Assist. Prof Shams. Ah.

Sh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
•

Module 1: Introduction, and Thermodynamics of fluid flow

Module 2: Energy exchange in Turbomachines, General analysis of Turbomachines
Module 3: Steam Turbine (Impulse & Reaction turbine)
Module 4: Hydraulic Turbine
Module 5: Centrifugal Pumps and compressors
•

1. Turbomachines by B. U. Pai, 2013

2. Principles of Turbomachinery, 2nd edition. Seppo A. Korpela, 2020
3. Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery, 6th edition.
S. L. Dixon & C. A. Hall
4. Fundamental of Turbomachinery, B. K. Venkanna
 Text Book:

CHAPTER

Assist. Prof. Shams. A. Sh

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kabul University
•

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand and be familiar with the hardware details of turbomachines.

• Understand and be familiar with the terminology used in turbomachine practice.

• Understand and be familiar with the concepts of energy flow, including losses, in turbomachines,

with both qualitative and quantitative approaches, to arrive at the different forms of efficiencies.

• Explore the principles of model studies and the application of the same to design turbomachines.

• Arrive at the design parameters of turbomachines from the data of practical and field conditions.
•

• The energy consumption of mankind for the comfort of life has been steadily increasing.

• Both production of energy and using of energy to make life easier require various systems.

• These systems have different components with varied functions and complexities.

• Various types of turbines that produce mechanical form of energy and various types of pumps

and compressors that consume the mechanical energy possess some common features.

• These components, termed under a common name – Turbomachines, have the same basic

principles of working.
 Fluid Machine

Turbomachine(Rotodynamic Macines) Positive Displacement Machine Miscellaneous devices

Energy from fluid to rotor Energy from rotor to fluid Energy transmitting machines
Turbines (Steam, Gas, Water) (pumps, fans, compressors, blowers)

(Tangential, radial, axial, mixed)

Francis Turbine Centrifugal pump Power transmitting machine

 Positive Displacement Machine
Fluid Machine

Turbomachine Positive Displacement Machine Miscellaneous devices

Fluid energy to mechanical energy; Motors Jaks Mechanical energy to fluid energy; Pumps

Gear motors
Rotary pumps Reciprocating pumps
Piston motors
Gear & lobe pumps Diaphragm pumps
Vane motors
Piston pumps
Piston pumps
Vane pumps
 Miscellaneous devices
Fluid Machine

Turbomachine Positive Displacement Machine Miscellaneous devices

Brake devices Pump devices

Airbrakes Airlift pumps

Jet pumps
Hydraulic brakes
Hydraulic Ram

Airlift pump Jet pump Hydraulic ram

• A turbomachine is a machine in which energy transfer occurs between a flowing fluid and a rotating

element due to dynamic action, resulting in a change in the pressure and/or the momentum of the

fluid.

Steam Turbine Turbine

1. It is an equipment whose hardware details can be shown in a sketch.
2. There is a continuous process of energy transfer, not periodic or stepwise.
3. The energy-transfer process is between two entities. These two entities are a rotor with vanes and a
flowing fluid.
4. There is a “dynamic action.” The process of energy flow takes place as the fluid “flows.”
5. The fluid does not get confined in some limited space.
6. The net result of the process is the change in the energy of the fluid.
Certain generalities exist in turbomachines such as
1. They may handle either liquids or gases (hence “fluids”) and
2. They may extract energy from fluids or may impart energy to fluids.
Turbomachines and Positive Displacement Machines

1. Positive displacement machines are those which handle fluids but in “confined spaces” as in
cylinder-piston arrangement.
2. Both the classes of machines have their own applications, being suitable for the purpose for which
they are designed.
Turbomachines and Positive Displacement Machines

Comparison between turbomachines and positive displacement machines (Table 1.1)

1. Basic mechanism of energy • Energy transfer is by dynamic action • Energy transfer is by expansion or
transfer • Energy transfer is continuous. compression in confined space.
• Energy transfer is periodic with moving
boundaries.

2. Features of mechanical • Parts are few in number. The • Parts are large in number.
construction assemblies are simple. • These parts are of high precision, as in
• Rotors are not in contact with cylinder–piston assemblies.
stators (except in bearings). • Hence, the machines are costly.
• Hence, the machines are less costly.
Turbomachines and Positive Displacement Machines

Comparison between turbomachines and positive displacement machines (Table 1.1)

3. Features of operation • Because of purely rotating parts • Because of reciprocating parts the
rotors are well balanced. machine are unbalanced.
• Vibrations are almost nil and higher • Vibrations are more, the speeds are
speeds are possible. limited.
• The fluid-handling capacities are • Hence, the fluid-handling capacities
more. are also limited.

4. Efficiencies
• Because of “diffusion” processes,
1. Efficiency of the energy transfer • Because of direct compression or
process the “hydraulic efficiency” or the expansion processes, diffusion is of a
“adiabatic efficiency” is rather low.. lower order; compression or expansion
processes are more efficient.
Turbomachines and Positive Displacement Machines

Comparison between turbomachines and positive displacement machines (Table 1.1)

2. Mechanical efficiency • Mechanical efficiency is very high, • Due to sliding motions and friction,
because the mechanical losses are mechanical losses are high and
very low, due to shaft rotating in mechanical efficiency is low.
bearings and no sliding contacts.

3. Volumetric efficiency • Volumetric efficiency is very high • The presence of valves, complicated
due to a “free passage” or absence flow passages and the periodic or cyclic
of valves. In addition, the flow reduce the volumetric efficiency.
“continuous flow,” tends to increase
the volumetric efficiency.

4. Overall efficiency • The overall efficiency of • The overall efficiency of PDMs is low.
turbomachines is much higher than
that of PDMs.
Turbomachines and Positive Displacement Machines

Comparison between turbomachines and positive displacement machines (Table 1.1)

2. Applications. • Generally, power-generating • The PDMs are suitable for low-power

turbomachines are suitable to applications such as automotive power
situations where high powers are plants.
involved.
• In case of power-consuming
turbomachine, it need small
amount of power.

• The comparison between the two classes of machines as presented in the table is only qualitative.
• Each type has its own merits and applications.
1.5 Classification of Turbomachines

• The classification of turbomachines based on the various criteria is indicated in Table 1.2.
1.5 Classification of Turbomachines

• The following features may be used as checkpoints to look into turbomachine.

1. There is basically a shaft mounted on bearings.
2. The “vaned rotor” is keyed onto the shaft.
3. “Rotor” is a general name:
• Rotor is also known as “runner” in the work-producing turbomachines or turbines.
• Rotor is also known as “impeller” in the work-absorbing turbomachines, pumps, or
compressors.
4. Shaft is “coupled” to either a generator (to produce power) or a motor (to draw power, i.e., to
utilize power).
5. A stator encloses the rotor and guide the flow of fluid.
6. The stator houses components such as guide vanes, nozzles, or diffusers.
1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• A centrifugal pump (Fig. 1.2) is a power-consuming turbomachine.

Figure 1.2 Centrifugal pump

1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• Working animation of Centrifugal pump.

1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• Fig 1.3 shows a Francis turbine, which is a power producing device.

Figure 1.3 Francis Turbine

1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• Francis turbine working animation

Francis Turbine
1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• A Pelton turbine (Fig. 1.4) has its water supply through the penstock

Figure 1.4 Pelton Turbine

1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• Pelton turbine working animation

1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• A Pelton turbine (Fig. 1.4) has its water supply through the penstock

Figure 1.5 Figure 1.4

1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• Steam turbine working animation

1.6 Units and Dimensions

• Turbomachines handle fluids that are at various levels of energies.

• The energies of the fluids are of different forms: pressure energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, and
thermal energy.
• In order to deal with different forms of energy and bring those forms onto a common unit, a
dimensional constant 𝑔𝑐 is first identified.
• From Newton’s 2nd law:

⟹ ⟹ ⟹

• Any physical entity can be multiplied or divided by 𝑔𝑐 where the dimension are required to be

homogenous in equation, in all the quantities.

1.7 Energy of Fluids

• The fluids have different forms of energy: pressure energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, and
thermal energy.

• The pressure energy of a fluid at a pressure 𝑝 = ( 𝑁/𝑚2 ) and at a specific volume 𝑣 = (𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔) is
given by the product 𝑝𝑣.
• The dimensions of pressure energy are as follows:

• This expression is also written in the form 𝑝/𝜌 where 𝜌 is the density, 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , whenever required.

p N m3 Nm J
= × = =
ρ m2 kg kg kg
1.7 Energy of Fluids

• The kinetic energy of a fluid moving at a velocity of 𝑉 (𝑚/𝑠) is given by 𝑉 2 /2.

• The dimensions of kinetic energy are as follows:

• This illustrates the use of “division by 𝑔𝑐 ” to get homogeneous dimensions, without altering the

numerical value.

• For a moving fluid the kinetic energy at 100𝑚/𝑠 is 5000 𝐽ൗ𝑘𝑔.

1.7 Energy of Fluids

• The potential energy of a fluid at a height 𝑧 (above a given datum level) is given by 𝑧𝑔.

• The dimensions of potential energy are as follows:

• Again, division by 𝑔𝑐 is without any alteration in the numerical value.

• The potential energy of a fluid at a height of 10 𝑚 above a given datum is 98.1 𝐽ൗ𝑘𝑔
1.7 Energy of Fluids

• It is a usual practice to refer to the energy of a gaseous fluid (combustion gas, steam, or air) in terms
of its “enthalpy.”
• Enthalpy is a combined effect of pressure and temperature of a gas.
• For compressible fluids, enthalpy can be taken as a function of temperature.
• Changes in this form of energy, therefore, are calculated as

when 𝑐𝑝 remains constant.

• When the fluid is air, the specific heat can be taken as constant over the ranges of temperature
changes that are usually encountered in turbomachines.
• When the fluid is steam, the enthalpies have to be obtained from the steam tables.
1.7 Energy of Fluids
• A fluid can have different forms of energy as discussed above and its total energy is the sum of the

individual forms of energy.

• Essentially, all the forms must be in the same dimensions to make it possible to add them together.

• As seen above, whether the dimensions are 𝑚2 /𝑠 2 , 𝑚𝑁/𝑘𝑔, or 𝐽/𝑘𝑔, these are all identically the

same.

EXAMPLE 1.1 : Calculate the energy of a stream of water at a pressure of 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎, flowing at 8 𝑚/𝑠

at an elevation of 5 𝑚 above a given datum. Take the density of water as 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
1.7 Classification of Turbomachines

• When liquids are handled by turbomachines, the energy of liquids is also identified as “head energy,”
like “so many meters of liquid.”
• The output of a centrifugal pump is 15 𝑚 of water or the input to a Pelton turbine is 250 𝑚 of water,
and so on.
• The forms of energy considered earlier can be related to this head energy in the following ways:

1.

2.

3.

• The thermal energy or enthalpy is not converted into “meters of liquid.” EXAMPLE 1.3
1.8 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics

For steady flow through the control volume, the mass flow rate, 𝑚,ሶ remains constant,

• The first law of thermodynamics gives rise to the steady flow energy equation (SFEE) with a set of
assumptions.

Steady flow energy process for a control volume

1.8 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics

• The process may be assumed to be adiabatic, 𝑞 = 0.

• If 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 , ⟹

Steady flow energy process for a control volume

1.8 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics

• The quantity on the left-hand side, W, is the “specific work” of a turbomachine.

• It is the work interaction of 1 kg of fluid while flowing over the rotor of the turbomachine.

• In power generating turbomachines, 𝑤 is positive, because ℎ01 > ℎ02

• In power absorbing turbomachines, 𝑤 is negative, because ℎ01 < ℎ02

𝑘𝑔
• When the flow rate is 𝑚ሶ ( 𝑠 ), the corresponding power of the machine is given by

• where P is in watts. W and P are positive when the fluid has higher energy at the inlet than at the
outlet.
1.8 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics 1.8.2 Incompressible Fluid

• When the fluid is incompressible (namely, liquids), the enthalpy terms are replaced by more
appropriate terms of pressure energy.
• In such cases, the density 𝜌 is employed instead of specific volume 𝑣.

𝑝1 𝑉1 2 𝑔 𝑝2 𝑉2 2 𝑔 𝑝1 𝑉1 2 𝑔 𝑝2 𝑉2 2 𝑔
+ + 𝑧1 = 𝑤 + + + 𝑧2 ⟹ 𝑤 = + + 𝑧1 − + + 𝑧2
𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

So, ⟹
1.8 Application of the First Law of Thermodynamics 1.8.2 Incompressible Fluid

• Now, since the fluid is incompressible, the head energy terms can also be used.
• However, it is suggested that one has to be more cautious in using the expression “head-generated”
in place of “power-generated” or power output.
• The terms are somewhat opposite to each other in their signs. If the “head” is the output, obviously
the power or work is the input.

𝑝1 𝑉1 2 𝑝2 𝑉2 2 𝑝2 𝑉2 2 𝑝1 𝑉1 2
• 𝐻+ 𝑤
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧1 =
𝑤
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧2 ⟹ 𝐻 =
𝑤
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧2 −
𝑤
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧1

⟹ ⟹

• Equations (1.2)–(1.7) represent the general form.

• There are a few instances where 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are really different, but in a large number of cases, 𝑧1 and
𝑧2 are equal.
1.9 Application of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

• However, the application of the first law of thermodynamics is not sufficient to completely explain the
interaction between the fluid and the rotor.
• The process of energy transfer has its own mechanism, as analyzed by the second law of
thermodynamics. Those that are involved are the process losses.
• Viscous effects losses (skin friction losses)
• Turbulence losses
• Eddies losses
𝑉22
• Exit losses ( ൗ2𝑔𝑐)
• Friction losses due friction between shaft and bearings.
• Leakage losses
• In short, all these losses are due to the irreversibility, give rise to non-isentropic flow conditions.
1.9.1 Efficiencies of Turbomachines 1.9.1.1 Power-Generating Turbomachines or Turbines

• Any efficiency, in general, can be written as output divided by input.

⟹
• The different efficiencies of the power-generating turbomachines is given in the following
qualitative diagram (Fig. 1.7)
• The width of the strip indicates the magnitude of the power P.
• 𝑃𝑎 is the power available in the fluid at the inlet, which is the product of two factors:

𝑉22൘
𝑚(𝑤
ሶ + 2𝑔𝑐 )

• The flow of power is from left to right.

• The losses are continuous and simultaneous.

Power flow in power-generating turbomachines.

1.9.1 Efficiencies of Turbomachines 1.9.1.1 Power-Generating Turbomachines or Turbines

• To understand the Fig.1.7, the quantities mentioned in the figure are explained as follows:
• 𝑚ሶ = mass flowrate of fluid at the inlet, (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
• 𝑤 = specific work as defined by Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2).
𝑉22
• 𝑤𝑎 = Available energy of the fluid at the inlet, = 𝑤 + ൗ2𝑔𝑐 , 𝐽ൗ𝑘𝑔
2
• 𝑃𝑎 = Power available in the fluid at the inlet, Watts, = 𝑚(𝑤
ሶ + 𝑉2 ൗ2𝑔𝑐 )
• 𝑃 = Power that can be extracted from the fluid, after the leakage (volumetric losses).
• 𝑃𝑛 = Net power extracted after the skin friction losses.
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 – Friction losses.
• 𝑃𝑟 = Power at the rotor or runner of the turbine.
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑛 −Exit losses.
• 𝑃𝑠 = Power at the output of the machine at its shaft.
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟 − Bearing losses.
Power flow in power-generating turbomachines.
1.9.1 Efficiencies of Turbomachines 1.9.1.1 Power-Generating Turbomachines or Turbines

• The following efficiencies are defined:

• The utilization factor is

• The hydraulic or adiabatic efficiency is

• The volumetric efficiency is

• The mechanical efficiency is

• The overall efficiency is given by

Power flow in power-generating turbomachines.

1.9.1 Efficiencies of Turbomachines 1.9.1.2 Power-Absorbing Turbomachines

• Power-flow diagram for work-absorbing machines is provided in Fig. 1.8, applicable to fans, blowers,
compressors, and pumps.
• 𝑚ሶ = mass flowrate at the exit of the turbomachine, (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
• 𝑤 = Specific work, as defined by Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2),
• 𝑤𝑛 = Net specific work (𝑤+fluid friction losses),
• 𝑃𝑠 = Shaft power or input power,
• 𝑃𝑟 = Power at the impeller of the machine.

• where ∆𝑚ሶ is the fluid that returns to the inlet end of

the impeller from the exit end of the impeller and
gets recirculated.
Power flow in power-absorbing turbomachines.
1.9.1 Efficiencies of Turbomachines 1.9.1.2 Power-Absorbing Turbomachines

• Also the net fluid power is

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑤𝑛 ∙ 𝑚ሶ = 𝑃𝑟 −return flow losses
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑛 − Frictional losses
• The useful fluid power at the outlet is

Power flow in power-absorbing turbomachines.

1.9.2 Power-Flow Diagrams in Head Units

• There are the two diagrams – one for power-generating machines (Fig. 1.9 applicable to turbines)
and one for power-absorbing machines (Fig. 1.10, applicable to pumps).

Power flow in power-generating turbomachines. For liquids Power flow in power-absorbing turbomachines. For liquids

• The endeavors of the mechanical engineers have been to increase the efficiencies of their devices.

• It is required, therefore, to find the nature of the losses and means of assessing and reducing them.
1.9.2 Power-Flow Diagrams in Head Units

• There are the two diagrams – one for power-generating machines (Fig. 1.9 applicable to turbines)
and one for power-absorbing machines (Fig. 1.10, applicable to pumps).

Power flow in power-generating turbomachines. For liquids Power flow in power-absorbing turbomachines. For liquids

• The endeavors of the mechanical engineers have been to increase the efficiencies of their devices.
• It is required, therefore, to find the nature of the losses and means of assessing and reducing them.
EXAMPLE 1.4 EXAMPLE 1.5 EXAMPLE 1.6 EXAMPLE 1.7
1.10 Model Studies

• When turbomachines are designed to suit the field conditions, the assumed values of efficiencies
must be very near to the possible values.
• Any errors in the designs can result into huge losses.
• In order to ensure the performance of the prototype machines, certain model studies are
undertaken.
1. First, a prototype is designed.
2. Then a model of the prototype is designed and built up.
3. Designing the model, with consideration of geometric similarity, dynamic similarity, and
kinematic similarity.
4. Then tests are conducted on this model and the performance characteristics are obtained.
5. Next, the performance is extrapolated to that of the prototype machine.
• The methods of extrapolation of the performance are subject to certain rules that are formulated
by the dimensional analysis.
1.11 Dimensional Analysis

• The dimensional analysis is a simple approach of extrapolating any performance parameter

between geometrically similar machines.

• Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique deals with the dimensions of the quantities

involved in the process or phenomena.

• The particular context of extrapolation, at present, is from the model to prototype machine.

• To start with, it is necessary to identify the performance parameters.

• Parameters are not affected by the size of the machines, when the machines are scaled up (or

scaled down).
1.11 Dimensional Analysis 1.10.1 Dimensional Analysis of Volumetric Flowrate

3
• The volumetric flow rate (discharge) of a fluid in a turbomachine is 𝑄 (𝑚 Τ𝑠).
3
𝑄 = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚2 × 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 𝑚 Τ𝑠

• where 𝜋1 is the constant of proportionality, and known as the flow coefficient.

• Flow coefficients have to be of the same value for all geometrically similar machines at a

corresponding operating point.

1.11 Dimensional Analysis 1.10.2 Dimensional Analysis of Head

• The head of turbomachine (input or output) is 𝐻 𝑚.

• The head H is proportional to the square of the velocity that is 𝑉 2 .

𝐻 ∝ 𝑉2 ⟹ ⟹ ⟹

• where 𝜋1 is the constant of proportionality, and known as the head coefficient.

• Head coefficients have to be of the same value for all geometrically similar machines with kinematic

similarity at corresponding operating points.

1.11 Dimensional Analysis 1.10.3 Dimensional Analysis of Power

• The power of a turbomachine is wQH.

• where 𝜋3 is the constant of proportionality, and known as the power coefficient.

• Power coefficients have to be of the same value for all geometrically similar machines with kinematic

and dynamic similarities at corresponding operating points.

1.11 Dimensional Analysis 1.10.3 Dimensional Analysis of Power

• The above three coefficients ( 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , and 𝜋3 ) are the constants of proportionality.

⟹ if their efficiencies are the same.

• The (Q, H, N, P, and 𝜂) are the important parameters to be considered

in the design of the prototype machine as well as the model.
• A correlation suggested by Moody et al. to connect the efficiencies of
the model and prototype machine is as follows:
1.11 Dimensional Analysis 1.10.3 Dimensional Analysis of Power

• It is suggested that some caution has to be exercised in the procedure because of some of the
uncertainties:
1. The ratio of surface roughness to any macro dimension may not be the same between the
model and prototype. As a result, the flow characteristics may be different.
2. Even between two macro dimensions, the proportions may vary, such as the ratios of
clearances to diameters.
3. If the fluid being handled is totally different (with widely varying viscosities) between the
model and the prototype, it is possible that the projection may be wrong.

EXAMPLE 1.8
1.12 Unit and Specific Quantities

• There are two kind of parameter in turbomachine simple parameter as physical dimensions, such as

the diameter of the rotor, the thickness of the blades, etc.

• And parameter that are the conditions under which turbomachines work, such as the head (input or

output), the speed of the machine, the pressure ratios, etc.

• Presently, the effect of the varying head on other parameters is of interest.

• Consequently, many of the other parameters are being calculated, for the unit value of head.

• Such reduced values of speed, flow, power, etc. are known as unit speed, unit flow, unit power, etc.

• The unit quantities make it possible to compare the different machines performance.
1.12 Unit and Specific Quantities Unit Quantities

1.12.1 Unit Speed

• The unit speed, 𝑁1 , of a given turbomachine is the speed of the same machine when the head of the
machine is 1 𝑚 of water.
• When the speed of the rotor is 𝑁 𝑟𝑝𝑚, the peripheral velocity is

⟹ ⟹ ⟹

• Now 𝑁 = 𝑁1 when 𝐻 = 1, by definition

1.12 Unit and Specific Quantities Unit Quantities

1.12.2 Unit Flow: The unit flow, 𝑄1 , of a given turbomachine is the flow through the same machine
when the head of the machine is 1 𝑚 of water.
• When the flow through the machine is Q and the flow velocity is 𝑣𝑓 we have

• Now 𝑄 = 𝑄1 when 𝐻 = 1. So ⟹

1.12.3 Unit Power

• The unit power, P1, of a given turbomachine is the power of the same machine when the head of
the machine is 1 m of water.

• Now P = 𝑃1 when 𝐻 = 1. Therefore ⟹ ⟹

1.12 Unit and Specific Quantities Specific Quantities

• For specific quantities, along with the head of a machine, the size of the machine can also be
reduced to the unit size for the sake of comparison.
1.12.4 Specific Flow
• The specific flow,𝑄11 , of a given turbomachine is the flow corresponding to a similar machine of
some unit dimension and working with unit head.

1.12.5 Specific Power

• The specific power, P11, of a given turbomachine is the power of a similar machine, with some unit
dimension and working with unit head.

for 𝐷 = 1, 𝐻 = 1

⟹ EXAMPLE 1.9 EXAMPLE 1.10

1.13 Non- Dimensional Parameter and there significance

• The constant 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 can be non-dimensionalized as shown in Table 1.5.

1.13 Non- Dimensional Parameter and there significance

• The significant of non-dimensional parameter are as follow:

• 𝜋1 = 𝑄Τ𝑛𝐷 3 ⟹ 𝜋1 = (𝑄/𝐷 2 )/(𝑛𝐷) = (𝑄)/(𝐷 2 𝐻) ⟶ specific flow
• 𝜋1 = (𝑄/𝐷 2 )/(𝑛𝐷) = 𝑉/𝑈 = 1/𝜑 ⟶ Inverse of speed ratio
• 𝜋2 = (𝐻/𝑛2 𝐷 2 ) = (𝑉 2 /𝑈 2 ) = 1/𝜑2 ⟶ Square inverse of speed ratio
• 𝐻 ∝ ∆𝑝/𝜌 ⟹ 𝜋2 = (∆𝑝/ρ𝑛2 𝐷2 ) = (∆𝑝/𝜌𝑈 2 )
• 𝜋3 ∝ (𝑃/𝐷 2 (𝑛𝐷)3 ) ∝ (𝑃/𝐷 2 𝐻3/2 ) ⟶ Specific power
1.14 Effect of Reynolds Number
• One of the non-dimensional numbers is the Reynolds number as applied to turbomachines and is
recognized as 𝜋4 = 𝜌𝑛𝐷 2 /𝜇
• Due to very low value of viscosity, the effect of variation of Reynolds number is very minimal.
1.15 Specific Speed

• One of the non-dimensional groups obtained by using the Buckingham 𝜋-theorem is known as
“specific speed”.
• Specific speed is generally used for both liquids handling and gas-handling machines.
• Pump specific speed:
1 3 3 1 3 3
𝜋1 (𝑄/𝑛𝐷3 )1/2 𝑛 𝑄
Ω𝑝 = 𝜋5 = = = (𝑄 𝑛 𝐷 )ൗ(𝑛 𝐷 𝑔𝐻 ) =
2 2 2 2 2 4 = 𝑁𝑠𝑝
(𝜋2 )3/4 (𝑔𝐻/𝑛2 𝐷2 )3/4 𝑔𝐻 3/2

• Ω𝑝 is the non-dimensional form of the pump specific speed.

• Turbine specific speed.

1 5 5 1 3 5 5
𝜋3 (𝑃/𝜌𝑛3 𝐷5 )1/2 𝑛 𝑃
Ω𝑡 = 𝜋5 = = = (𝑃 𝑛 𝐷 )ൗ(𝜌 𝑛 𝐷 𝐻 ) =
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 = 𝑁𝑠𝑡
(𝜋2 )5/4 (𝑔𝐻/𝑛2 𝐷2 )5/4 𝜌𝐻 5/4

• Ω𝑡 is the non-dimensional form of the turbine specific speed.

1.15 Specific Speed

• The specific speed of the pump is in terms of the flow rate, Q (𝑚3 /s).
• The specific speed of the turbine is in terms of the power in watts (or kilowatts).
• “The specific speed of a given pump is the speed of another geometrically similar hypothetical
pump of such a size that it can, at that speed, pump 1 𝑚3 /s of water against a head of 1 m of water.”
• “The specific speed of a given turbine is the speed of another geometrically similar hypothetical
turbine of such a size that it can, at that speed, generate 1 unit of power by using a head of 1 m of
water. ”
• Specific speeds characterize the “shape” of the rotors and not the size of the rotors, therefor they are
also termed “Shape number”.
1.15 Specific Speed

• The specific speed of a machine is required to be determined at this point (A) of maximum efficiency.

• Figure 1.13 shows the resulting diagram for different machines having different types of rotors.

• Hence, the designated specific speed, which gives the maximum efficiency, characterizes the impeller or

runner.

Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.13 Characterization of turbomachines by the specific speeds.

1.15 Specific Speed

• Another non-dimensional parameter, to accompany the specific speed, is the ratio of the two diameters
of the rotor, 𝑑𝑜 Τ𝑑𝑖 .
• The ratio 𝑑𝑜 Τ𝑑𝑖 is a convenient tool to indicate the shape of the impeller or runner.

• When 𝑑𝑜 Τ𝑑𝑖 is 1, the impeller or runner is purely axial flow type.

• As the ratio increases, the shapes change over to mixed flow and
then to radial flow types.

Fig. 1.14 Performance of different types of impellers or runners.

1.15 Specific Speed

• The information of Fig. 1.14 and Table 1.6 is the result of the experimental work conducted on various
types of impellers or runners.

• The basic data (𝑄 − 𝐻) and (𝑃 − 𝐻)

values, with a selected rpm (N) can

be converted into a specific speed.

• This gives rise to the shape of the

impeller or runner in terms of its

𝑑𝑜 Τ𝑑𝑖 ratio.

What Fig. 1.14 shows is also stated in Table 1.6.

1.15 Specific Speed

• Eqs. (1.29) and (1.30) is the dimensional form of specific

speed for turbines and pumps.
• The main purpose of Table 1.7 is to illustrate the use of
the different systems of units.

EXAMPLE 1.11 EXAMPLE 1.12

EXAMPLE 1.13 EXAMPLE 1.14
 Text Book:

CHAPTER

Assist. Prof. Shams. A. Sh

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kabul University
2.1 Introduction

• The fluids involved in the energy-transfer processes with the rotor blades of turbomachines are either:
• Incompressible (liquids):
• hydraulic turbines and pumps working with water
• various liquid chemicals in the process industries.
• Different fractions of petroleum crude in refineries.
• milk in dairy industries, liquid dyes in textile industries, and etc.
• Compressible:
• Air in compressors.
• Combustion gases in gas turbines.
• Steam in steam turbines, etc.
• The behavior of compressible fluids during the processes in turbomachines can be approximated to that of the
perfect gases.
• This chapter is intended for the study of compression and expansion of compressible fluids in turbomachines
2.2 Static and Stagnation Stats

• The properties of fluid measured by using instruments which are at rest relative to the fluid are known

as static properties.

• If the fluid is moving at a velocity, then its properties can be identified in two different types:
• In one type, the effect of the velocity is neglected
• In the second type the effect of velocity is considered.

• In the second type, the properties are in the form of the “stagnation properties.”

• Properties of the fluid at the stagnation state are the stagnation properties, “dynamic properties,” or

“total properties.”

• Usually, the stagnation properties are represented by the subscript ‘0’ (zero).
2.2 Static and Stagnation Stats 2.2.1 Stagnation Enthalpy

• The stagnation enthalpy ℎ0 is given by

𝑉2 𝑉2
⟹ ℎ = static enthalpy, 𝑧 can be neglected ⟹ ℎ0 = ℎ + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 +
2𝑔𝑐 2𝑔𝑐

2.2.2 Stagnation Temperature

• For a prefect gas ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇
𝑉2 𝑉2
• Eq. 2.2 can be written as 𝑐𝑝 𝑇0 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 + ⟹ 𝑇0 = 𝑇+
2𝑔𝑐 2𝑐𝑝 𝑔𝑐
𝑉2
• 𝑇 = static temperature, is called dynamic temperature.
2𝑐𝑝

2.2.3 Stagnation Pressure

• The stagnation pressure 𝑝0 is given by

EXAMPLE 2.1 EXAMPLE 2.2

2.3 Thermodynamics of Turbomachine Processes

• Turbomachine processes are compression and expansion processes in all their varieties process.
• An ideal compression process is one in which a fluid is compressed using the least amount of
mechanical work, which is called reversible isothermal process.

Ideal isothermall work input Isentropic work input

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦= and 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦=
Actual work input Actual work input

• An ideal expansion process is one in which a fluid expands through a given pressure ratio, generating

the maximum possible mechanical work, and called reversible adiabatic or isentropic process.

Actual mechanical work output

𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦=
Ideal isentropic work output
2.4 Isentropic Compression Process

• Fig 2.1 and Fig 2.2 represents an enthalpy-entropy compression diagram for static and stagnation
states respectively.

𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝐵 −ℎ𝐴

𝜂𝑖𝑠 = ⟹ 𝜂𝑖𝑠 = → isentropic efficiency in term of enthalpy.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑐 −ℎ𝑎

• Four different forms of isentropic

efficiencies can be identified with
different numerator.

how the efficiency is defined

𝜂()−() =
ℎ02 −ℎ01

Fig. 2.1 Compression process between static state Fig. 2.2 Compression process for both state
2.4 Isentropic Compression Process

ℎ02ƴ −ℎ01
1. Total-to-Total efficiency: (𝜂𝑐 )𝑡−𝑡 =
ℎ02 −ℎ01
• This is applicable when the kinetic energies at the inlet and outlet are significant.
ℎ ƴ −ℎ01
2. Total-to-static efficiency: (𝜂𝑐 )𝑡−𝑠 = 2
ℎ02 −ℎ01
• This is applicable when some kinetic energy is available at the inlet and the kinetic energy
at the outlet is not useful
ℎ2ƴ −ℎ01
3. Static-to-static efficiency: (𝜂𝑐 )𝑡−𝑠 =
ℎ02 −ℎ01
• This is applicable when there is no kinetic energy at the inlet.
ℎ2ƴ −ℎ01
4. Static-to-total efficiency: (𝜂𝑐 )𝑡−𝑠 =
ℎ02 −ℎ01
• This is applicable when there is no kinetic energy at the inlet and outlet.

EXAMPLE 2.3 EXAMPLE 2.4 Fig. 2.2 Compression process for both state
2.5 Isothermal Compression Process

• The least amount of work required for a given compression process is during the reversible isothermal
compression.
• The ideal work for this process is given by

and

• Where Q is the heat extracted to cool the fluid during the process.

• Hence, the isothermal compression efficiency can be written as

Isothermal compression process

2.6 Isentropic Expansion Process

• The standard expansion process with which the actual expansion process can be compared, is the
isentropic expansion process between the same pressure limits.
• This isentropic expansion process is reversible and the most efficient one, with the maximum work
output. Fig 2.3

• The inlet (𝑉12 /2𝑔𝑐 ) is a necessary component of the total energy to be considered, making it

essential to use the stagnation state at the inlet.

• The actual shaft work 𝑊𝑠 is up to the outlet state 02:

• But at the outlet, whether the state to be considered is static or

stagnation on the ideal isentropic process depends on the three

different situations. (case 1, case 2, case 3) Fig. 2.3 Expansion process for both state
2.6 Isentropic Expansion Process

1. Case 1:
• The expansion process is one of a sequence of processes, such as the one in any intermediate
stage (neither the first, nor the last stage) of a multi-stage turbine.
• The kinetic energy at the outlet of the present process is a part of the inlet energy of the next-
stage process. Therefore, it is not a loss.

• This expression is not applicable to the last stage of a turbine

because the exit kinetic energy of the last stage is to be taken as a
loss. But one exception here is a turbojet engine.

Fig. 2.3 Expansion process for both state

2.6 Isentropic Expansion Process

1. Case 2:
• The expansion process occurs in the last stage of a series of stages, or in only one stage (all by
itself), the exit kinetic energy has to be taken as a loss.

2. Case 3:
• In this situation, both the shaft work and the kinetic energy at the
outlet, are the useful output.
• But the outlet kinetic energy does not run the next stage. Instead, it
is useful in some other way.

Fig. 2.3 Expansion process for both state

2.6 Isentropic Expansion Process

• In the case of steam turbines, the values of enthalpies in the expressions for the efficiencies are to
be taken from the steam tables.
• But in the case of gas turbines, the enthalpies are the functions of temperatures.

• Case 1: ⟹

• Case 2: ⟹

• Case 3:

EXAMPLE 2.5
2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency

• The overall isentropic efficiency refers to the thermodynamic efficiency of

multi-stage turbomachines.

• A multi-stage machine comprises several stages.

• In a given machine, generally, each stage is designed to have the same

pressure ratio and the same efficiency.

• The overall efficiencies, with all the stages put together, can be

substantially different from the individual stage efficiency due to some

inherent thermodynamic mechanisms.

Multistage compression process.

2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency

• The constant pressure lines for a perfect gas on an enthalpy–entropy chart are divergent with the

increasing entropy. Fig 2.5 ⟹ 𝑃2 > 𝑃1 and 𝑇𝐵 > 𝑇𝐴

• A perfect gas is compressed is entropically from A to C and then again from B to D.

• By the isentropic relations, the following can be written:

• Therefor, ⟹

• This proves that the constant pressure lines are divergent. Fig. 2.4 Divergent constant pressure lines.
2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency 2.7.1 Pre-heat Effect in Multi-stage Compressor

• An enthalpy–entropy diagram is drawn to show the process of compression in a four-stage

compressor (Fig. 2.5).

• In Fig. 2.5, process 1–2–3–4–5 is the actual process of compression, through the four stages, from

the initial pressure 𝑃1 to the final pressure 𝑃5 .

• The total actual work of compression is ℎ5 – ℎ1 , through the stages.

• Because of the staging, the isentropic processes are made up in the

stages, such as

Fig. 2.5 Multistage compression process.

2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency 2.7.1 Pre-heat Effect in Multi-stage Compressor

• The sum of these isentropic works of the stages is given by

• This total isentropic work σ 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑖 is more than isentropic work without staging 𝑊𝑠𝑠 = ℎ5" − ℎ1 .
• This is due to
a) The divergent constant pressure lines.
b) The increased temperature at the outlet of a stage because of
the internal fluid friction, eddies, diffusion, etc.

• The whole effect, σ 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑖 > 𝑊𝑠𝑠 , is known as the “pre-heat effect” in

the multistage compression

Fig. 2.5 Multistage compression process.

2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency 2.7.1 Pre-heat Effect in Multi-stage Compressor

• The actual total work is given by

• The actual total work can also be determined by taking the overall isentropic compression

efficiency 𝜂𝑐 as

• Hence, from Eqs. (2.25) and (2.26), we have

• Now, since σ 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑖 > 𝑊𝑠𝑠 the overall isentropic compression efficiency

is less than the stage efficiency, 𝜂𝑐 < 𝜂𝑠𝑡 .

Fig. 2.5 Multistage compression process.
2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency 2.7.2 Re-heat Effect in Multi-stage Turbine

• In Fig. 2.6, process 1–2–3–4–5 is the actual process of expansion, through the four stages, from the

initial pressure 𝑃1 to the final pressure 𝑃5 .

• The total actual work of expansion is ℎ1 – ℎ5 , through the stages.

• Because of the staging, the isentropic processes are made up in the

stages, such as

Fig. 2.6 Multi-stage expansion process.

2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency 2.7.2 Re-heat Effect in Multi-stage Turbine

• This total isentropic work σ 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑖 is more than isentropic work without staging 𝑊𝑠𝑠 = ℎ1 − ℎ5" .
• This is due to the following
a) The divergent constant pressure lines.
b) The increased temperature at the outlet of a stage because of the internal fluid friction,
eddies, diffusion, etc.

• The whole effect, σ 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑖 > 𝑊𝑠𝑠 , is known as the “re-heat effect” in

the multistage expansion.

Fig. 2.6 Multi-stage expansion process.

2.7 Overall Isentropic Efficiency versus Stage Efficiency 2.7.1 Pre-heat Effect in Multi-stage Compressor

• The actual total work is given by

• The actual total work can also be determined by taking the overall isentropic compression

efficiency 𝜂𝑡 as

• Hence, from Eqs. (2.28) and (2.29), we have

• Now, since σ 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑖 > 𝑊𝑠𝑠 the overall isentropic compression efficiency

is more than the stage efficiency, 𝜂𝑡 > 𝜂𝑠𝑡 .

EXAMPLE 2.6
Fig. 2.6 Multistage expansion process.
 Text Book:

CHAPTER

Assist. Prof. Shams. A. Sh

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kabul University
3.2 Velocity Triangle

• A velocity triangle with reference to a turbomachine is the representation of three important

velocities as the sides of a triangle.

• The three velocities are as follows:

• The peripheral velocity of the rotor blade, 𝑈.

• The relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the rotor blade 𝑉𝑟 .
Multistage expansion process.
• The absolute velocity of the fluid V.
Rotor
𝑉1 𝑉1
Rotor 𝑉2
𝑈

(0) (1) (2) 𝑉𝑟2 𝑈

𝑉𝑟1

Stator
Stator
turbomachine stage.
Velocity diagram in turbomachine stage.
3.2 Velocity Triangle

• Fig 3. shows a rotor of a generalized turbomachine, where a–a represents the shaft of the

machine, i.e. axis of rotation with an angular velocity 𝜔.

• This velocity vector may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular components.

• Axial component 𝑉𝑎 , produce axial force.

• Radial component 𝑉𝑟 , produce radial force
• Tangential component 𝑉𝑇 , produce the desired torque.

Fig 3. Multistage expansion process.

3.2 Velocity Triangle

• The three velocities form a triangle only when they satisfy the condition 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑉𝑟 .

• Such velocity triangles can be drawn for any number of points on the profile of the

blade of a rotor.

• But in general, solutions at the two points, one at the inlet and the other at the outlet,

are sufficient at present.

Rotor
𝑉0 𝑉1
𝑉2
Rotor 𝑈

(1) (2) 𝑉𝑟1 𝑉𝑟2 𝑈

(0)

Stator Stator
turbomachine stage. Velocity diagram in turbomachine stage.
3.2 Velocity Triangle Guidelines in Understanding the Velocity Triangles

• The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:

1. All the velocities are vector quantities.

2. The blade velocity U is invariably tangential to the circular path of the blade, with positive

direction in the direction of rotation.

3. The choice of the point of the tangent can be anywhere on the circular path, but it is taken at the

uppermost point to keep U horizontal, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Rotor
𝑉0 𝑉1
𝑉2
Rotor 𝑈

(1) (2) 𝑉𝑟1 𝑉𝑟2 𝑈

(0)

Stator Stator
turbomachine stage. Velocity diagram in turbomachine stage. Fig 3.1 Blade velocities
3.2 Velocity Triangle Guidelines in Understanding the Velocity Triangles

• The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:
3.
1. Relative velocity of the fluid (𝑉𝑟 ) with respect to the blades is always tangential to the stream line.
2. One important assumption here is that the stream line is identical in shape with the vanes. This
amounts to saying that the flow is “vane-congruent.”

Fig 3.2 Vane-congruent flow. Fig 3.3 Relative velocities

3.2 Velocity Triangle Guidelines in Understanding the Velocity Triangles

• The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:

4. The absolute velocity 𝑉 of the fluid is the vectorial sum of 𝑈 and 𝑉𝑟 Thus, 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑉𝑟 . Fig 3.

5. For the radial flow rotor, the plane of velocity triangles is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the

rotor (Fig. 3.4).

Rotor
𝑉0 𝑉1
𝑉2
𝑈

𝑉𝑟1 𝑉𝑟2 𝑈

Stator
Fig 3.4 Radial Flow Rotor Fig 3. Velocity triangle.
3.2 Velocity Triangle Guidelines in Understanding the Velocity Triangles

• The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:
6. For the axial flow rotor, the velocity triangles are drawn on a plane that is tangential to the rotor. The
blade profiles are also projected on this plane. Fig. 3.5.
7. The directions of fluid flow are radial, axial, or mixed at the entry or exit.
8. The fluid angles (inlet𝛼1 , outlet𝛼2 ) and blade angles (inlet 𝛽1 and outlet 𝛽2 ) are specified with respect
to the blade velocity vector U

Fig 3.5 Axial Flow Rotor

3.2 Velocity Triangle Guidelines in Understanding the Velocity Triangles

• The blades of the rotor in a turbomachine are of a shape of an ‘airfoil’.

• For an axial flow machine, the “physics” of the situation can be further explained as per the following

thoughts:

Fig 3. Airfoil Fig 3.6 Rotor blades in axial flow rotor, related with fluid flow
Velocity Triangles for Radial Flow Machines BOX 3.1

• The plan of velocity triangles is perpendicular to the shaft axis. Fig 3.7

• The blades travers the circular path

• The speed of the shaft is 𝑁 rpm, clockwise.

• The AB and CD, both are horizontal. And they show the speed of the blade 𝑈.

• The blade velocities at the inlet 𝑈1 and outlet 𝑈2 , are 𝜋𝐷𝐴 𝑁Τ60 and 𝜋𝐷𝑐 𝑁Τ60 respectively.

Fig 3.8 Blade velocities at inlet and outlet points.

• The tangents LL and MM represent the directions of 𝑉𝑟 .

Fig 3.8 Radial flow rotor with rotation and Fig 3.9 Orientation of
blade velocities. relative velocity
Velocity Triangles for Radial Flow Machines BOX 3.1

• For the outward flow the sense of 𝑉𝑟1 and 𝑉𝑟2 is radially outward, and for inward flow the sense of 𝑉𝑟1

and 𝑉𝑟2 is radially inward.

• Complete the triangle to realize 𝑉, therefore

⟹ 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑉𝑟 or 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑈

• To realize 𝑉 some more data my be required, such 𝛼1 , 𝛽1 and etc.

Fig 3.10 Addition of 𝑈 and 𝑉𝑟 Fig 3.9 Radial flow rotor with rotation and Fig 3.9 Orientation of
to form velocity triangles. blade velocities. relative velocity
Velocity Triangles for Axial Flow Machines BOX 3.2

• For axial flow machines, the blade velocities 𝑈1 = 𝑈2 = 𝑈

• Consider a single-line blade profile. Fig 3.12

• The tangents LL and MM represent the directions of 𝑉𝑟1 and 𝑉𝑟2 .

• Add the blade velocity 𝑈 and relative velocity 𝑉𝑟 to obtain 𝑉.

⟹ 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑉𝑟 or 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑈

Fig 3.11 Blades of axial flow Fig 3.12 Relative velocity at the inlet and outlet. Fig 3.13 Axial Flow velocity tringle.
rotor, as seen in developed view
Velocity Triangles for Axial Flow Machines

• While explaining the addition of blade velocity (𝑈) and relative velocity (𝑉𝑟 ) to get the fluid velocity

(𝑉), it is indicated that the rule is 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑉𝑟 .

• But there is absolutely nothing wrong in writing 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑈, that is, vector 𝑈 starts where vector 𝑉𝑟

stops.

• Velocity triangles can be sketched if the minimum data are known.

• Velocity triangles can be graphically drawn to a convenient scale, or can be analytically solved.

EXAMPLE 3.1-3.10
3.3 Basic Equations

• The Euler turbine equation is the basic equation on which the study of turbomachines is built up.

• The assumptions made while deriving the SFEE hold good for the Euler turbine equation also.

• Such as:
• The constancy of states of fluid separately at the inlet section and outlet section
• Conservation of mass
• Steady flow
• Acceleration during starting and deceleration during stopping are excluded from the application
of this equation.
3.3 Basic Equations

• According to Newton’s second law, we have 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, which is now written as

• 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 ⟹ 𝐹 = 𝑑 𝑚𝑉 Τ𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑉Τ𝑑𝑡 → 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑(𝑚𝑉) → 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• ⟹ 𝐹𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑑𝑉Τ𝑑𝑡 = 𝑟𝑑(𝑚𝑉)ൗ𝑑𝑡 ⟶ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

• In words, the above equation means that “the applied torque is the rate of change of angular

momentum.”

• ⟹ is known rate of change of angular momentum equation

3.3 Basic Equations

• Fig 3.24 shows, 𝑉1 at the inlet and 𝑉2 at the outlet for a generalized rotor of turbomachine.

• The component of fluid velocities are: 𝑉𝑢1 , 𝑉𝑢2 , 𝑉𝑎1 , 𝑉𝑎2 , 𝑉𝑟1 and 𝑉𝑟2 .

• 𝑉𝑢 is the component of absolute velocity along U, contributing to the torque.

• For a purely axial flow machine, the radial

components are reduced to zero.
• The axial components 𝑉𝑎1 and 𝑉𝑎2 become the flow
components.
• Similarly, for a purely radial flow machine, 𝑉𝑟1 and
𝑉𝑟2 become the flow components.
• In this case, 𝑉𝑎1 and 𝑉𝑎2 are reduced to zero.

Fig 3.24 Velocities in a generalized rotor.

3.3 Basic Equations

• For the torque developed in the turbomachine, we have:

• ⟹ and Where 𝜔 is the angular velocity.

• However, the torque and power developed in a turbomachine are due to the tangential components only.

• For the net torque from the inlet to the outlet section, the above equation is written as

• ⟹ ⟹

• where 𝑊 is the specific work, and 𝑈1 = 𝜔1 𝑟1 and 𝑈2 = 𝜔2 𝑟2

• Equation (3.1) for the specific work is the Euler turbine equation. A positive value represents the work

output of a turbine.

• When the value of W obtained is negative, W is the input to the machine.

3.4 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation
• Consider a general velocity triangle ABC, with 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑉𝑟 , as shown in Fig. 3.25.

• From triangle ACM →

• Also, from triangle BCM

• From the above two equations, for 𝑉𝑓2 , one can write

• Hence

Fig 3.25 General velocity triangle.

3.4 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation
• Substituting above values into the Euler turbine Eq. (3.1), we get

• Equation (3.3) is the second form of Euler turbine equation.

• The specific work, as given by Eqs. (3.1) and (3.3), is sometimes denoted
by 𝑊𝐸 , subscript E signifying the name Euler.
• The expressions for the specific work, in the form of Euler turbine
equations, have been obtained starting from the “vane-congruent” flow.
• The vane-congruent flow is the ideal flow which differs from the actual
flow. Fig 3.25 General velocity triangle.
3.4 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation 3.4.1 Components of Energy Transfer

• The components of energy are as follows:

• The kinetic component of energy (𝑉12 − 𝑉22 )/2.
• The elevation component of energy (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )/𝑔.
• The pressure-drop component of energy(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )/ρ.
• The enthalpy-drop component of energy(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ).
• The centrifugal component of energy (𝑈12 − 𝑈22 )/2.
2 2
• The relative velocity component of energy (𝑉𝑟2 − 𝑉𝑟1 )/2.

• The kinetic component is considered as the major component.

• The kinetic component can directly interact between the fluid and rotor.

• Whereas the other components, can have the interaction somewhat in an indirect way.
3.4 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation 3.4.2 Energy Equation of Relative velocity

2 2
• The relative velocities at the inlet and outlet of the blades form a group, (𝑉𝑟1 − 𝑉𝑟2 )/2 as seen in Eq. (3.3).

• In the ideal flow (Fig 3.2) the 𝑉𝑟 is directly connected to the area of flow by the equation

• If further the 𝜌 remains constant, as it is in a large number of cases, then

• Hence, 𝑉𝑟1 and 𝑉𝑟2 can be designed to be in a definite required proportion by

designing the area ratio accordingly.

• The flow channel acting as a diffuser or nozzle, with the pressure being

developed or consumed.
Fig 3.2 Vane-congruent flow.
3.5 Impulse and Reaction

• The process of energy transfer in a turbomachine is by the dynamic action (flowing of the fluid).

• In fact, the transfer of energy, is possible only if that energy is in the kinetic form.

• What happens when the energy of the fluid is of some other form (like pressure or enthalpy)?

1. In the case of turbines,

• the transformation of other forms of energy
into kinetic form must take place before the
transfer process as in nozzles, as shown in the
schematic view in Fig. 3.26.

Fig 3.26 Schematic view of a turbine.

3.5 Impulse and Reaction

2. In the case of pumps or compressors,

• the transformation must take place after the transfer process, as in diffusers, as shown in the
schematic view in Fig. 3.27.

• The above two cases are presented as if

1. The two processes, transfer of energy and transformation of energy, are totally decoupled.

2. The two processes are one after the other.

3. The two processes take place separately in

different parts.

Fig 3.27 Schematic view of a pump or compressor.

3.5 Impulse and Reaction

• In actual practice, any design is one of the following three possible designs.
1. The two processes, conversion of energy (of the fluid) and transfer of energy (between the rotor
and the fluid), are really decoupled. Figs. 3.26 and 3.27.
2. The conversion and the transfer, occur together, simultaneously, in the flow passages between the
blades of the rotor.

3. The process of conversion of energy takes place

“partly separately” and “partly simultaneously”
with the transfer of energy.
• This is, the process of expansion or compression
occurs partly in nozzles or diffusers and partly in
the flow passages of the rotor.
Fig 3.27 Schematic view of a pump or compressor.
3.5 Impulse and Reaction

• The above three cases are distinctly different from one another.

• In the light of the above, the equations for the specific work 𝑊 are recalled

• In all the expressions for W, the first component (𝑉12 − 𝑉22 )/2 is the change in the kinetic energy
of the fluid.
• This component gets transferred between the fluid and rotor directly, without requiring the
presence of either nozzles or diffusers.
3.5 Impulse and Reaction

• The remaining components

or or

are the components that require the transformation in the rotor itself, simultaneously with the
process of transfer of energy.
• These components all are equal to one another and termed as “reaction components.”

• The ratio of the components of energy transferred, due to the change in the pressure of fluid to

the total energy transferred is known as the degree of reaction, 𝑅.

3.6 Utilization Factor of Turbines

• The utilization factor of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the ideal work output of the turbine to

the available energy at the inlet stream of the fluid:

• Here, W is the ideal specific work, as defined by the Euler turbine equation.

• 𝑊𝑎 = 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

⟹
3.6 Utilization Factor of Turbines

• The utilization factor is defined only for turbines, which may be of any type.
• The fluids can be either compressible or incompressible.
• The utilization factor of a turbine is a performance parameter
• Now from Eq. [3.4(d)] we have

⟹ ⟹

• Substituting Eq. (3.8) into the expression for the utilization factor [Eq. (3.6)], the utilization factor is
obtained as
3.6 Utilization Factor of Turbines
• Clearly, the Eq. 3.9 does not hold good for the condition 𝑅 = 1, but otherwise, for any value 0 < 𝑅 < 1, it
is applicable for any turbine in general.

• For the Eq. 3.9 the 𝑉1 and 𝑅 are the prescribed data.

• The least value of 𝑉2 gives rise to the maximum possible utilization factor,𝜖.

• The minimum value of 𝑉2 occurs when the exit angle 𝛼2 is 90°, with 𝑉2 being perpendicular to 𝑈2 .

• For axial turbine (𝑈1 = 𝑈2 = 𝑈 ) and 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1

⟹
3.7 Speed Ratio

• The speed ratio (𝜑) is the ratio of the blade peripheral velocity 𝑈1 to the absolute fluid velocity 𝑉1 at the

inlet. 𝜖 = 𝑈1 Τ𝑉1

• In the context of the design of a turbomachine, these two velocities 𝑈1 and 𝑉1 are two important

parameters.

• 𝑉1 , the fluid inlet velocity, is guided by the available head of fluid or available pressure drop or enthalpy.

• 𝑈1 , the blade velocity, is a function of the diameter and speed of the rotor (𝑈1 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁Τ60).

• Any logical conclusion to arrive at a particular value of speed ratio (𝜑), therefore, leads to the

determination of a suitable value of the diameter of the rotor and the speed of the machine.
3.7 Speed Ratio

• From Eq. (3.8), we have

• Now, for 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑚 , 𝛼2 = 90°, 𝑉𝑢2 = 0, 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1

⟹ ⟹ ⟹ ⟹

• Also, in continuation, the maximum possible 𝑊 is given by

3.7 Speed Ratio

• Table 3.1 gives some representative values of such results.

• For a given 𝑉1 and 𝛼1 , the 𝑈 for the

impulse turbine is half of the 50%
reaction turbine.
• For the same values of 𝑉1 and 𝛼1 , at
the same N, the D of the impulse-type
machine would be half that of the
50% reaction-type machine.

• Alternately, if the diameters were to be the same, the speed (rpm) of the impulse-type machine would be

half that of the 50% reaction-type machine.

3.7 Speed Ratio

• By the consideration of table 3.2 and 3.3, the results obtained further indicate that the 50% reaction-

type machines give rise to better values of utilization factors than those given by impulse machines.
 Text Book:

CHAPTER

Assist. Prof. Shams. A. Sh

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kabul University
4.1 Introduction
• The purpose of this chapter is to study the topics with respect to the parameters of the machine.

• One of the important machine parameters is the shape of the blades of the rotor.

• The shape of the blade decides not only the

• magnitude of the energy transferred,
• but also the “quality” of the energy.

• The characterization of the blade shape is by its angles at the inlet and outlet, 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 , respectively.

• In this chapter, we study the effects of

• the machine parameters (𝛽1 and 𝛽2 , inlet or outlet diameters of the rotor, the 𝑁, and radial flow
type or axial flow type.)
• on the performance parameters (specific work, the efficiencies, the reaction or the degree of
reaction, the utilization factor, and so on).
4.2 General Analysis of Radial Flow Machines
• In a radial flow machine, the two ends of the rotor blade have different linear velocities.

• In general, the velocity triangle at the

• smaller radius is made up of lower velocities.
• and that at the larger radius is made up of higher velocities.

• When 𝑈 is small, 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑟 are also comparatively small; when 𝑈 is large, 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑟 are also large.

• This is how the PAMs are evolved with radially outward flow, with higher energy at the outlet, at the

outer radius.

• For the same reason, the radial flow turbines are inward flow turbines, with discharge velocities (exit

losses) of smaller magnitudes.

4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle
• The velocity triangles for the blade of an impeller of a radially outward flow machine are generally of
the form as shown in Fig. 4.1.
• The absolute velocity 𝑉1 at the inlet is shown at 𝛼1 = 90° and 𝑉𝑢1 = 0

• From Euler Eq. 3.1, 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑈1 𝑉𝑢1 − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2 = − 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2 ……………………………….. 4.1a

• In terms of the head developed by a pump, 𝐻𝐸 = 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2 Τ𝑔 ………………..…….4.1b

• From Fig 4.1,

• Substituting this value of 𝑉𝑢2 into Eq. (4.1a)

…….…. 4.2

• 𝑈2 =𝜋𝐷2 𝑁Τ60 is constant, 𝐶1 = 𝑈22 .

⟹ 𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 𝑄 … … … 4.3 𝐶2 = (𝑈2 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽2 )/𝐴

Fig 4.1 Schematic view of a pump or compressor.
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.1 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Energy Transfer

• For a given turbomachine 𝛽2 is a specified value and therefore 𝐶2 is constant in Eq. 4.3.
• The 𝑄 is taken as an independent variable, because it can be controlled and set for any required value.
• Equation (4.3) represents a straight line relationship (𝑊𝐸 – 𝑄 ) and is shown in Fig. 4.2 for the three
representative values of 𝛽2 .

1. When 𝛽2 is less then 90°

• The slope of the line is negative.

• As the flow rate increases, 𝑉𝑓2 increases, and
along with it, 𝑉𝑢2 decreases.
• Consequently, the specific work (or head)
reduces as the flow rate is increased.

Fig 4.2 𝑊𝐸 – 𝑄 relationship for a radial flow

machine.
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.1 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Energy Transfer

2. When 𝛽2 is equal to 90°

• The variation in the flow rate or the variation in 𝑉𝑓2 does not affect 𝑉𝑢2 .
• The specific work (or head) remains constant.

3. When 𝛽2 is more than 90°

• The slope of the line is positive.
• As the flow rate is increased, 𝑉𝑢2 also
increases.
• Therefore, the specific work (or head)
also increases.

Fig 4.2 𝑊𝐸 – 𝑄 relationship for a radial flow Fig 4.3 Effect of increasing 𝑉𝑓2 (namely, Q)
machine. on 𝑉𝑢2 (namely, 𝑊𝐸 or 𝐻𝐸 ).
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.1 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Energy Transfer

• For any outlet velocity triangle,

• as the height of the triangle, 𝑉𝑓2 , remains constant,
• 𝑉𝑢2 keeps on increasing as the blade outlet angle 𝛽2 increases. Fig. 4.4.

• This can also be substantiated by Eq. (4.3), where the magnitude

of 𝑊𝐸 increases as 𝛽2 increases. 𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 𝑄 … … … 4.3

• The specific work 𝑾 reduces to zero when

• This type of impeller is known as the zero-work impeller.

• It is like the fluid particle moving in the blade passage freely.

• The 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are equal in magnitude and direction. Fig 4.4 Effect of 𝛽2 on 𝑉𝑢2
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.1 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Energy Transfer

• This situation of 𝑊 = 0 arises out of a combination of other parameters also, such as (𝛽1 and 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 ).
• This is illustrated by the following cases, along with Fig. 4.5:
1. 𝛽1 = 45°, 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 = 2

• When 𝛽1 = 45°, 𝑈1 = 𝑉𝑓1 ; when 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 = 2; 𝑈2 = 2𝑈1 = 2𝑉𝑓1 = 2𝑉𝑓2

• Hence, 𝑈2 Τ𝑉𝑓2 = 2 ⟹ 𝛽2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑈2 Τ𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 2 = 26.5°

1. 𝛽1 = 45°, 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 = 2.5

• By similar steps as above,
• Hence, 𝑈2 Τ𝑉𝑓2 = 2.5 ⟹ 𝛽2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑈2 Τ𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 2.5 = 21.8°

1. 𝛽1 = 60°, 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 = 2
• By similar steps as above;
Fig 4.5 Zero-work impellers.

• Hence, 𝑈2 Τ𝑉𝑓2 = 2/ 3 ⟹ 𝛽2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑈2 Τ𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 2/ 3 = 40.89°

4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.1 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Energy Transfer

• Consider any one of the above cases.

• When the exit blade angle is less than 𝛽2 as calculated above,
• 𝑉𝑢2 becomes negative
• and specific work 𝑊 becomes positive,
• resulting in a turbine action of the machine

• When the exit blade angle is more than 𝛽2 as obtained above,

• 𝑉𝑢2 becomes positive
• and 𝑊 becomes negative,
• signifying the pumping action of the machine with work inflow.
• When 𝛽2 further keeps on increasing,
• 𝑉𝑢2 also increases;
• 𝑊 increases in the negative direction and the pump capacity also increases. EXAMPLE 4.1
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.2 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Reaction

• Reaction, as defined earlier, is the ratio of the reaction component of energy to the 𝑊𝐸 .
• The variation of the blade exit angle affects the degree of reaction also.

• As in Section 4.3.1, the value of the 𝑅 depends on the 𝛽1 and the ratio of the diameters 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 , along
with the blade exit angle.
• To find the isolated effect of 𝛽2 , at some illustrative values.
• 𝛽1 = 45°, 𝛼1 = 90°, and 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑈1 ; 𝑉𝑢1 = 0

⟹
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.2 Effect of Blade Outlet Angle on Reaction

• This result is applicable for 𝛽1 = 45°, 𝛼1 = 90°, and 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 𝑈1 ; 𝑉𝑢2 = 0

• Further substituting 𝐷2ൗ𝐷1 = 2.5 and 𝑈2 = 2.5𝑈1 = 2.5𝑉𝑓2 and therefore 𝑉𝑓2 /𝑈2 = 1/(2.5), in Eq. (4.5),
it follows that

• This Eq. (4.6) is applicable for the case illustrated in Fig. 4.5 (b).
• For 𝛽2 = 158.4°, the 𝑅 become zero (Impulse Type Machine).
• Equations (4.4), (4.5) and (4.6) are not general results.
• These results are with some assumptions (𝛼1 = 90°, 𝛽1 = 45°).

EXAMPLE 4.2, 4.3 & 4.4

4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.3 Effect of the Blade Exit Angle on the Performance

• The performance of a machine is the totality of

• the specific work or energy transfer,
• the reaction,
• the power consumption,
• the efficiency, and so on.
• In a pump, the head developed may be written as 𝑊/𝑔.
• In a compressor, the pressure developed may be written as 𝑊 ∙ 𝜌 .

• 𝑊 is identified as a function of the flow rate 𝑄, and represents

one of the important characteristics of the machine. Fig 4.2

Fig 4.2 𝑊𝐸 – 𝑄 relationship for a radial flow

machine.
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.4 Flow Analysis in Impeller Blades: Slip

• As the fluid flows through the passage between the rotor blades:
• the blades impart energy to the fluid, exerting that push on it.
• slightly reduced pressure at the backside of the blade. Fig 4.12
• The net effect of this differential pressure between the two sides of the vanes is that:
• the fluid deviates from its vane-congruent nature, as it flows out of the impeller.
• It looks as if the blade-exit angle is slightly reduced.

Fig 4.12 Fluid deviation due to pressure distribution.

4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.4 Flow Analysis in Impeller Blades: Slip

• Vane-congruent flow also indicates

• that the velocity distribution of the fluid in the flow channel is uniform.
• But actually, the velocity distribution is altered due to the inertia of the fluid particles. Fig 4.13
• The effect of change of velocity profile due to inertia, again is a slight reduction of the exit angle of fluid.
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.4 Flow Analysis in Impeller Blades: Slip

• The third alteration of exit velocity of fluid is due to the finite thickness of blades.
• At the exit of the impeller, the blades do not continue to exist, the area available for the
flow is increased.
• All these effects are shown in Fig. 4.14.
• Because of the combined effects,
• the whirl component of the exit velocity 𝑉𝑢2 is reduced.
• As a result, the magnitude of the energy transfer is reduced.

Fig 4.14 Reduction of 𝑉𝑢2 due to pressure

distribution, inertia of fluid, and finite thickness of
blades.
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.4 Flow Analysis in Impeller Blades: Slip

• This overall reduction of the 𝑊, from the 𝑊𝐸 , is known as slip.

• This slip is accounted for by the “slip factor” or “coefficient of slip” 𝜇.

′ ′ Τ
• 𝑉𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉𝑢2 − 𝑉𝑢2 and 𝜇 = 𝑉𝑢2 𝑉𝑢2

⟹ 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑊𝐻 × 𝜇 and 𝐻𝑖 = 𝐻𝐻 × 𝜇
Fig 4.14 Reduction of 𝑉𝑢2 due to pressure
distribution, inertia of fluid, and finite thickness of
• Slip is not a loss. blades.

• The usual values of the coefficient of slip are around 0.97, 0.98, etc.

• In high-power machines, the slip may be 𝜇 = 0.985 also.

• Fig 4.15 shows the variation of 𝑊𝐸 and 𝑊𝑖 on the of 𝑄.

4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.5 Losses in Impeller Blade Passage

• There are two types of losses:

1. The first type is due to the skin friction because of the viscosity of the fluid.
• These losses are proportional to the square of the
• flow velocity, to the surface roughness, and to the length of the passage.

2. The second type of losses is due to the flow deviating from the vane-congruent flow.
• This occurs when the flow rate varies (either increases or
decreases) from the design conditions.
• Both the types of losses and the total of the two losses are shown
in Fig. 4.16.

EXAMPLE 4.5
4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.6 Characteristics Curve: Head-Capacity Relationship

• The plot of head generated on the base of the fluid flow rate is basically known as the head–capacity

relationship. Fig 4.18

• The actual 𝐻– 𝑄 curve, the efficiency–flow rate curve, and the power–flow rate curve are basically known

as the Characteristics Curve. Fig 4.19

4.3 Radial Flow Machine: Velocity Triangle 4.3.7 Effect Of Prewhirl

• The analysis of the radial flow machine is with the assumption that 𝑉𝑢1 = 0.

• In the case of the multi-stage units, a certain amount of pre-whirl or pre-rotation can exist, that 𝑉𝑢1 ≠ 0.

• From the Euler Eq 3.1, the term 𝑈1 𝑉𝑢1 is opposite to that of 𝑈2 𝑉𝑢2 giving rise to a “subtractive” effect.

• Variable flow rate, at values other than that of the design flow
rate, gives rise to turning losses.
• The “subtractive” effect is to slightly reduce the specific work.
4.4 Axial Flow Machines

• In axial flow machines, the two velocity triangles have equal bases (𝑈1 = 𝑈2 = 𝑈).

• Two typical sets of velocity triangles are drawn as in Figs. 4.21 and 4.22.

• Figures 4.21 and 4.22 one more feature is that, the analysis of compressors and turbines can be the

same
4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.1 Reaction in Axial Flow Machines

• For axial turbomachine (𝑈1 = 𝑈2 ), with an assumption that the (𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 ) 𝑅 becomes:

• Now,

Now because 𝑉𝑟𝑢1 − 𝑉𝑟𝑢2 = 𝑉𝑢1 = 𝑉𝑢2 , ⟹

𝑉𝑟𝑢 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 is the projection of 𝑉𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

on 𝑈.
4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.1 Reaction in Axial Flow Machines

• ⟹ 𝑅 = −𝐵𝑁Τ𝐴𝐵 • If 𝐵𝑁 = 0, that is, if 𝑁 coincides with 𝐵 and 𝑀

• The negative sign and reverse direction of 𝐵𝑁 is directly above 𝐵, 𝑉𝑟𝑢 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 is zero and 𝑅 = 0.

cancel each other and 𝑅 become positive. • Also 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 and. the flow passage is of

• If 𝑁 lies beyond 𝐵 on extended 𝐴𝐵, 𝑅 < 0 constant area of cross-section.

• If 𝑁 lies beyond A on extended 𝐵𝐴, 𝑅 > 1 • This is shown in Fig. 4.24. This type of machine
is an impulse machine (𝑝1 = 𝑝2 ).
4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.1 Reaction in Axial Flow Machines

• When 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , the non-reaction component • The third type is actually a combination of the first

in Eq. 1.3, 1.5 and 3.3 becomes zero. two types.

• The result is 𝑅 = 1. • The fraction of specific work that gets “converted”

• The machine is known as a reaction and “transferred” between the fluid and rotor can be

machine. Fig 4.25 anywhere between 0 and 1.

• All such machines are known as reaction machines.
4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.1 Reaction in Axial Flow Machines

• The above discussion indicates that the degree of reaction can be pre-determined.
• With reference to the velocity triangles in Fig. 4.23, if 𝑅 = 0.3, point 𝑁 on 𝐴𝐵 can be such that
𝐵𝑁 = 0.3𝐵𝐴 and 𝑀 can be located directly above this point.
• Consider 𝑈1 = 𝑈2 for an axial flow machine. Then,
where 𝑋 = 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 and 𝑌 = 𝑉𝑟2
2 2
− 𝑉𝑟1
For 𝑅 < 0, then Y must be negative and |𝑋| > |𝑌|.

• A negative reaction means that a high-velocity fluid stream enters the flow

passages between the rotor blades, imparts some energy to the shaft, and

gets itself compressed to a higher pressure.

4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.1 Reaction in Axial Flow Machines

• If 𝑅, is to be more than 1, then in Eq. (4.10), 𝑋 must be negative and 𝑌 must be positive.
• This is the situation when 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑟2 > 𝑉𝑟1 .
• The energy input at the shaft contributes to accelerate the flow and not to increase the
pressure. Fig 4.28

• In all the discussions so far, it is mentioned, sometimes, that 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 , 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑉𝑟2 , etc.

• Slight reductions such as 𝑉2 = 0.98𝑉1 or 𝑉𝑟2 = 0.98𝑉𝑟1 (2% losses)

can always occur, without losing the generality of the discussions

above.

EXAMPLE 4.6, 4.7 & 4.8

4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.2 Effect of 𝜷 on the 𝑾 and 𝑹: Turbine

• For ∈𝑚 in axial flow turbine 𝑉2 must be minimum. 𝑉𝑢2 = 0, 𝛼2 = 90° ⟹ 𝛽2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 (𝑉𝑓2 Τ𝑈)

• For the 𝑅 between 0 and 1, Fig 4.31 indicates the following:

1. For the of an ampuls turbine (𝑅 = 0), at 𝛽1 = 𝛽2 , ∆𝑉𝑢 = 2𝑈, we have 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈 2𝑈 = 2𝑈 2

2. For 50% reaction turbine (𝑅 = 0.5), at 𝛽1 = 90°, ∆𝑉𝑢 = 𝑈, we have 𝑊 = 𝑈 𝑈 = 𝑈 2

3. As 𝛽1 tends to reach (180 − 𝛽2 )

𝑅 tends to be 1, but this is not possible, when 𝑊 tends to be 0.

Fig 4.31 Velocity triangles for an impulse

machine, R = 0, W = 2𝑈 2 .
4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.3 Effect of 𝜷 on the 𝑾 and 𝑹: Compressor

• In an axial flow compressor, the 𝛼1 is taken as 90° for axial entry.

• The 𝛽1 has to be constant at 𝛽1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛1 (𝑉𝑓1 Τ𝑈).

• The angle 𝛽2 can vary from a minimum value equal to 𝛽1 up (180 − 𝛽1 ), for the values of 𝑅 to be

between 0 and 1, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.32(a).

• For a compressor, however, the 𝑅 has to be high, somewhere around 0.65 and more. Fig. 4.32(b)

• However, it is not possible to reach 𝑅 = 1 when the

(𝑊 = 0).

• For 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.5, there is 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈 2

EXAMPLE 4.9, & 4.10

4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.4 Flow Analysis in Runner Blade: Slip,…

• As in the case of radial flow machines, axial flow machines (compressors and turbines) have the slip
due to the:
• pressure distribution on the two sides of the blades,
• finite thickness of blades, and
• non uniform velocity profiles. Figures 4.35 and 4.36

• The specific work is reduced in both the cases of turbines and Fig. 4.35 Slip in turbines

compressors.
• The coefficient of slip is of the order of 0.98 for smaller
machines to 0.99 for larger machines, while operating at design
conditions.

Fig. 4.36 Slip in compressors

4.4 Axial Flow Machines 4.4.4 Flow Analysis in Runner Blade: Slip,…

• The losses that occur in axial flow machines are like those in radial flow machines in all their details.
• There are the losses due to the friction between the fluid and the blade surfaces, proportional to
the square of the velocity.
• But these are comparatively less due to better surface finishes of the blades (made possible by the
manufacturing methods).
• The turning losses at off-design performance take place much like in radial flow machines with a
minimum at the design point.
• In axial flow turbine ⟹ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
• In axial flow compressors, for a desired output, the input is required to be increased by the amount
of losses.
4.5 Fan Laws

• Some considerations of the simple physics of turbomachines give rise to the relations between the

various parameters such as the:

speed (N), diameter of rotor (D), head created or consumed (H), power produced or utilized (P), etc.

• The interdependencies of the parameters in the form of relations between them are known as fan laws.
1. First Law: In an incompressible flow through a rotor of specified diameter,
𝑄∝𝑁
1. Second law: In an incompressible flow through a rotor of specified diameter,
(∆𝑃)0 ∝ 𝜌𝑁 2
1. Third Law: In an incompressible flow through a rotor of specified diameter,
𝑃 ∝ 𝜌𝑁 3
4.5 Fan Laws

• Fan laws are yet another form of stating the similarity laws and model studies.

• The variation of diameter is of constructional nature,

• the variation of speed is of operational nature, and

• the variation of density is indicative of handling different fluids.

• The Fan laws reinforce the ideas of operating a given machine at various operating parameters and

indicating the performance during such variation.

 Text Book:

CHAPTER

Assist. Prof. Shams. A. Sh

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kabul University
6.1 Introduction

• Hydraulic turbines are power-producing turbomachines, using water as the fluid.

• The water has to be available at a reasonable head.

• The power available in the water is

(𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄𝐻).
• The available flow rate depends on
the rainfall in the region.
• The available head is a characteristic
of the topography of the project site.
6.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbine
6.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbine

• Apart from the criteria of classification, it can be seen that basically there are three types of turbines:

Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan turbines, named after their designers.

• The Pelton turbine is an impulse turbine, with tangential flow, for high-head applications.

• The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, with radial or mixed flow, for medium head applications.

• The Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine, with axial flow, for low-head applications.

• The type of turbine to be employed for the power project depends on the

• head available and the round-the-year

• uniform flow rate that is possible at the site of the project.

6.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbine 6.2.1 Selection of Hydraulic Turbines

• Because of the wide variation of 𝐻 and 𝑄 each project requires some unique design.
• There are two approaches to decide the type of turbine suitable for a given project site, with
specified head and flow rate:
1. One criterion is the head (meters of water) available. Fig 6.2

• In the range of overlaps (50 − 75 𝑚 or 150 − 250 𝑚), the turbine can be selected by the
criterion of the specific speed.
6.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbine 6.2.1 Selection of Hydraulic Turbines

2. Another criterion is the specific speed corresponding to the site data.

• The head, H, and the flow rate, Q , with an overall efficiency between (0.85
and 0.88) are taken as data.

• ⟹ 𝑃 = (𝑤𝑄𝐻𝜂/1000) 𝐾𝑤

• ⟹ 𝑁𝑠 = (𝑁 𝑃Τ𝐻5/4 )

• In the range of overlaps, there are other considerations, such as cost factors,

control factors, applications, etc.

6.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbine 6.2.1 Selection of Hydraulic Turbines

• For the specific speed equal to 400, then one can assume two equal-sized turbines with the available
flow rate equally divided between the two.

• ⟹ 𝑁𝑠 = (𝑁 (𝑃/2)Τ𝐻 5/4 )

• This new specific speed is brought in the

range 60−300 to select a Francis turbine.

• This method of crossing over the range (from Kaplan to two or more units of Francis, or from Francis
to multiple-jet Pelton) has to be evaluated.
• Selection of any type of turbine for a site is by any of the above two approaches.
6.3 Pelton Turbine 6.3.1 Constructional Details of Pelton Turbine

• T he Pelton turbine belongs to the

• range of the low specific speeds (5 to 70) and
• the range of high heads (150 m of water and above). It is an impulse-type turbine.

• Some of the terms used are the shaft, the rotor, the nozzle, the jet, etc. Fig. 6.4.
• The blades or vanes of the rotor are the
“Pelton double cups” or “buckets.” Fig 6.5
6.3 Pelton Turbine 6.3.1 Constructional Details of Pelton Turbine

• The water, supplied from the head-works to the power house through the penstocks (steel pipes), is
led to these buckets in the form of a high-speed jet issued from a nozzle (Fig. 6.6).
• The potential energy (head-works) is converted into the kinetic energy of the jet of water in the
nozzle, with a nozzle efficiency 𝜂𝑛 .
6.3 Pelton Turbine 6.3.1 Constructional Details of Pelton Turbine

• The water, supplied from the head-works to the power house through the penstocks (steel pipes), is
led to these buckets in the form of a high-speed jet issued from a nozzle (Fig. 6.6).
1.5.1 Examples of Turbomachines

• Pelton turbine working animation