's death.
This method is useful for dating artifacts and remains up to about 50,000 years old.
Applications: Dating ancient human remains, tools, or structures made from organic materials such as wood, bone,
and plant fibers.
 Environmental Reconstruction (Isotope Analysis)
Radioactive isotopes, such as carbon and oxygen isotopes, are used in isotope analysis to reconstruct past climates
and environments. This information helps archaeologists understand how ancient humans and animals interacted
with their environment, how they adapted to climate changes, and how ecosystems have evolved over time.
Applications: Reconstructing diets, migration patterns, and environmental conditions of ancient populations.
These methods collectively allow archaeologists to establish accurate timelines, understand the chronology of
human development, and gain insights into the environments and climates of the past.

HEALTH HAZARDS OF RADIOACTIVITY

 Radiations causes blood cancer and leukemia.
 They can cause skin burn.
 They also cause sterility (inability to reproduce).
 They cause low body resistance to diseases.
 Causes genetic mutation.
 It causes cell destruction.
 It may damages eyesight.
 It cause infrastructural and environmental destruction.
 It may result into death.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
 Should wear disposable gloves.
 Should be transported in thick lead containers.
 Avoid unnecessary exposure to the radiation.
 Never eat or drink where radioactive sources are in use.
 Use long pairs of tongs holding the sources.
 Cover any wound before using radioactive source.
 Wear protective clothings such as aprons impregnated with lead, when handling radioactive sources.

CHAPTER 9: BASIC ELECTRONICS

Definition of Electronics

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Electronics is a branch of science that deals with the development of electrical circuits designed to process, store or
transmit information.

Concepts learnt in electronics are applied in the design of modern communication devices like televisions,
calculators, radios, computers, burglar alarms, (CD) players, digital watches, Automated Teller Machines (cash
dispenser), mobile phones, etc.

CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS & INSULATORS

Materials can be grouped according to their electrical conductivity properties.
Materials that allow an electric current to pass through them easily are called good conductors. Examples include
copper, zinc, silver, mercury, etc.

Those materials that do not allow electric current to flow through them at all are known as insulators. These include
paper, wood, plastics, etc.

Semi-conductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity lies between that of good conductors and
insulators. That is to say, they partially allow the electric current to flow through them. Such materials include
silicon and germanium.

The electrical conductivity of materials is well understood by first studying how electrons are held or locked up in
the crystal lattice. Many theories have been proposed to explain the electrical behavior of materials with one of
which is the band theory.

BAND THEORY
This theory states that there are two bands in materials where electrons may be found. These bands are the valency
band and conduction band.

Fig 9.1: Conduction band & valency band in conductors

The two bands are separated by a gap called forbidden gap (no electrons are allowed in this gap). For a material to
conduct an electric current, electrons should be in conduction band. However, electrons strive to occupy the valency
band as this is the lowest energy level. To move the electrons to the conduction band, energy is needed to cross
through the forbidden gap. One way of providing the energy needed to cross the gap is to increase the temperature
of the material.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN CONDUCTORS

In conductors, the valency and conduction bands overlap and hence no energy is needed to overcome the forbidden
gap.

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 Fig 9.2: overlapping conduction band and valency band in conductors

All the electrons are free and mobile to conduct electric current. If conductors are heated, the internal energy
increases and the electrons move in all directions colliding with each other.
This explains why metals become poor conductors as temperature increases.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTORS

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap is wider than in conductors. At low temperatures, all the electrons are in the
valency band.
However, at room temperature some electrons gain thermal energy and cross the forbidden gap to the conduction
band. The material then becomes a fair conductor. As the temperature is increased, more electrons move to the
conduction band and hence its electrical conductivity is increased.
This shows that the resistance of semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature.

Fig.9.3

Poor electrical conduction in insulators

In insulators, the forbidden gap is so wide (Fig. 4.5) that any attempt, say by heating, to promote the electrons to the
conduction band ends up breaking down the material. For example, if the material is paper, it burns off.

Fig 9.4: The forbidden gap in an insulator

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS

As already learnt, semi-conductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity lies between those of good
conductors and poor conductors.
There are two types of semi-conductors namely:

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(a) Intrinsic semi-conductors (b) Extrinsic semi-conductors

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Silicon and germanium are the most commonly used semi-conductors in electronic equipment.

Figure 9.5 below shows the electron configuration of a silicon atom. It has four electrons in the outermost shell (also
called energy level). These electrons are called bonding or valence electrons.

Fig 9.5: Electronic configuration of silicon atom

Figure 9.6 below shows a silicon atom bonded with 4 other silicon atoms through covalent bonds. If the bonding is
extended in all directions, the silicon lattice structure is formed.

Fig 9.6: Bonding in silicon crystal

At low temperatures, all the electrons are locked up in the covalent bonds i.e. they are in the valency band. At
higher temperatures the electrons may gain thermal energy and move to the conduction band, in so doing, the bond
is broken. These free electrons roam within the lattice and are thus available for conduction. These electrons are
called thermal electrons. A free electron will leave a positive vacancy in the atom it came from. This vacancy is
called a hole (see Fig. 9.6(c) above).
The atom becomes a positive ion and can attract an electron from the neighboring atom. When this process is
repeated from one atom to another, a positive hole seems to drift in the lattice. If the semi-conductor is connected in
a circuit containing a battery and a milliammeter, a small current is observed to flow, (see fig. 9.7).

Fig 9.7: Pure semiconductor in a circuit

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Two types of charges seem to contribute to the conduction of the current i.e. the negative charge or electrons and the
positive charge or holes. The electrons in the conduction band flow in one direction while the holes in the valence
band flow in the opposite direction.
A material which increases its electrical conductivity from within itself (internally) is called pure or intrinsic semi-
conductor. Silicon and Germanium are examples of intrinsic semi-conductors. Electrical conductivity in intrinsic
semi-conductors is mainly due to electron-hole pair movement. In the intrinsic semi-conductors, the number of
electrons is the same as the number of holes created.

A DEMONSTRATION OF HOLE MOVEMENT

The movement of a hole may be likened to the apparent movement of an empty chair in a classroom (Fig. 9.10).
When one student sitting on a chair moves, the chair is left empty (Fig. 9.10 (a)). The student behind can fill in the
vacancy created and by so doing creates another vacancy (Fig.9.10 (b)). This process is repeated until the last
student moves (Fig.9.10 (d)). In this analogy, the movement of the student represents the movement of electrons
while the movement of the empty chair (vacancy) corresponds to the movement of holes.

Fig. 9.10: Hole Movement

Extrinsic semi-conductors
The electrical conductivity of a pure semi-conductor may be increased by adding or introducing a small and
controlled amount of other materials (called impurities) into the pure semi-conductors. This process of introducing
very small amounts of impurities into pure semi-conductors is called doping. A pure semi-conductor that has been
doped externally is called an extrinsic semi-conductor (Fig. 9.11).

Fig. 9.11: Doping process

The impurities used in the doping process are elements whose atoms have either three valence electrons or five
valence electrons. Examples of elements with trivalent atoms include boron, aluminium, gallium and indium.
Examples of elements with pentavalent atoms include phosphorous, arsenic, antimony and bismuth.

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DOPING IN SEMI-CONDUCTORS
N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTORS

Consider an intrinsic silicon semi-conductor, doped with arsenic atoms. Each silicon atom has four valence
electrons and therefore each atom has four neighbouring atoms bonded to it. Arsenic atoms will fit into this
structure, but they have five valence electrons of which four participate in bonding with neighbouring atoms. The
fifth electron is left free to roam within the lattice (Fig. 9.12). This electron is available for conduction. In this case,
arsenic is said to be a donor impurity. The resulting semi-conductor has more electrons and is referred to as the n-
type semi-conductor (n-for negative). In this semi-conductor, the majority charge carriers are the electrons.

Fig.9.12: Formation of n-type semiconductor

P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Consider a crystal of silicon doped with a small amount of trivalent atoms e.g. boron. Boron has three valence
electrons which participate in the bonding. This leaves a vacancy in the fourth bond called hole. This vacancy forms
what is known as a hole in the fourth bond (Fig. 9.13).

Fig. 9.13: Formation of p-type semiconductor

When a bond is incomplete, it is possible for an electron in the neighbouring silicon atom to leave its electron-bond
to fill the hole. The electron moving from the bond to fill a hole leaves a hole in its initial position. Hence, the hole
effectively moves in the direction opposite to that of the electron.
The hole, in its new position, may again be filled by an electron from another electron-pair bond making the hole
move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of the electron. We get here a mechanism for the
conduction of electricity that does not involve the free electrons. The atoms that introduce holes in the pure

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semi-conductors are called acceptor atoms. The resulting semiconductor has positive hole as charge carriers and is
referred to as the p-type semi-conductor (p – for positive). In this type of semi-conductor, the majority charge
carriers are the holes.

EXERCISE
1. Explain the following terms:
a. Semi-conductors. c. Extrinsic semi-conductors
b. Intrinsic semi-conductors. d. Doping
2. Distinguish between semi-conductors and conductors. Give an example of each.
3. Describe how the following semi-conductors are made: (a) p-type (b) n-type
4. Draw the structure of a silicon crystal and show the bonding of electrons.
5. Explain the statement, “at low temperatures the resistance of silicon is high, but decreases at high temperatures”.

P–N JUNCTION DIODE

THE STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF JUNCTION DIODE

A p-type semi-conductor and an n-type semi-conductor of the same material e.g. silicon, can be ‘joined’ together to form what
is called a p-n junction (see fig. 9.14).

Fig 9.14: PN – Junction Diode

As soon as this junction is formed, a charge movement begins only in the immediate vicinity of the junction until an
equilibrium is reached. The charge movement can be likened to the diffusion of gases. P-type and n-type regions are
both electrically neutral. Charge movement results to holes combining with electrons thereby producing a net
positive charge to the n-type region and leaving a net negative charge in the p-type region.

The net positive charge in the n-type prevents any further movement of the holes from the p-type to n-type. Also the
net negative charge in the p-type stops any further movement of the electrons from the n-type to the p-type. A
region is created which has lost all its free electrons and holes. This region is called the depletion layer.

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 Fig 9.15: Diffusion of holes & electrons
When the equilibrium has been achieved, the resulting device is known as p-n junction diode.
Fig. 9.16 (c) shows the symbol of a junction diode. Due to the movement of charges across the junction, a potential
difference develops across the junction with its polarity such as to prevent further charge movement. This potential
difference is called a barrier potential difference (Fig. 9.16 (b)). A lead connected to the n-type becomes a cathode
while a lead on the p-type becomes an anode.

Fig. 9.16: PN – Junction Diode

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