Basic Hydraulics

Table of Contents

¾ Principles of Hydraulics
¾ Basic Components
¾ Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
¾ Basic Hydraulic Schematics
¾ Types of Hydraulic Valves
- Pressure control valves
- Direction control valves
- Flow control valves
¾ Basic Hydraulic Systems
- Fixed Displacement
- Load sensing
- Pressure Compensation
- Negative Flow Control (NFC)
- Proportional Priority Pressure Compensated (PPPC)
¾ Hydraulic Schematic Examples
- D Series Backhoe Loaders
- G Series Wheel Loaders
¾ Hydrostatic Systems

1
Hydraulic Principles
We all know that hydraulic principles are demonstrated when you use a liquid under controlled
pressure to do work. There are laws that state the action of liquids under conditions of changing flows,
increasing and decreasing pressures. The student must be able to state and to understand these laws
in order to become successful as a heavy equipment technician.

Using a Liquid
There are several advantages for using a liquid.
1. Liquids conform to the shape of the container.
2. Liquids are practically incompressible.
3. Liquids apply pressure in all directions.

Liquids Conform to Shape

Liquids will conform to the shape of any container. Liquids
will also flow in any direction through lines and through
hoses of various sizes and various shapes.

Practically Incompressible

A liquid is practically incompressible. When a

substance is compressed, there is less space. A
liquid will occupy the same amount of space or
volume even when under pressure. The space or
volume that any substance will occupy is called
displacement.

Hydraulics Doing Work

According to Pascal's Law, "Pressure exerted
on a confined liquid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions and acts with
equal force on all equal areas." Therefore, a
force exerted on any part of an enclosed
hydraulic oil system transmits equal pressure
in all directions throughout the system.

In the example, a 227 kg (500 lb) force acting

upon a piston with a 5.08 cm (2 inch) radius
creates a pressure of approximately 280 kPa
(40 psi) in a confined liquid. The same 280
kPa (40 psi) acting upon a piston with a 7.62
cm (3 inch) radius supports a 574 kg (1130
lb).

2
 Hydraulic Principles

Same pressure exerting on different areas lifts different amount of forces

3
 Hydraulic Principles

Apply the same pressure to each end

The quantitiy of oil flow effects the speed of the movement

4
Orifice Effect
When hydraulics is discussed, it is a common practice to use
the term, pump pressure. However, the pump does not produce
pressure. The pump produces flow. Pressure is produced when
flow is restricted.

In Illustration 7 and Illustration 8, the pump flow through the pipe

is 1 gpm.
In Illustration 7, there is no restriction to the flow through the pipe.
Therefore, the pressure reading is zero for both gauges.

Orifice Offers Restriction

An orifice offers a restriction to the pump flow. When oil flows
through an orifice, pressure is produced on the upstream side of the orifice.
In Illustration 8, there is an orifice in the pipe between the two gauges. The gauge up the stream of the
orifice shows that a pressure of 207 kPa (30 psi) is needed to send a flow of 3.79 L/min (1 US gpm)
through the orifice. There is no restriction to flow after the orifice. The gauge down the stream of the
orifice shows 0 pressure.

Oil Flow to Tank is Blocked

When the end of either pipe is plugged, oil flow to the
tank is blocked.

The positive displacement pump will continue to pump at

3.79 L/min (1 US gpm) and fills the pipe. When the pipe
is filled, the resistance to any additional flow into the pipe
produces pressure. The pressure reaction is the same as
Pascal's Law which states that pressure exerted on a
confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions and acts with equal force on all equal areas.
The two-gauge readings are the same.

The pressure will increase until the pump flow is diverted

from the pipe to another circuit or to the tank. This
diversion is usually done with a relief valve in order to
protect the hydraulic system.

If total pump flow was not diverted from the pipe, pressure in the pipe would continue to rise and
cause an eruption of the circuit.

5
The two basic types of circuits are; the series and the parallel.

In Illustration 10, a pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi) is required to send 3.79 L/min (1 US gpm)1 gpm
through either circuit.

In a hydraulic circuit, orifices or relief valves in series offer a resistance that is similar to an electrical
circuit resistors in series. The oil, like the electrical current, must flow through each resistance. The
total resistance is equal to the sum of each individual resistance.

Restrictions In Series Restrictions In Parallel

Hydraulic Tank
The main function of the hydraulic oil tank is to store oil. The
tank also removes heat and air from the oil.
Tanks must have sufficient strength. Tanks must have adequate
capacity. Tanks must be able to keep dirt out. Hydraulic tanks
are not always sealed.
The following tank components are shown in Illustration 1:
• Fill Cap - Keeps contaminants out of the opening that is
used to fill and to add oil to the tank and seals a
pressurized tank.
• Sight Glass - Used to check the oil level. The oil level
should be checked when the oil is cold. The oil level is
usually correct when the oil is in the middle of the sight
glass.
• Supply and Return Lines - The supply line allows oil to
flow from the tank to the system. The return line allows
oil to flow from the system to the tank.
• Drain - Located at the lowest point in the tank, the drain
is used to remove old oil from the tank. The drain also
allows for the removal of water and for the removal of
sediment from the oil.

6
Pressurized Tank
The two main types of hydraulic tanks are pressurized tank
and vented (unpressurized) tank.

The pressurized tank is completely sealed. Atmospheric

pressure will not affect the pressure in the tank. When oil is
sent through the system, the oil absorbs heat and will
expand. The expanding oil compresses the air in the tank.
The compressed air forces the oil out of the tank and into
the system.

The vacuum relief valve serves two purposes. The vacuum

relief valve prevents a vacuum that limits the maximum
pressure in the tank.

The vacuum relief valve prevents a vacuum, by opening and allowing air to enter the tank when the
tank pressure drops to 3.45 kPa (.5 psi).

When pressure in the tank reaches the vacuum relief valve pressure setting, the valve opens and
vents compressed air to the atmosphere. The vacuum relief valve pressure setting may vary from 70
kPa (10 psi) to 207 kPa (30 psi).

The following items are other tank components that are shown in Illustration 2:

• Filler screen - keeps large contaminants from entering the tank when the fill cap is removed.
• Filler tube - allows the tank to be filled to the correct level, but not over filled.
• Baffles - prevents the return oil from flowing directly to the tank outlet, allowing time for
bubbles in the return oil to rise to the top. Baffles prevent the oil from sloshing which helps
reduce foaming of the oil.
• Ecology Drain - prevents accidental spills when removing water and when removing sediment
from the tank.
• Return screen - prevents larger particles from entering the tank, but does not provide fine
filtering,

Vented Tank
The vented or the un-pressurized tank differs from the pressurized tank.
The vented tank also has a breather. The breather will allow air to enter
and to exit freely. Atmospheric pressure on the top of the oil forces the oil
out of the tank and into the system. The breather has a screen that
prevents dirt from entering the tank.

The vented hydraulic tank symbol is merely an open topped box. The
pressurized tank symbol is drawn as a completely closed box or a
rectangle. Tanks are shown with hydraulic lines to enhance
understanding.

ISO Symbol

7
Accumulator

The gas charged accumulator is the accumulator

type most commonly used in implement hydraulic
systems on mobile equipment. There are two
different types of gas charged accumulators shown
in illustration 1, the bladder type (shown on the left),
and the piston type (shown on the right). Both types
separate the gas from the oil in order to keep the
gas contained.

When the oil pressure is higher than the gas

pressure, the volume of gas will become smaller,
and allow more oil into the accumulator. The volume
of gas continues to decrease until the gas is
compressed enough to equalize the gas pressure
and the oil pressure.

When the gas pressure is higher than the oil pressure, the volume of gas will expand. This expansion will
push oil out of the accumulator into the hydraulic system, until the gas and the oil pressure are once again
equal.

Bladder type accumulators used on mobile equipment vary in size from 0.5 L (0.13 US gal) to 57 L (15 US
gal). Piston type accumulators used on mobile equipment vary in size from 1.06 L (0.28 US gal) to 43 L (11
US gal).

Uses of Accumulators
The combined ability to store both pressure and a
volume of oil allows many uses of accumulators in
hydraulic systems. The following items are uses of
accumulators:

1. Permits usage of smaller pumps - The

storage of a volume of oil under pressure
provides makeup oil for the steering or pilot
system when demand exceeds pump flow.

2. Provides emergency steering and braking -

The volume of oil under pressure can provide
enough input to the steering and/or brake
systems to control the machine, for a short
period of time, in the event of pump or engine
failure.

3. Maintains constant pressure - The expansion and contraction ability of the gas to change volume with
minimal changes in pressure is used in pilot systems to hold the controls steady even with variations
in supply to the system.

4. Absorbs shock loads - Accumulators are used on mobile equipment to improve roadability. This
improved roadability is accomplished by absorbing the rush of oil in the system on rough terrain that
would otherwise create pressure spikes and machine bounce. Examples of this usage are scraper
cushion-hitch systems and wheel loader ride control systems.

8
Hydraulic Hoses
Hydraulic hoses are made of several layers of
material. The various layers are shown in
illustration
1. Polymer inner tube - Seals the oil from
leakage.
2. Reinforcement layer - Either fiber for low
pressure or wire for high pressure in order to
support the inner tube, one to six layers may
be used.
3. Polymer friction layer - separate reinforcement
layers to prevent rubbing and subsequent
wear.
4. Outer cover - Protects the hose from wear
and other components.

Pressure Ratings of Hoses

Depending on the system requirements, mobile equipment may use a variety of low, medium, and high
pressure hoses. The various hoses are shown in illustration:
1. XT-HOSE-3 (Four spiral) - High pressure: 17500-28000 kPa (2500 - 4000 psi)
2. XT-HOSE-5 (Four/six spiral) - High pressure:41400 kPa (6000 psi)
3. XT-HOSE-6 (Six spiral) - High pressure: 41400 kPa (6000 psi)
4. 716 (One-wire braid) - Medium/low pressure:4300 - 19000 kPa (625 - 2750 psi)
5. 844 (Hydraulic suction) - Low pressure: 690 - 2070 kPa (100 - 300 psi)
6. 556 (One wire braid fabric) - Medium/low pressure: 1725 - 10350 kPa (500 - 3000 psi)
7. 1130 (Engine/air brake) - Medium/low pressure: 1725 - 10350 kPa (1250 - 3000 psi)
8. 1028 (Thermoplastic) - Medium pressure: 8620 - 207000 kPa (2250 - 5000 psi)
9. 294 (two wire braid) - Medium/high pressure:15500 - 34500 kPa (2250 - 5000 psi)
The smaller the inside diameter of a hose, the higher the pressure rating within that type of hose. The inside
diameter of a hydraulic hose ranges from 0.188 inch (3/16 inch) to 2.000 inch (2 inch) .

9
Types of Hose Coupling
Hose couplings are used at both ends of each
length of hose in order to connect the hose to
the hydraulic system components. Three
different methods that are used to attach the
couplings directly to the ends of the hose are
shown in illustration 3.

1. Crimp On (top) - Permanent, not reusable,

with a low failure rate and works well in all
pressure applications.
2. Screw Type (lower right) - Reusable, can be
installed on hose in field with hand tools,
usable in low and medium pressure
applications.
3. Collet Type (lower left) - Reusable,
designed for high pressure hose applications, must be assembled and disassembled using a hose press.

The end of the hose coupling that is not directly attached to the hose will attach to another component of the
hydraulic system. There are two general types of coupling ends that are used: flange type and threaded
connector type. There are two different thickness of flange type ends for some given size hoses, determined
by the maximum system pressure. There are many different threaded connector ends, determined by the
fittings to which they are to connect. Threaded connectors are generally restricted to hose size 1.25 inch in
diameter or smaller.

Functions of Hydraulic fluids

Fluids are virtually incompressible. Therefore, fluids can transmit power instantaneously in a hydraulic
system. For example, petroleum oil compresses approximately 1% for every 13800 kPa (2001 psi).
Therefore, petroleum oil can maintain a constant volume under high pressure. Petroleum oil is the primary
fluid that is used in developing most hydraulic oils.
The following items are the primary functions of hydraulic fluids:
• Power transmission
• Lubrication
• Sealing
• Cooling

Power Transmission
Because hydraulic fluids are virtually incompressible, once the hydraulic system is filled with fluid it can
instantly transmit power from one area to another. This does not mean that all hydraulic fluids are equal and
will be able to transmit power with the same efficiency. Choosing the correct hydraulic fluid depends on the
application and the operating conditions.

Lubrication
Hydraulic fluid must lubricate the moving parts of the hydraulic system. The rotating components or sliding
components must be able to function without touching other surfaces. The hydraulic fluid must maintain a thin
film between the two surfaces in order to prevent friction, heat, and wear.

Sealing
Many hydraulic components are designed to use hydraulic fluid instead of mechanical seals within the
component. The viscosity of the fluid helps to determine the ability to function as a seal.

10
Cooling
When a hydraulic system develops heat, mechanical energy is transfered to hydraulic energy. Then the
hydraulic system transfers hydraulic energy back to mechanical energy. As the fluid moves throughout the
system, heat flows from the warmer components to the cooler fluid. The fluid gives up the heat to the
reservoir or to the coolers that are designed to maintain fluid temperatures within design limits.
The following items are other properties that are expected of the hydraulic fluids:
• Prevention of rust and corrosion on metal parts
• The resistance to foaming and oxidation
• The ability to separate air
• The ability to separate water
• The ability to separate other contaminates from the fluid
• The ability to maintain stability over a wide range of temperatures

Controlling Hydraulic Oil Temperature

As hydraulic components work, heat
builds up in the oil. Many lower pressure
hydraulic systems are able to dissipate
the heat through lines, through cylinders,
through tanks, and other component
surfaces in order to control the oil
temperature. Most high pressure
hydraulic systems require an oil cooler, in
addition to the other components, in order
to control the oil temperature.

There are two types of hydraulic oil

coolers that are used on mobile
equipment:

1. Air to oil (shown on the left) where the oil passes through tubes covered with fins. A fan or a machine
speed will blow air over the tubes and the fins in order to cool the oil.

2. Water to oil (shown on the right) is where the oil passes through a bundle of tubes. Engine cooling
water will pass around the tubes in order to cool the oil.

Hydraulic oil temperature must normally be maintained below 100 °C (212 °F) in order to prevent damage to
components. Oil above this temperature causes seals to deteriorate. The oil also becomes thin enough to
allow metal to metal contact between moving components in the system.

Viscosity Oil Life

Viscosity is the measurement of a fluid's The hydraulic oil never wears out. The use of
resistance to flow at a specific temperature. A fluid filters that are used to remove solid particles and
which flows easily has a low viscosity. A fluid some chemicals add to the useful life of the oil.
which does not flow easily has a high viscosity. However, eventually the oil will become so
A fluid's viscosity is affected by temperature. contaminated, that it will have to be replaced. In
When a fluid becomes warmer, the fluid's viscosity construction machines, the oil is replaced at
becomes lower. Likewise, when a fluid cools, the regular time intervals.
viscosity increases. Vegetable oil is a very good
example of how viscosity changes with a change The contaminates in the oil may also be used as
in temperature. When vegetable oil is very cold, indicators of high wear and prospective problem
vegetable oil thickens and is very slow to pour. As areas. One program that will use oil contaminates
vegetable oil is heated, vegetable oil becomes as a source of information is the Caterpillar
thinner and pour's more readily. Schedule Oil Sampling Program(SOS).

11
Oil Filter
There are three different filter
design classifications that are used
in implement hydraulic systems on
mobile equipment. These
classifications are listed below:

1. Cartridge filter (shown on

left) - The filter element fits
into a tank or canister with
the opening for the filter
sealed off by a cap.

2. Canister filter (shown in

center) - The filter element is
built into its own housing that screws onto a permanent filter base. The filter material
used in the canister filter can be identical to the filter material that is used in the cartridge
filter.

3. Screen (shown on right) - A metallic mesh that fits into a tank or canister, similar to the
cartridge filter, but with larger openings to trap large contaminants before they enter the
system.

Filter Function
Filters clean the hydraulic oil by
removing contaminants that can
damage component parts. As oil
passes through the filter element,
contaminants are trapped. Clean oil
continues through the system.

Some manufacturer's filter elements

are given a rating, micron and beta,
according to its tested ability to trap
particles. The smaller the micron
rating, the smaller the particle that
will be trapped by the filter. The
larger the beta number for a given
micron size, the more of that size particle that will be trapped on the first pass of oil through
the filter. These beta ratings are determined by using a certain type of particle in a controlled
test.

Some manufacturers overlook the usefulness of these ratings because they are run with
constant, controlled flow without surges and do not address the quality or useful life of the
elements.

12
Filter Bypassing
Most cartridge and canister filters are
equipped with a filter bypass valve in
order to ensure the system flow is
never blocked. The bypass valves
also protect the filter from tearing or
from a collapse. The blockage that
could lead to the failure of a filter
could be caused by the following
items:

1. A buildup of contaminates
that clogs the filter.

2. Cold oil that is too thick to

pass through the filter.

When the bypass valve opens, unfiltered oil circulates through the hydraulic system.
Unfiltered oil contains contaminants that could cause damage to hydraulic system
components. The filter must be replaced in order to close the bypass if the filter is clogged.

The filter bypass valve that opens due to cold oil will normally close as the oil warms. This
action again sends the oil through the filter in order to remove the contaminants.

Replace the filters as recommended by the machine manufacturer in order to prevent clogging of the
filter, and in order to minimize oil bypassing when the oil is cold.

13
Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
Pumps and motors are similar in construction, but are different in operational characteristics.

Hydraulic Pump
The hydraulic pump transfers mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. The pump is a
device that takes energy from one source
(i.e. engine, electric motor, etc.) and
transfers that energy into a hydraulic form.
The pump takes oil from a storage container
(i.e. tank) and then pushes the oil into a
hydraulic system as flow.

All pumps produce oil flow in the same way.

A vacuum is created at the pump inlet. The
higher atmospheric pressure or tank
pressure will push the oil through the inlet
passage and into the pump inlet chambers. The pump gears carry the oil to the pump outlet chamber.
The volume of the chamber decreases as the chamber approaches the outlet. This decrease in
chamber size will push the oil out of the outlet.

Pumps produce only the flow (i.e. gallons per minute, liters per minute, cubic centimeters per
revolution, etc.) used in the hydraulic system. Pumps DO NOT produce or cause pressure. Pressure is
caused by the resistance to the flow. Resistance can be caused by flow through hoses, orifices,
fittings, cylinders, motors, or anything in the system that slows down free flow to the tank.

Pumps can be classified into two types:

• Non-positive displacement pump

• Positive displacement pump

Hydraulic Motor

The hydraulic motor transfers hydraulic

energy into mechanical energy. It uses the
oil flow being pushed into the hydraulic
system by a pump and transfers it into a
rotary motion to drive another device (i.e.
final drives, differential, transmission,
wheel, fan, another pump, etc.).

Pump and Motor ISO Symbols

14
Non-Positive Displacement Pumps
Non-positive displacement pumps have more clearances between the moving and the stationary parts
than positive displacement pumps. The extra clearance allows more oil to be pushed back between
the parts as the outlet pressure (resistance to flow) increases. Non-positive displacement pumps are
less efficient than positive displacement pumps because the output flow of the pump decreases
greatly as the outlet pressure increases. Non-positive displacement pumps are generally either
centrifugal impeller-type or axial propeller-type. Non-postive displacement pumps are used in low
pressure applications. Some applications are automotive water pumps or charge pumps for piston
pumps in high pressure hydraulic systems.

Centrifugal Impeller Pump

The centrifugal impeller pump consists of two
basic parts: the impeller (2) and the housing (3).
The impeller is mounted on an input shaft (4),
that has a solid disc back with curved blades (1)
that are molded on the input side.

Oil enters the center of the housing (5) near the

input shaft and flows into the impeller. The
curved impeller blades propel the oil outward
against the housing. The housing is shaped in
order to direct the oil to the outlet port.

Axial Propeller Pump

The axial propeller type pump is shaped like an electric
air fan. The axial propeller is mounted in a straight tube.
The axial propeller has an open blade propeller. Oil is
propelled down the tube by the rotation of the angled
blades.

Positive Displacement Pumps

There are three basic types of positive displacement
pumps: gear, vane and piston. Positive displacement
pumps have much smaller clearances between
components. This will reduce leakage and this will
provide a much higher efficiency, when displacement
pumps are used in a high pressure hydraulic system.
The output flow in a positive displacement pump is
basically the same for each pump revolution. Positive
displacement pumps are classified by both the control of
the output flow and the construction of the pump.

Volumetric Efficiency
As pressure increases, the close clearances between the parts in a positive displacement pump do not
produce the same output flow as input flow. Some oil will be forced back through the clearances
between the high pressure chamber and the low pressure chamber. The resultant output flow, when
compared to the input flow, is called volumetric efficiency. (Input flow is generally defined as the
"output flow @ 100 psi.") Volumetric efficiency changes as pressure changes and must be specified
for a given pressure. When a pump that is rated at 100 gpm @ 2000 rpm @ 100 psi is operated
against 1000 psi, the output may drop to 97 gpm. This pump would have a "volumetric efficiency" of
97% (97/100) @ 1000 psi.

15
Fixed Displacement Versus Variable Displacement

The output flow of a fixed displacement pump (left side) is only changed by varying the speed of the
pump rotation. The pump rotation must be rotated faster in order to increase the flow. Also, the
displacement pump must rotate slower in order to decrease the flow. The gear type pump (not shown)
is also a fixed displacement pump.

The vane type pump (not shown) and piston type pumps may be fixed or variable. The output flow
from a variable displacement pump may be increased or decreased independently of the speed of
rotation.

The output flow can be controlled in the following way:

• Manually controlled
• Automatically controlled (not shown)
• Combination of manually and automatically controlled

16
Gear Pumps
The gear pump consists of the following items
that are shown in illustration:

(1) seal retainers , (2) seals , (3) seal backups ,

(4) isolation plates , (5) spacers , (6) drive gear ,
(7) idler gear , (8) housing , (9) mounting flange ,
(10) flange seal

Bearings are mounted in the housing and the

mounting flange on the sides of the gears in order
to support the gear shafts during rotation.
Gear pumps are positive displacement pumps.
They deliver the same amount of oil for each
revolution of the input shaft. The pump output is
controlled by changing the speed of rotation. The maximum operating pressure for gear pumps is
limited to 27600 kPa (4003 psi). This pressure limitation is due to the hydraulic imbalance that is
inherent in the gear pump design. The hydraulic imbalance produces a side load on the shafts that is
resisted by the bearings and the gear teeth to housing contact. The gear pump maintains a volumetric
efficiency above 90% when pressure is kept within the designed operating pressure range.

Gear Pump Flow

As the pump rotates, the oil is carried between the gear teeth and the housing from the inlet side to
the outlet side of the pump. The direction of rotation of the drive gear shaft is determined by the
location of the inlet and outlet ports. The direction of rotation of the drive gear will be to move the oil
around the outside of the gears from the inlet port to the outlet port. This is true on both gear pumps
and gear motors. On most gear pumps, the inlet port is larger in diameter than the outlet port. On
bidirectional pumps and motors, the inlet port and the outlet port will be the same size.

Gear Pump Forces

The outlet flow from a gear pump is created by pushing
the oil out of the gear teeth as they come into mesh
on the outlet side. The resistance to oil flow creates
the outlet pressure. The imbalance of the gear pump
is due to outlet port pressure being higher than inlet
port pressure. The higher pressure oil
will push the gears toward the inlet
port side of the housing. The shaft
bearings carry the majority of the side
load in order to prevent excessive wear
between the tooth tips and the housing. On the
higher pressure pumps, the gear shafts are slightly
tapered from the outboard end of the bearings to
the gear. This design feature allows full contact between
the shaft and bearing as the shaft bends slightly under the
pressure.
The pressurized oil is also directed between the sealed area of the pressure balance plates and the
housing and the mounting flange in order to seal the ends of the gear teeth. The size of the sealed
area between the pressure balanced plates and the housing is what limits the amount of force that
pushes the plates against the ends of the gears.

17
Pressure Balance Plates
There are two different types of pressure balance
plates that are used in gear pumps. The earlier
type (1 ) that is shown in illustration 1 has a flat
back. This type uses an isolation plate, a backup
for the seal, a seal shaped like a 3, and a seal
retainer. The later type (2 ) shown in illustration 1
has a groove shaped like a 3 cut into the back and
is thicker than the earlier type. Two different types
of seals are used with the later type of pressure
balance plates.

Internal Gear Pump

The internal gear pump that is shown in illustration
4 has a small drive gear (pinion gear) that drives a
large ring gear (outer gear). The ring gear is a little
larger in pitch than the drive gear. A stationary
crescent is located below the pinion gear between
the drive gear and the ring gear. The inlet and
outlet ports are located at either end of the
crescent.

When the pump rotates, the teeth of the drive gear

and the ring gear unmesh at the pump inlet port.
The void between the teeth increases and fills with
inlet oil. The oil is carried between the drive gear
teeth, the crescent, the ring gear teeth, and the
crescent to the outlet port. When the gears pass
the outlet port, the void between the teeth
decreases and the teeth mesh. This action forces the oil out of the teeth and into the outlet port.
The internal gear pump is used as the charging pump in some large piston pumps.

Gerotor Pump
The inner members and outer members rotate within
the pump housing. Pumping is achieved by the way
the lobes on the inner member and the outer
member contact each other during rotation. When
the inner member and outer member rotate, the
inner member walks around inside the outside
member. The inlet ports and outlet ports are located
on the end covers of the housing. The fluids that
enter through the inlet is carried around to the outlet.
This fluid is squeezed out when the lobes mesh.

A modified conjugate curve pump is used in many

steering systems handmetering control unit (HMU).
When a conjugate curve pump is used in the HMU,
the outer gear is stationary and only the inner gear rotates.

18
Vane Pumps
Vane pumps are positive
displacement pumps. The pump
output can be either a fixed vane
pump or a variable vane pump.

Both the fixed vane pumps and the

variable vane pumps use common
part nomenclature.

Each pump consists of the

following components:

(1) housing , (2) cartridge ,

(3) mounting plate , (4) mounting
plate seal , (5) cartridge seals
(6) cartridge backup rings ,
(7) snap ring , (8) the input shaft
and bearing

The cartridge consists of the following components:

(9) support plates , (10) ring , (11) flex plates , (12) slotted rotor , (13) vanes

The balanced vane pump has an elliptical shaped cam

ring. This shape results in the distance between the rotor
and the cam ring increasing and decreasing twice for each
revolution. The two inlets (1) and two outlets (2) opposite
each other balance the forces against the rotor. This
design does not require large bearings and housings in
order to support the rotating parts. The maximum
operating pressure for vane pumps is 27600 kPa (4003
psi). Vane pumps that are used in mobile hydraulics have
a maximum operating pressure of 20700 kPa (3002 psi) or
less.

19
Piston Pumps

Most piston pumps and motors have common parts that use the same nomenclature.

The following pump parts are shown in illustration 1:

(1) head , (2) housing , (3) shaft , (4) pistons , (5) port plate , (6) barrel , (7) swashplate

The two designs of piston pumps are the axial piston pump and the radial piston pump. Both pumps
are highly efficient, positive displacement pumps. However, the output of some pumps are fixed and
the output of some pumps are variable.

Axial Piston Pumps and Motors

20
Angled Housing Axial Piston Pump

Radial Piston Pump

21
Cylinders
Cylinders are linear actuators. The cylinder outputs are straight line motion or force. Two of the most
common types are single acting cylinders and double acting cylinders.

Effective Area of a
Cylinder

The bore size of the cylinder

refers to the inside diameter of
the cylinder. A cylinder with a
large bore size creates a larger
volume per unit of length than a
cylinder with a small bore size.
The large bore size cylinder uses
more oil to move the piston the
same distance than the small
bore size cylinder. Therefore, for
a given flow rate, a large bore size cylinder will move slower than a small bore size cylinder.

The effective area of a cylinder is the surface area of the piston and piston seal, upon which the oil
pushes. Because one end of the rod attaches to the piston and the opposite end extends out of the
cylinder, the rod end effective area is less than the head end effective area. The oil can not push
against the area of the piston that is covered by the rod.

The volume of oil that is needed to fill the rod end of the cylinder is less than the volume of oil that is
needed to fill the head end of the cylinder. Therefore, the cylinder rod retracts faster than the cylinder
rod will extend for a given flow rate.

Seals

The piston seal is used between the piston and the cylinder wall. Oil pressure spreads the seal against
the cylinder wall. The greater the pressure is the greater is the sealing force.

The head seal (O ring) prevents oil from escaping between the rod gland and the cylinder wall.

The rod seal is a U shaped seal or a U-cup shaped seal that prevents oil from escaping between the
rod and the rod gland. The rod seal wipes the oil off the rod as the rod is extended from the cylinder.

The wiper seal is fitted to the cylinder and prevents dirt or grit from being drawn into the cylinder as the
cylinder rod retracts.

Seals are made of polyurethane, nitrile, or viton. The material should be verified in order to be
compatible with the fluid that is used and the operating conditions.

22
Cylinders Equipped with Snubbers (Dampers)

When a moving cylinder runs into a dead end, the concussion is called shock loading. When cylinders
are subject to shock loading, snubbers are used to minimize the effect.

When the piston approaches full stroke, the snubber moves into the return oil. Then, the snubber
restricts the return oil flow from the cylinder. The restriction causes an increase in the return oil
pressure between the return oil passage and the piston. The increase in oil pressure provides a
cushioning effect which slows the piston. This minimizes the shock that occurs at full stroke.

Some cylinders may require a head end snubber. Some may require a rod end snubber. Others may
require both head end snubbers and rod end snubbers.

Single Acting Cylinders

The tubular outer housing is the

cylinder body. The following items
are inside the cylinder body: piston,
piston seal and the rod. The bore
refers to the inside diameter of the
cylinder body. The head end refers
to the piston end of the cylinder. The
rod end refers to the end from which
the rod extends and the rod retracts.

Double Acting Cylinders

Illustration 3 shows a double acting

cylinder. The double acting cylinder is the
most common hydraulic actuator that is
used today. The double acting cylinder is
used on the implement, the steering, and
other systems where the cylinder is
required to do work in both directions.

The National Fluid Power Association

(NFPA) guidelines are used for the
standards in bore size, mounting style,
and overall dimensions of the cylinders. This allows cylinders from different manufacturers to be
interchangeable when the cylinders have the same description. You must remember that cylinders
may be equal in size without being equal in quality.

23
Pressure Control Valves
Valves are used to control the flow and the pressure of hydraulic oil in a hydraulic system. Hydraulic
valves are grouped into three major categories, based primarily on their function.

The following items are the three major types of hydraulic valves:

• pressure control valves

• flow control valves
• directional control valves

A valve may be constructed in order to combine several of these functions. A valve is usually named
for how it functions or how it is constructed.

Pressure Control Valves are used to control the pressure in a circuit or in a system. The primary valve
function will remain the same although, the design may change. Examples of pressure control valves
include relief valves, sequence valves, pressure reducing valves, pressure differential valves, and
unloading valves.

Relief Valves
Hydraulic systems are designed to operate within a certain pressure range. Exceeding this range can
damage the system components. Exceeding this range will cause the system to become dangerous to
personnel. The relief valve maintains the pressure within the designed limit by opening and allowing
excessive oil to flow either to another circuit or back to the tank.

Simple Pressure Relief Valve

An increase in the resistance to oil flow will increase the volume of
excess oil. An increase in the resistance to oil flow will increase the
circuit pressure. The increase in circuit pressure overcomes the new
spring tension allowing for the relief valve to open.

The process that is shown in Illustration 2 is repeated until the

maximum volume of oil (full pump flow) is flowing through the relief
valve. The relief pressure setting is shown in illustration 2.

The simple relief valve is commonly used where the volume of excess oil flow is low or where there is
a need for a quick response. This makes the simple relief valve ideal for relieving shock pressures or
as a safety valve.

Pilot Operated Relief Valve, CLOSE Position

24
Pressure Reducing Valve
The pressure reducing valve allows two circuits of different pressures to be supplied by the same
pump. The maximum supply oil pressure is controlled by the system relief valve. The pressure
reducing valve controls the maximum pressure in the controlled oil circuit.

Illustration 2 shows the pressure reducing valve in the

normal operating condition.

When the pressure increases in the controlled oil circuit,

the increase is sensed in the piston chamber. The
increasing pressure moves the piston to the left against
the valve spool and the force of the spring. When the
valve spool moves to the left, the valve spool restricts
the supply oil flow through the valve. This causes a
reduction in the controlled oil circuit pressure.

The moving valve spool creates a variable orifice between the supply oil and the controlled oil circuit.
The variable orifice allows the oil flow to increase and decrease as needed in order to control the
pressure in the controlled oil circuit.

The oil in the spring chamber must be drained to the tank. Any increase in the spring chamber oil
pressure will cause an increase in the valve setting.

Note: The pressure reducing valve is used in many systems to create a lower supply oil pressure for
pilot control systems, steering clutch, brake valves, and brake systems.

Pressure Differential Valve

In Illustration 1 and Illustration 2, the spring exerts a 50 pound force on the 1 square inch valve spool.
The supply oil pressure must exceed 345 kPa (50 psi) in order to overcome the spring force and be
able to move the valve spool.

At pump start-up, also when the pressure in the primary circuit is less than 345 kPa (50 psi), the spring
force holds the valve spool to the right. The oil flow is blocked to the secondary circuit. Any change in
the primary circuit pressure is sensed at the valve spool.

Pump Start-up Normal Operating Condition

25
Directional Control Valves
Directional control valves are used to direct oil into separate circuits of a hydraulic system. The
maximum flow capacity and the pressure drop through the valve are the first considerations.
Directional control valves may be interfaced with the following controls: manual, hydraulic, pneumatic
and electronic controls. These factors are mostly determined during the initial system design.

The directional control valve is used in order to direct the supply oil to the actuator in a hydraulic
system.

The valve body is drilled and honed. Sometimes the bore

is heat treated. The inlet and outlet ports are drilled and
threaded. The valve spool is machined from high grade
steel. Some valve spools are heat treated, ground to size,
and polished. Some valve spools are chrome plated,
ground to size,and polished. The valve body and the valve
spool are then mated in assembly to the design
specifications. When the valve body and the valve spool
are assembled, the valve spool is the only part that
moves.

Valve Spool
The valve spool in Illustration 1 consists of lands and
grooves. The spool lands block the oil flow through the
valve body. The spool undercuts allow oil to flow around
the spool and through the valve body.

The valve spool lands have lubrication and centering grooves to prevent the spool from sticking in the
bore of the body. The valve spool lands have throttling slots to provide a smooth transition of oil flow
as the oil passages in the body are opened and closed by movement of the spool.

The position of the spool when the spool is not activated, is called the NEUTRAL position or the HOLD
position.

When an open-center valve is in the NEUTRAL position, the supply oil flows through the valve and
back to the tank. When a closed-center valve is in the NEUTRAL position, the supply oil is blocked by
the valve spool.

Open-center Directional Control Valve in HOLD Position

Illustration 2 shows a cutaway diagram of a typical
open-center directional control valve in the HOLD
position.

When the directional control valve is in the HOLD

position, the pump oil flows into the valve body. The
pump oil will flow around the valve spool and return to
the tank. The pump oil then returns to the tank. The
pump oil also flows to the load check valve. The
passage behind the load check valve is filled with
blocked oil. The blocked oil and the load check valve
spring keep the load check valve closed. The valve
spool also blocks the oil in the line to the rod end and
the head end of the cylinder.

26
Open-center Directional Control Valve in RAISE Position
Illustration 3, shows the valve spool at the time when the
spool is moved into the RAISE position.

When the valve spool is moved to the RAISE position, the

valve spool blocks the pump oil flow through the center of
the valve to the tank. However, pump oil flow is open to the
load check valve. The valve spool also connects the cylinder
head end to the oil behind the load check valve and the
cylinder rod end to the tank passage. The load check valve
prevents the oil in the head end of the cylinder from flowing
into the pump oil passage. The blocked pump oil flow will
cause an increase in the oil pressure.

In Illustration 4 the increase in pump oil pressure

overcomes the pressure behind the load check valve.
The pump oil pressure unseats the load check valve. The
pump oil flows past the load check valve and around the
valve spool to the head end of the cylinder.

The oil in the rod end of the cylinder flows past the valve
spool to the tank.

Directional Control Valve ISO Symbols

The basic valve ISO symbol in Illustration 5 consists of one or more basic envelopes. The number of
envelopes that are used represents the number of positions that the valve can be shifted.

The valve ports for attaching working lines are shown in illustration 6. A valve with two ports is
commonly referred to as a two-way valve. A two-way valve is not to be confused with a two-position
valve that is shown in Illustration 5. Valves may have as many positions and ports as needed.
However, most valve positions are in the range of one to three and valve ports in the range of two to
six.

In Illustration 7, the lines and arrows inside the envelopes are used basically to represent the flow
paths and directions between ports.

27
Three-position Valve
In the three-position valve, the center position is the NEUTRAL or HOLD position. When the valve is
not doing work, the valve is placed in the HOLD position.

The design of the spool determines what purpose the center position
will serve.
When the closed-center valve is in the HOLD position, the closed-
center spool blocks all oil flow.

When in the HOLD position, the tandem-center valve blocks oil flow at
(A ) and (B) but connects the pump to the tank.

When in the HOLD position, the open-center valve connects all ports
to the tank.

Three-position, Six-way, Open-center, Spring centered

Manual and Pilot Controlled Valve
The pump oil flows around the valve spool to the tank. The oil in the cylinder is blocked at the control
valve spool.
Springs on both ends of the valve spool indicate that the valve is spring centered in the hold position.
When a spring is shown on only one end of a valve spool, the spool is normally pushed to the position
next to the spring in the hold (without external control input) position.
The lines running full length on either side of the valve indicate that the valve is infinately variable. The
flow through the valve can be in any two adjacent position at the same time. The major flow path is
determined by the amount of external force placed on the spool.

Directional Control Valve Actuator

28
 Open Center Valves

Open center valves permit oil to flow through the valve at all times. In NEUTRAL the open center
passage allows oil to flow from the supply back to the tank at low pressure. When the valve is shifted,
oil flows from supply to an actuator. The returning oil from the actuator flows back through the valve
to the tank. The valve can be shifted in the opposite direction, allowing it to be supplied to
the opposite side of the actuator.

Open center hydraulic systems are always supplying a relatively high flow. This enables the hydraulic
system to quickly respond when the valve is shifted.

Advantage: Disadvantage:

• Fast response • Partial shift causes partial flow to the tank and the actuator,
which generates more heat
• Control may not be as precise
• Typically requires a larger oil cooler

Closed Center Valves

Closed center valves operate similar to open center valves, except in NEUTRAL. Closed center
valves
block the flow from the pump to the tank in NEUTRAL. When the valve is shifted oil flows only to
the actuator with a full or partial shift. When the valve is centered, flow through the valve
stops. These valves are typically used with a variable displacement pump to provide flow on
demand.

Advantage: Disadvantage:
• Flow only to circuit activated • Requires high flow relief valve or variable
displacement pump
• Generates less heat than open center valves
• Slower response when activated
• More precise flow control

29
Check Valve
The purpose of a check valve is to permit oil flow in one
direction, and to prevent oil flow in the opposite direction.
The check valve is sometimes called a one-way check
valve.
Most check valves consist of a spring and a tapered seat
valve as in Illustration 1 above; however, a round ball is
sometimes used instead of the tapered seat valve. In
some circuits, the check valve may be free floating.
When the pump oil pressure overcomes the oil pressure in back of the check valve plus the check
valve slight spring force, the check valve opens and allows the oil to flow to the implement. This is
shown by the valve on the left.
In the valve on the right, when the pressure of the pump oil is less than the oil pressure in the
implement, the check valve closes. This prevents implement oil flow back through the valve.

Pilot Operated Check Valve

The pilot operated check valve is most often used in operations where load drift is a problem. The pilot
operated check valve allows load drift to be held to a very close tolerance.
The pilot operated check valve differs from the simple check valve. The difference is that the pilot
operated check valve will allow oil flow through the
valve in the reverse direction.

Forward Flow
Illustration 2 shows a pilot operated check valve. The
pilot operated check valve consists of a check valve, a
pilot valve, and a rod. The pilot operated check valve
allows free flow from the control valve to the cylinder
in the same manner as a simple check valve, as
shown in Illustration 2.

Flow Blocked
When oil flow from the control valve ceases without
pilot oil being applied, the check valve seats. This is
shown on the right of Illustration 3. The oil flow from
the cylinder to the control valve is blocked at the
check valve in the same manner as a simple check
valve.

Reverse Flow
The valve that is shown in Illustration 4, shows how
the oil flows from the cylinder to the control valve.
When flow is required, pilot oil is sent to the pilot
valve oil chamber. Pilot oil pressure moves the pilot
valve and rod to the right. The pilot oil pressure
unseats the check valve. The cylinder oil flows
through the check valve, to the control valve, and
then to the tank.
The pressure ratio between the load pressure and
the pilot pressure is designed into the valve. For
example, consider a valve that has a pressure ratio
of 3:1. The pressure that is needed to open the
check valve is equal to one-third of the load
pressure. A load pressure of 4134 kPa (600 psi)
requires a pilot pressure of 1378 kPa (200 psi) to
open the check valve.

30
Lock Check Valves
Some pilot operated check valves are called lock check
valves. This function will allow oil flow in the reverse
direction. The difference is that the lock check valve uses
the pressure created by the load being moved rather than
an independent pilot source to open the lock check valve.
This allows oil to be returned from the opposite side of the
actuator.

Lock check valves are used on both cylinders and motors

to ensure no movement in either direction.

Illustration 5 shows a lock check valve. The check valves

on both sides of the actuator are closed or blocked. The
length of the extensions on each end of the piston are
shorter than the distance between the two seated check
valves. Both valves are being held on their seat by the
blocked oil from the actuator.

Illustration 6 shows a lock check valve. The left side is

pressurized to move the load. The flow has opened the
check valve on the left side. The pressure has moved the
piston and its extensions to the right, pushing the check
valve on the right side open to allow reverse flow back
through the check valve to the control valve.
The flow for opening the left valve is from the directional
control valve. The reverse flow oil from the right valve
returns through the directional control valve to the tank.

Note: Lock check valves are used in most circuits of G-

Series motor graders.

Inverse Shuttle

The inverse shuttle is similar in construction to the lock check valve. The check valve on either end
traps oil from flowing back into the valve. The following items are differences between the inverse
shuttle and the lock check valve:
• The inverse shuttle has a single source of oil that is supplied into the center chamber.
• The center rod between the two check valves is longer than the distance between the two
seated check valves. Thus, one or both of the check valves are always held open.
• The inverse check valve is always used with an accumulator in each valve outlet to ensure
that the accumulators are equally charged. The inverse check valve is normally used in the
brake system to ensure that equal pressure is available for front brakes and rear brakes.

Note: Inverse shuttle valves are used in the brake systems of small and medium wheel loaders.

31
Check Valve ISO Symbols
In Illustration 9, symbol (A) and
symbol (B) represents the simple
check valve in the OPEN position
and CLOSE positions.

Symbol (C) represents the shuttle

valve. The shuttle valve (resolver)
senses the higher pressure (circuit
2), blocks flow to the lower pressure
(circuit 1), and sends the higher
pressure oil as supply oil to a third
circuit (circuit 3). This will keep the
two separate circuits isolated from
each other and direct the higher
pressure oil downstream.

Symbol (D) represents the pilot operated check valve.

Symbol (E) represents the lock check valve
Symbol ( F) represents the inverse check valve.

Makeup Valve

The makeup valve in Illustration 10 looks similar to the check valve. The makeup valve is normally
positioned in the circuit between the implement and the tank. During normal operations, the pump or
cylinder oil fills the area behind the makeup valve. The pressure in the cylinder keeps the valve
CLOSED. When the cylinder pressure is approximately 14 kPa (2 psi) lower than the tank pressure,
the makeup valve will OPEN. The tank oil bypasses the pump and flows directly through the makeup
valve to the cylinder.

The makeup valve is used to prevent cavitation. For example, when a loader bucket is RAISED and
the operator moves the control to the FULLY LOWER position, the gravitational force on the bucket is
transmitted through the cylinder piston to the return oil. The increased pressure on the return oil
increases the flow from the cylinder. When the cylinder piston displaces the return oil faster than the
pump sends the oil to displace the piston, a vacuum is formed in the cylinder and the lines. A vacuum
can cause the cylinder and lines to cavitate. When the pressure in the cylinder and lines decreases to
14 kPa (2 psi) less than tank pressure, the makeup valve will open. This will allow the tank oil to flow
through the makeup valve to the lines and to the cylinder. This procedure prevents cavitation in the
cylinder and the line.

The operation of the makeup valve is the same operation as

the check valve. Therefore, the ISO symbol for the makeup
valve is the same symbol as the ISO symbol for the check
valve. Makeup Valve ISO Symbol

32
SOLENOID ACTUATED CONTROL VALVES
Solenoid Actuator
In a solenoid actuator, an electro-magnetic field moves an armature which moves a push pin. The
push pin moves the valve spool.
The two most popular solenoid actuators are the air gap and the wet armature.

Air Gap Solenoid

An air gap solenoid is shown in illustration 1. When the

coil is energized, an electro-magnetic field is created.
Such a field develops whenever electricity flows
through a wire. When the wire is straight, the field is
relatively weak. When the wire is wound into a coil, the
electro-magnetic field becomes much stronger. The
field takes a circular shape around the coil. The higher
the number of turns are in the coil, the stronger will be
the field.

When the flow of electricity through the coil remains

constant, the electro-magnetic field acts very much like
the field of a permanent bar magnet. The electro-magnetic field attracts the armature. The armature
moves a push pin and the push pin moves the valve spool in the control valve.

The air gap solenoid is protected by a cover. The air gap solenoid also has a manual override feature.
The manual override allows the valve to be activated when the solenoid is disabled. A small metal pin
is located in the cover. The pin is positioned directly in line with the armature. When the pin is pushed
into the cover, the pin mechanically moves the armature. The armature moves the push pin which
shifts the spool.

Wet Armature Solenoid

The wet armature solenoid (Illustration 2) is a

relatively new arrival on the electro-hydraulic
scene.

The wet armature solenoid consist of a rectangular

frame, coil, tube, armature, push pin, and manual
override. The coil and the rectangular frame is
encapsulated in plastic. The tube fits into a hole
that runs through the coil center and two sides of
the frame. The armature is housed within the tube
and is bathed with hydraulic fluid from the
directional valve. The hydraulic fluid is a better
conductor of the electro-magnetic field than air.
Therefore, the wet armature solenoid works with greater force than the air gap solenoid.

When the coil is energized, an electro-magnetic field is created. The electro-magnetic field moves the
armature. The armature moves a push pin and the push pin moves the valve spool in the control
valve.

In the wet armature solenoid, the manual override is located on the end of the tube. This tube houses
the armature and the push pin. The manual override is used to check movement of the directional
valve spool. If the solenoid fails because the spool is jammed, check the spool movement by pushing
in the manual override. The manual override may also be used to cycle the actuator without energizing
the complete electrical control system.

33
Solenoid Controlled, Spring Offset, Pilot Operated, Two-position, Four-way
Directional Control Valve

Illustration 3, shows a Solenoid Controlled, Spring Offset, Pilot

Operated, Two-position, Four-way Directional Control Valve.

The solenoid controlled, spring offset, pilot operated, two-position,

directional control valve is not frequently equipped with two
solenoids. The second solenoid is considered an unnecessary
expense and an additional solenoid to worry about in the system.

The solenoid is used to shift the pilot valve spool. The pilot valve
spool is returned to its original position by a spring. When a system
is designed for large oil flow, a large directional valve is required. A
substantial force is needed to shift the large valve spool. The
solenoid that is needed to generate that amount of force would be
very large. In very large solenoid valves, a small solenoid controlled
pilot valve is positioned on top of the larger main valve spool. When shifting is required, pressurized oil
flows from the small solenoid controlled pilot valve to either side of the larger valve spool.

As shown in the deenergized position, pilot pump oil is being sent through pilot oil line (A) to the left of
the main valve. The main valve is shifted to the right connecting the main valve pump oil to main valve
line (B). Main line (A) and pilot line (B) are connected to tank lines (T) .

When the solenoid is energized, the pilot spool shifts to the right. Pilot pump oil is then connected to
pilot line (B) and the right end of the main valve. The main valve shifts to the left connecting main
pump oil to line (A) and line (B) to tank line (T) .

Pilot line (A) is also connected to tank line (T) .

Solenoid Controlled, Pilot Operated, Three-position, Four-way Directional Control Valve

Illustration 4 shows a Solenoid Controlled, Pilot Operated, Three-

position, Four-way Directional Control Valve.

The pilot valve is controlled by two solenoid valves. The pilot valve
also has a spring that is located at both ends of the valve spool.
When neither solenoid is energized, the pilot valve spool springs
hold the pilot valve spool in the CENTER position. When the pilot
valve is in the CENTER position, pilot oil flow to the larger control
valve is blocked and both pilot lines are open to the tank. The
springs in the three-position directional control valve return the
control spool to the CENTER (HOLD) position.

Spring centering is the most common means of centering a

directional control valve spool. The spring is located at each end
of the valve spool. When pilot oil pressure is applied to either end
of the directional valve spool, the valve spool moves and the valve
spool compresses the spring on the opposite end. When the pilot
oil pressure is removed, the spring returns the directional control
spool to the center position.

Solenoid Failure

Most solenoid actuator failures occur when valves are stuck. The stuck valve spool prevents the
armature from closing properly. The most likely cause of a stuck valve spool is contamination.
Contaminants such as silt, metal chips, and other particles may become lodged between the spool

34
and the bore. The contaminants will cause the spool to stick. Also, oxidized oil particles can create a
gooey varnish which clogs the clearance between the spool and bore walls and cause the spool to
stick to the bore.

Silt, metal chips, and other contaminating particles can be removed when a filter is installed. The
varnish buildup can be removed by washing the valve in lacquer thinner. The proper oil change and
filter change can help eliminate most of these type problems.

When the valve is stuck and the solenoid is energized, the solenoid coil receives a constant high flow
of current that generates excessive heat. The solenoid is not designed to dissipate the excessive heat
and the coil burns out. Overheating conditions most often occur during the periods of high ambient
temperatures or system low voltage.

Problems with solenoid failure due to high ambient temperatures may be controlled by increasing the
air flow across the solenoid. The temperature of the hydraulic oil can be lowered in order to allow more
heat to be drawn from the solenoid through the hydraulic system. Sometimes, a different valve design
may be required for operating during very hot weather. Some arrangement must be made to allow the
system to operate at a lower temperature.

When the voltage to the coil is too low, the electro-magnetic field is not sufficiently strong to attract the
armature. Just as when the spool is stuck, the current continues flowing through the coil. The constant
flow of current generates the excessive heat.

Other factors also affect the proper operation and life expectancy of the solenoid actuator.

The solenoid actuator may fail in the following conditions:

• When cycled excessively

• When short circuited
• When operated with an incorrect electrical supply (wrong frequency, wrong voltage)

Spring Offset, Solenoid Controlled, Two- Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated, Spring-
position, Four-way Pilot Valve centered, Three-position, Four-way, Closed-
center Control Valve

In the ISO symbol in illustration 5, the spring In the ISO symbol in illustration 6, the solenoid
offset pilot valve is shown in its normal controlled pilot operated, spring-centered,
position. The pump oil flows to (A) and the oil three-position, four-way, closed-center control
in (B) flows to the tank. valve is shown in the normal position. All four
When the solenoid is energized, the solenoid ways are blocked at the valve. When the
moves the valve against the spring. The pump solenoid on the right is energized pilot oil is
oil then flows to (B) and the oil in (A) flows to directed to shift the spool to the left. The pump
the tank. oil flows to (B ) and the oil in (A) flows to the
tank. When the solenoid on the left is
energized pilot oil is directed to shift the spool
to the right. The pump oil flows to (A) and the
oil in (B) flows to the tank.

35
Introductionto Flow Control Valves
Flow control consists of controlling the volume of oil flow in a circuit or out of a circuit. Controlling flow
in a hydraulic circuit can be accomplished in several ways.
The most common way is by installing an orifice. When an orifice is installed, the orifice presents a
higher than normal restriction to the pump flow. The higher restriction increases the oil pressure. The
increase in oil pressure causes some of the oil to take another path. The path may be through another
circuit or the path may be over a relief valve.
Also discussed are non-compensated and compensated flow control valves.

Orifice
An orifice is a small opening in the oil flow path. Flow through an orifice is affected by several factors.
Three of the most common factors are listed below:
• The temperature of the oil.
• The size of the orifice.
• The pressure differential across the orifice.

Temperature
The oil viscosity changes with changes in temperature. Viscosity is a measurement of the oil's
resistance to flow at a specific temperature. Hydraulic oil becomes thinner and flows more readily as
the temperature increases.

Orifice Size
The size of the orifice controls the flow rate through the orifice. A common example is a hole in a
garden hose. A small pin hole will leak in the form of a drip. A larger hole will leak in the form of a
stream. The hole, whether small or large, meters a flow of water to the outside of the hose. The
amount of water that is metered depends on the size of the orifice.
The orifice size may be fixed or variable.

Check Valve With A Fixed Orifice

Illustration 1 shows an example of a check valve with a fixed orifice that is
commonly used in construction equipment. The fixed orifice is a hole through the
center of the check valve. When oil flow is in the normal direction the valve opens.
The oil flow will allow oil to flow around the valve and through the orifice. When oil
attempts to flow in the reverse direction, the valve closes. All reverse flowing oil
must flow through the orifice that controls the flow rate.

Variable Orifice
Illustration 2 shows a variable orifice in the form of a
needle valve. In the needle valve, the size of the
orifice is changed by the positioning of the valve tip in
relation to the valve seat.
The oil flow through the needle valve must make a
90° turn and pass between the valve tip and the valve
seat. The needle valve is one of the most frequently
used variable orifices.
When the valve stem is turned counterclockwise, the
orifice becomes larger and the flow increases through the valve.
When the valve stem is turned clockwise, the orifice becomes smaller and the flow decreases through
the valve.
The schematic in Illustration 3 and Illustration 4 consist of a positive displacement pump, a relief valve,
and a variable orifice. The relief valve is set at 3445 kPa (500 psi) and limits maximum pressure in the
system. The orifice may be adjusted to any flow between zero and 18.9 L/min (5 US gpm).

36
 In Illustration 3, the variable orifice allows a flow of 15.1
L/min (4 US gpm) through the orifice at a pressure of 3445
kPa (500 psi). Any increase in flow through the orifice
would require a pressure greater than 3445 kPa (500 psi). If
the pressure exceeds 3445 kPa (500 psi), the relief valve
opens and the excess oil (1 gpm) flows through the relief
valve. Therefore, the flow through the orfice is limited to 3.8
L/min (1 US gpm) by the relief valve setting.

In Illustration 4, the variable orifice allows a flow of 3.8

L/min (1 US gpm) through the orifice at a pressure of 3445
kPa (500 psi). Any increase in flow through the orifice
requires a pressure greater than 3445 kPa (500 psi). If the
pressure exceeds 3445 kPa (500 psi), the relief valve
opens and the excess oil 15.1 L/min (4 US gpm) flows
through the relief valve. Therefore, the flow through the
orfice is limited to 3.8 L/min (1 US gpm) by the relief valve
setting.

Flow Control Valve (Compensated)

In a compensated flow control circuit, the pressure differential across the orifice is not affected by a
change in the upstream pressure. The constant pressure differential across the orifice will produce a
constant flow through the orifice.

Bypass Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve

Illustration 1 shows a bypass type pressure

compensated flow control valve. The bypass type
pressure compensated flow control valve automatically
adjusts to flow and load changes.

Flow Change

The amount of flow through the valve depends on the

size of the orifice. Any change in oil flow through the
orifice creates a change in pressure on the upstream
side of the orifice. The same pressure change acts
against the dump valve and the spring.

When the pump flow is within the design flow of the orifice, the force of the upstream oil pressure that
is acting on the dump valve is less than the combined force of the downstream oil pressure and the
spring. The dump valve remains closed and all of the pump oil flows through the orifice.

When the pump flow is more than the design flow of the orifice, the force of the upstream oil pressure
that is acting on the dump valve is greater than the combined force of the downstream oil pressure
and the spring. The dump valve opens and the excess oil flows through the dump valve to the tank.

37
No Load Pressure

When the control valve is moved to the RAISE position, pump oil is directed to the flow control valve.
The flow control valve requires a pressure differential of 1378 kPa (300 psi) to send 11.4 L/min (3 US
gpm) through the orifice. To send more than 11.4 L/min (3 US gpm) through the orifice, an increase in
the pressure differential is required. Illustration 2 shows an increase in the pressure differential of more
than 1378 kPa (300 psi) opens the dump valve. The excessive oil flows through the dump valve to the
tank. This limits the flow through the orifice to 11.4 L/min (3 US gpm).

Load Pressure Increases

38
Quick-Drop Valve, Quick-Drop
Mode
The quick-drop valve is commonly installed on
the dozer lift cylinder. When the quick-drop
valve is activated, the dozer blade will rapidly
drop to the ground.

When the dozer blade is raised and the

operator moves the lift/lower control to the
QUICK-DROP position, the lift/lower control
valve allows the lift cylinder rod end oil to flow
to the tank. The gravitational forces that act on
the dozer blade pull the rod out of the cylinder.
This causes the piston to move independent of the force of the pump oil pressure. This action greatly
increases the oil flow through the quick-drop valve orifice. Then, this action creates a vacuum in the
head end of the lift cylinder. The increase in oil flow through the orifice causes the pressure up stream
of the orifice to increase. The increased oil pressure opens the poppet valve. The open poppet valve
connects the passage from the cylinder rod end to the passage to the cylinder head end. The oil from
the rod end of the cylinder flows through the open poppet valve. The oil from the rod end joins the oil
from the control valve and flows to the head end of the cylinder.
A small amount of oil flows through the orifice to the lift/lower control valve and to the tank.
When the blade strikes the ground, the movement of the rod out of the cylinder ceases. This causes a
rapid decrease in the oil flow through the orifice. The pressure that is caused by flow through the
orifice decreases and the spring closes the poppet valve. All oil flow to the head end, now comes from
the lift/lower control valve.

Quick-Drop Valve Blade RAISE

Mode

Illustration 8 shows the quick-drop valve

when the blade is being raised.

When the operator moves the lift/lower

control to the blade RAISE position, pump
oil flows from the lift/lower control valve,
through the orifice and to the rod end of the
lift cylinder. The orifice creates a restriction
to the oil flow which increases the upstream
pressure. The higher pressure oil flows
through the passage to the spring chamber
behind the poppet valve. The pressurized oil
assists the spring. The pressurized oil holds the valve closed when pressure is applied to the rod end
of the cylinder.
Oil from the head end flows through the quick-drop valve and the control valve to the tank.
ISO Symbols
The ISO symbols for the basic flow control components are
shown in Illustration 9.
The non-pressure compensated flow control ISO symbols are the
fixed orifice and the variable orifice.
The pressure compensated flow control devices are the pressure
compensated flow control valve and the pressure compensated
flow control valve with a bypass.
The ISO symbol does not give any information on the actual
physical structure of the component.

39
 BASIC SYSTEM
CENTERING SPRING ADDED
CYLINDER

LOAD

ENGINE
FIXED
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP

2700 PSI
SPRING

OPEN CENTER
MAIN CONTROL VALVE
RELIEF VALVE
CENTERING
SPRING

PRESSURE COMPENSATION

LOAD

ENGINE
FIXED
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP
DOUBLE
CHECK VALVE

50 PSI
SPRING

2700 PSI
SPRING
PRESSURE CLOSED CENTER
REDUCING VALVE CONTROL VALVE

40
 LOAD SENSING / PRESSURE COMPENSATION

LOAD

ENGINE FIXED
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP

DOUBLE
200 PSI CHECK VALVE
SPRING

FLOW
CONTROL
VALVE
50 PSI
SPRING

2700 PSI
SPRING
PRESSURE CLOSED CENTER
REDUCING VALVE CONTROL VALVE

LOAD SENSING / PRESSURE COMPENSATION

PUMP
CONTROL
VALVE LOAD

ENGINE

VARIABLE
DISPLACEMENT
DOUBLE
PUMP
CHECK VALVE

50 PSI
SPRING

PRESSURE CLOSED CENTER

REDUCING VALVE CONTROL VALVE

41
 LOAD SENSING
TWO VALVE OPERATION

MOTOR

LOAD

LOAD

200 PSI
SPRING

2700 PSI
SPRING

LOAD SENSING / PRESSURE COMPENSATION

TWO VALVE OPERATION

ENGINE

LOAD

200 PSI
SPRING

LOAD

50 PSI
SPRING

2700 PSI
SPRING

A 50 PSI
SPRING

42
 LOAD SENSING
TWO VALVE OPERATION
PUMP
CONTROL
VALVE

ENGINE

LOAD

LOAD

LOAD SENSING / PRESSURE COMPENSATION

TWO VALVE OPERATION
PUMP
CONTROL
VALVE

ENGINE

LOAD

LOAD

50 PSI
SPRING

A 50 PSI
SPRING

43
 Signal Network with Multiple Valves

BOOM
ENGINE SWING LEFT RIGHT BUCKET STICK
STABILIZER STABILIZER

PRIMARY
RESOLVER

SECONDARY
RESOLVER
300 PSI
SPRING

FLOW
CONTROL
VALVE

TO IMPLEMENT
3000 PSI CONTROL VALVES
RELIEF
SPRING
VALVE

44
 SIGNAL
Variable Displacement Pump

PUMP LARGE ACTUATOR

OUTPUT
SWASH PLATE

DRIVE
SHAFT
FLOW PRESSURE
COMPENSATOR CUTOFF
( MARGIN SPOOL)
SMALL ACTUATOR
& BIAS SPRING
45
D Series Backhoe Loader Pump

Regulator

46
424D / 428D / 438D SIDE SHIFT BACKHOE LOADERS
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
SIDESHIFT
LOCK PISTONS

PUMP

TANK
END
COVER
E-STICK

STICK
COOLER

BUCKET

SWING BACK FLOW SMU

CHECK
BOOM VALVE

AUX

INLET
MANIFOLD S L A
T
SHUTOFF T I U
I
E F X
L
E T T
R
RIGHT
STABILIZER
LEFT
STABILIZER LEVER

MANIFOLD LEVER

47
 "D" SERIES BACKHOE LOADER SIGNAL NETWORK
MECHANICAL CONTROLLED LOADER VALVES
PUMP BACKHOE SECTION
CONTROL
VALVE AUX BOOM SWING BUCKET STICK E-STICK

ORIFICE

LEFT RIGHT
STABILIZER STABILIZER
LOADER LOADER LOADER SMU
AUX. TILT LIFT

PRIMARY
RESOLVER
SECONDARY
RESOLVER

LOADER SECTION
48
D Series Backhoe Loaders Lift Control Valve (Mechanical)

49
 PILOT CONTROL VALVE
SHIFT

Lever
Detent Plunger

Adjustment Pin Plate

Retainer Plunger Spring

Plunger

Detent Coil

Spool Spring

Spool

Orifice
Pilot Supply

From To To
Control Valve Tank Control Valve

50
 D Series Backhoe Loaders

FROM LOADER LIFT CONTROL VALVE

PREVIOUS HOLD
VALVE

HEAD ROD
END END MAKEUP
VALVE

BALL
DETENT

ADVANCE
SIGNAL FROM PUMP
TO NEXT PASSAGE
VALVE

51
D Series Backhoe Loaders

LOADER TILT CONTROL VALVE

FROM HOLD
PREVIOUS
VALVE
COMBINATION
LINE RELIEF AND
HEAD ROD
MAKEUP VALVE
END END

TILT
SOLENOID
FLOW CONTROL
ADVANCE VALVE
FROM
SIGNAL PUMP
PASSAGE
TO STEERING
VALVE

52
 416E / 422E / 428E CONTROL VALVE
LOCK CHECK VALVE OPERATION
HOLD

Port A Port B

Compensator
Line Relief
Valve
and Makeup
Valve

Lock Check
Valve

Control
Spool

From
Pump

53
 416E / 422E / 428E COMPENSATORS
To Pump
Signal Control Valve
Relief Valve
Signal
Passage
Orifice

Resolver
Compensator

Bridge
Passage

Drain
Passage

Feeder
From Spool From From
Passage Spool
Pump Pump Pump

VALVE A VALVE B VALVE C

LINE RELIEF AND MAKEUP VALVE

Port A Port A

Light
Spring

HOLD Poppet Port A MAKEUP

Heavy
Spring

Poppet
RELIEF
54
NEGATIVE FLOW CONTROL OPERATION
BUCKET CONTROL VALVE SHIFTED

55
 300B MAIN HYDRAULIC PUMP
(SECTIONAL VIEW)

NFC Adjustment

Pilot Pilot Pump NFC Piston

Pump Drive Gear

Barrel Torque Sleeve

Piston

Power
Screw

Control
piston

Control
Spring

Actuator
Spring

Piston Actuator
Retainer
Pin Port
Plate

Max Angle
Adjust.

56
 950G - 972G Implemet Hydraulic System

AUXILIARY TILT LIFT

MAIN CONTROL VALVE

MAIN
RELIEF
VALVE

RIDE
CONTROL
DIVERTER
VALVE

TO TO
STEERING BRAKE
SYSTEM SYSTEM

PILOT CONTROL VALVE

PILOT VALVE

57
 Hydrostatic System

BASIC DRIVE SYSTEM

VARIABLE FIXED
DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT
PUMP MOTOR

HYDRAULIC
LINES

BASIC DRIVE SYSTEM

WITH UNDERSPEED AND SERVO VALVES

VARIABLE FIXED
DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT
PUMP MAIN RELIEF VALVE MOTOR

CHARGE AND
MAIN RELIEF
VALVE

SERVO
VALVE
CHARGE
RELIEF
VALVE
CHARGE
PUMP

UNDERSPEED OPERATOR
VALVE INPUT
COOLER

ENGINE SPEED

58
 STEERING MOTOR Steering Pump

Pilot Valve

BYPASS
AND
PRESSURE
CONTROL TO RIPPER
GROUP COOLER DIVERTER VALVE

TO CASE DRAIN
FILTER IN TANK
FROM IMPLEMENT
PUMP CASE D8R
FROM IMPLEMENT STEERING CHARGE Hydrostatic Steering
PUMP SUPPLY CIRCUIT FILTER
System
59
 STEERING PUMP (TOP VIEW)
LEFT TURN
FROM
RIGHT CROSSOVER RETAINER PILOT VALVE
RELIEF VALVE SPRING COLLAR
TOP
RIGHT SIDE
PUMP CONTROL
CHARGE PRESSURE ROD SPOOL
RELIEF VALVE RIGHT
LEVER
ARM
STEERING PUMP
STOP
END VIEW

COMPRESSION
SPRING
ORIFICE PLUG

LEFT
PUMP CONTROL LEVER
PISTON ARM

LEFT SIDE
FEEDBACK SPOOL
LEFT CROSSOVER LEVER CONTROL
PRESSURE TO PILOT VALVE
RELIEF VALVE ARM
COMPENSATOR VALVE PIVOT POINT

PUMP FEEDBACK LEVER PUMP CONTROL VALVE

CONTROL
PISTON

RIGHT
CROSSOVER
STEERING PUMP RELIEF VALVE
SIDE VIEW
CHARGE
PUMP

LEFT
SWASHPLATE PISTONS CROSSOVER
RELIEF VALVE
60
 HYDRAULIC SCHEMATIC COLOR CODE

Black - Mechanical connection. Seal Red - High pressure oil

Dark Gray - Cutaway section Red/White Stripes - 1st pressure reduction

Light Gray - Surface color Red Crosshatch - 2nd reduction in pressure

White - Atmosphere or Pink - 3rd reduction in pressure

Air (No pressure)

Purple - Pneumatic pressure Red/Pink Stripes - Secondary source oil pressure

Yellow - Moving or activated components Orange - Pilot, charge, or Torque Converter oil

Cat Yellow - (R estricted usage) Orange / White Stripes -

Identification of components Reduced pilot, charge, or TC oil pressure
within a moving group
Orange Crosshatch - 2nd reduction in
Brown - Lubricating oil pilot, charge, or TC oil pressure.

Green - Tank, sump, or return oil Blue - Trapped oil

Green / White Stripes -

Scavenge Oil or Hydraulic Void

61
 FLUID POWER SYMBOLS
BASIC COMPONENT SYMBOLS

MAIN AUX.
PUMP: VARIABLE and
PUMP or MOTOR FLUID CONDITIONER SPRING CONTROL VALVES RESTRICTION LINE RESTRICTION 2-SECTION PUMP PRESSURE COMPENSATED
(FIXED)

VARIABILITY SPRING LINE RESTRICTION PRESSURE HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC LINE RESTRICTION ATTACHMENT
(ADJUSTABLE) (VARIABLE) COMPENSATION ENERGY TRIANGLES VARIABLE and PRESSURE
COMPENSATED

VALVES
VALVE ENVELOPES VALVE PORTS

ONE POSITION TWO POSITION THREE POSITION TWO-WAY THREE-WAY FOUR-WAY

CONTROL VALVES CHECK VALVES

AB AB

P T P T
BASIC SPRING SHUTTLE PILOT
NORMAL POSITION SHIFTED POSITION INFINITE POSITION
SYMBOL LOADED CONTROLLED

MEASUREMENT ROTATING SHAFTS

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE FLOW UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL

FLUID STORAGE RESERVOIRS

VENTED PRESSURIZED RETURN ABOVE FLUID LEVEL RETURN BELOW FLUID LEVEL

COMBINATION CONTROLS

SOLENOID SOLENOID SOLENOID SOLENOID and SERVO THERMAL DETENT

or MANUAL and PILOT PILOT or MANUAL

MANUAL CONTROL SYMBOLS

PUSH-PULL LEVER MANUAL SHUTOFF GENERAL MANUAL PUSH BUTTON PEDAL SPRING

PILOT CONTROL SYMBOLS

RELEASED PRESSURE REMOTE SUPPLY PRESSURE

EXTERNAL RETURN INTERNAL RETURN SIMPLIFIED COMPLETE INTERNAL

SUPPLY PRESSURE

ACCUMULATORS CROSSING AND JOINING LINES HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS

SPRING LOADED GAS CHARGED LINES CROSSING LINES JOINING SINGLE ACTING DOUBLE ACTING

HYDRAULIC PUMPS HYDRAULIC MOTORS INTERNAL PASSAGEWAYS

FIXED VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT FIXED VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT THREE TWO

INFINITE
DISPLACEMENT NON-COMPENSATED DISPLACEMENT NON-COMPENSATED POSITIONING POSITION POSITION

UNIDIRECTIONAL UNIDIRECTIONAL

FLOW IN ONE PARALLEL CROSS FLOW ALLOWED IN

BIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL DIRECTION FLOW FLOW EITHER DIRECTION

62