Chemical Process

Instrumentation

LECTURE 8-9

Measuring Instruments
❑ Temperature
❑ Level
❑ Flow rate

Lecture by:
Nikita Dewangan
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Kharagpur
QUICK RECAP:

Chemical Process
Instrumentation

LECTURE 7

Measuring Instruments
❑ Pressure

Lecture by:
Nikita Dewangan
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

2
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Temperature

3
 BASICS OF THERMAL ENERGY
There are several reasons to monitor temperatures in process control applications:

1. Precise temperature conditions are required when combining two chemicals to form a compound.
2. Over-temperature conditions that could cause excessive pressure must be avoided in an enclosed system to
prevent ruptures or explosions.
3. Temperatures must be kept below freezing to prevent stored food from spoilage.
4. By ensuring that the heating system is consuming energy efficiently, fuel costs can be minimized and
environmental conservation concerns can be met.

1. Molecular movement creates heat known as .---------------?

2. The type of thermal energy transfer that takes place through a vacuum is called .
a. Conductance
b. Radiation
c. Convection

4
 TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOP

Set Point

Temperature
Controller

Final Control
Temperature
Element –heater,
Sensor/Transmitter
control valve, etc

The process

5
DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Signals from the flowmeter (Q) and the differential
transmitter (ΔT ) are sent to a controller. The
controller is programmed to multiply the gain in
temperature (T2 − T1 ) by flow rate to indicate the
relative efficiency of the system. The formula to
determine relative efficiency, as a percentage, is

𝑸𝜟𝑻
𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑪

Heat exchange system in left figure is operating at 100

percent When the flow rate of the water is 20 cubic feet
per minute, it rises from 180 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit
as it passes through the heat exchanger. Suppose the flow
rate doubles to 40 cubic feet per minute. Since the speed
of the water doubles, it is inside the exchanger for half
the time and therefore rises 10 instead of 20 degrees. If
the actual temperature of the water rises from 180 to 192
OF as 30 ft3 /min passes through the exchanger , what is

the relative efficiency? 6

 TEMPERATURE-INDICATING DEVICES
Liquid-Filled Thermometers
Most commonly used: Mercury thermometer

Filled bulb thermometer Bimetallic thermometer Helix style temperature

indicator
## They are also capable of providing ## the strip will bend in the ## it unwinds because one metal expands
feedback action for control purposes and direction of the metal with the more than the other metal. Attached to the
recording temperature variations over a lower expansion rate. helix is a pointer that indicates temperature
period of time. on a calibrated scale, or a movable contact
that opens or closes a switch for a furnace
or air-conditioning system 7
 ELECTRONIC SENSORS
8

Thermoresistive Thermoelectric

Thermistors and resistance Thermoelectric sensors -

temperature detectors—change thermocouples—produce a
resistance as the ambient voltage proportional to the
temperature varies. surrounding temperature

Standard Symbol
 THERMISTORS 9

Thermistors are constructed by using a paste-like metal oxide mixture to form certain
shapes, such as a bead, disks, or rods
• Oxidized metals have characteristics similar to those of semiconductor materials.
• At lower temperatures, the valence electrons in the outer shell are strongly bound \
to each atom and function as good insulators.
• As the temperature rises, the thermal activity of the atom increases.
• Valence electrons gain sufficient energy to break away from the atoms. The electrons
become free to take part in current that flows through the material. As temperature
increases, more electrons become available and the resistance of the material
decreases. This characteristic of the thermistor is called a negative temperature
coefficient.
• The letters NTC are placed inside the thermistor symbol to indicate this characteristic.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=g683mTSZ2i0&ab_channel=element14presents
 WHAT ARE THE USED OF THERMISTORS? 10

Temperature measurement Temperature compensation Surge Suppression

• • Cathode ray tubes in televisions

• In measurement instruments, this The resistance of metals, such as
copper, changes when subjected and oscilloscopes use heater coils
resistance is often converted into a
to temperature variations. called filaments. The filaments
voltage reading by using a voltage
• These metals have a positive emit the electrons for the beam
divider as part of a voltage divider
temperature coefficient. that scans the display screen.
network
• • When power is initially applied to
• As temperature increases, the Such changes in resistance can
affect the accuracy of sensitive the cold heater, its resistance is
thermistor resistance decreases.
measuring instruments, such as low. To prevent the filament from
Therefore, the voltage across the
meters. being damaged by a high surge of
resistor increases.
• current, a thermistor is placed in
• The output voltage as a function of To offset the temperature-
resistance changes, the negative series.
temperature can be expressed by
coefficient properties of a • The high starting resistance of the
the following formula
thermistor can be used thermistor limits the current to a
𝑅 safe value.
𝑉0 = 𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻
 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (PTC) 11
• The resistance of electrical conductivity metals varies directly with temperature. Therefore, metals have a
positive temperature coefficient (PTC). Commonly used metals in RTD
• This means that as their temperature increases, their resistance increases.
• Some types of metals are used in a temperature-sensing device called a resistance temperature detector
(RTD).

RTD Applications
• Overcurrent Protection The positive temperature
coefficient characteristics of an RTD make it an
ideal overcurrent protection device shows an RTD
connected in series with a load.
RTDs are also constructed by placing a
• When a short circuit or an overcurrent condition
thin film on a ceramic substrate. A laser
occurs, the RTD resistance goes high and limits
beam is used to burn away the film until
the current to a low level
its resistance is at a prescribed value.
The complete assembly is then sealed in • Motor Starting A single-phase AC motor has a start
a protective enclosure winding and a run winding that are connected in
parallel branches. After the motor is running, the
By connecting an RTD in series with a start winding should not be used.
resistor, a constant voltage source, and a • At full speed, a centrifugal switch opens the branch
voltmeter, changes in temperature at the with the start coil.
RTD can be determined by measuring a
change in the voltage. The voltmeter
uses a temperature scale instead of a
voltage scale
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nsIJ5fOLJ8&ab_channel=RealPars
 THERMOCOUPLE

• At each junction where the wires are in contact, they are exposed to heat from the surrounding ambient temperature.
• This causes a small number of electrons to drift from metal B and accumulate in metal A.
• The slight accumulation of electrons causes a small electromotive force (EMF) to develop between the metals. Because the junctions are
subjected to the same temperature, the same amount of voltage develops across them.

The selection of a thermocouple is based on the following considerations:

1. Temperature range
2. Susceptibility to oxidation
3. Reducing atmosphere
4. Sensitivity
5. Accuracy
6. Cost

Thermocouples are used in industry to measure temperatures of ovens and

##Instrumentation using thermocouples must linearize this nonlinear
furnaces, molten plastic vats, and nuclear reactor cores. Thermocouples respond
quickly to temperature changes, are rugged, and have a wide temperature range output voltage in order to properly display the correct temperature .
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mNoI62URtAk&t=1s&ab_channel=RealPars 12
 THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT: SEEBECK EFFECT AND PELTIER EFFECT
V1 V2 The Seebeck Effect and the Peltier Effect can both be classified under the term
thermoelectric effect. Any thermoelectric effect involves the conversion of
A differences in temperatures into voltage differences. The Seebeck and Peltier
Effects are different manifestations of the same physical process. In some
EMF instances, they are linked and known as the Seebeck - Peltier Effect. The
reason why these two effects are separated is due to their independent
B discoveries by two different individuals

EMF generated
𝑇2
Seebeck coefficient depends upon:
𝜖 = න 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 ⅆ𝑇 • Work functions of the metals in the circuit
• Electron densities
𝑇1 • Scattering mechanism

Thermal transport
constants of A and B

𝜖 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 (𝑇2 –T1)
𝜖 = 𝛼 (𝑇2 –T1)
Typical value fof 𝛼 = 50 𝜇 𝑉/𝐾
V = αΔT 13
 TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLE

Characteristics of various types of thermocouples.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/thermocouple

Key features of thermocouple:

Wide range of operation; Linearity; Inertness; Sensitivity

14
 RTD VS THERMOCOUPLE
Resistance temperature detector and thermocouple are both Temperature Measuring Instruments but are different
in many ways.
A) Temperature measuring range: The RTDs have a low measuring range, whereas thermocouples can be used
for high temperature, such as up to 1800°C.
B) Accuracy: RTDs are known to have relatively higher accuracy than a thermocouple at lower temperatures.
C) Sensitivity: RTDs are more sensitive and react faster to any temperature change than thermocouples due to
the presence of cold junction compensation in thermocouples.
D) Drift: The design of the RTD sensor allows it to produce stable readings for a longer duration of time. RTD
sensor drift is smaller when compared to Thermocouples.
E) Cost: RTD sensors are more expensive than thermocouples, but installation and maintenance expenditure on
thermocouples can make them more costly in the long term.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF
TEMPERATURE MEASRUING DEVICES

16
HOW WILL BE MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE OF A MOVING OBJECT ?

17
 RADIATION THERMOMETRY
Most temperature instruments are invasive devices that make physical contact with the solids, liquids, or
gases being measured. They make direct temperature readings as thermal energy is transferred by
conduction to the sensing element.
• It is also possible to take temperature readings without making physical contact by using a
noninvasive device. A method called radiation thermometry infers temperature by measuring the
thermal energy radiated from the surface of the measured body.

• The instrument used to make these readings is usually referred to as a radiation pyrometer. The
term pyrometer is derived from this instrument’s ability to measure high temperatures

The use of this instrument is where conventional sensors cannot be

employed, such as:
1. When objects are moving, such as rolling mills in steel production,
paper manufacturing, glass making, and conveyor belts.
2. Where temperatures are extremely hot, such as in furnace
atmospheres.
3. Where noncontact measurements are required because of
contamination, such as in food and pharmaceutical production.
4. Where corrosive and hazardous conditions exist, such as around
high-voltage conductors.
18
5. Where measurements are taken from a distance.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF RADIATION THERMOMETRY 19
• . The principle of operation of radiation thermometry is based on the basic law of physics, which states that every
object at a temperature above absolute zero radiates electromagnetic energy.

• The frequency range of the electromagnetic waves includes visible light and lower- frequency infrared light. As the
temperature of the object changes, the frequency also changes

For example, if the temperature rises, the frequency increases and the wavelength becomes shorter. This principle is
illustrated by observing metal being heated. As it gets hotter, the color changes from red, to yellow, to white. The color
change is a result of the frequency increasing.
Casing temperature T3 E + R + T = Radiated Energy

hRT (T2-T3) – JRT .e. 𝜎. 𝑇14

Furnace
wall at T1 Emissivity
View factor
T1 This is known from independent
temperature detector or by simply
placing the reference junction of
Blackened thermopile detector the thermocouple at the casing
(Reaches a temperature T2)
All other factors are known and hence one can
obtain T1
What are the factors to consider for selecting a temperature measuring
instruments?
• Temperature Range: Ensure that the sensor’s temperature range matches the temperature extremes in
your application.
• Accuracy: Determine the level of precision required.
• Response Time: Consider the sensor’s ability to detect temperature changes in real time.
• Environmental Conditions: Examine the operating environment, taking into account conditions such as humidity,
pressure, and the presence of corrosive substances, as they can all have an impact on sensor performance and
lifespan
• Mounting and Installation: Determine whether the sensor is simple to install in your system.
• Calibration: Understand the calibration requirements and whether or not the sensor can be calibrated.
• Cost: To determine the sensor’s total cost-effectiveness, compare its initial cost to its long-term advantages and
accuracy.
• Durability: In your industrial setting, consider the sensor’s durability and resilience to mechanical stress, vibration,
and shock.
• Output Signal: Different sensors provide different forms of output signals (analog, digital, and so on).
• Maintenance: Determine the sensor’s maintenance needs, such as how frequently it needs calibration or
replacement.
• Size and Form Factor: Determine whether the sensor’s size and shape are compatible with your equipment and
application space.
• Regulatory Compliance: Verify that the sensor complies with any industry-specific regulatory or certification criteria.
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 Recent Advances in Flexible Temperature Sensors

Flexible electronics is an emerging and cutting-edge technology which is considered as the building blocks of the next generation
micro-nanoelectronics. Flexible electronics integrate both active and passive functions in devices, driving rapid developments in
healthcare, the Internet of Things (IoT),and industrial fields.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/advs.202405003 21
Quiz

1. As a bimetallic thermometer element straightens, the ambient temperature is ------------(increased, decreased).

2. RTDs are considered------------- (linear, nonlinear) devices.

3. A thermocouple is a device.

a. thermoelectric b. thermoresistive

4. Give a functional application of a thermistor.

5. How do thermocouples compare to RTDs in terms of accuracy and application?

22
 23

Level Measurement
OBJECTIVE OF THIS TOPIC

• Describe the importance of measuring and controlling level in industrial processes.

• Explain the difference between continuous and point level measurements.

• Describe the operation of different level-indicator devices:

24
LEVEL-MEASUREMENT METHODS
• The instruments are classified as either visual observation systems or float and displacement systems, including buoyancy
displacement, purge, hydrostatic head, differential pressure, weight, rotational suppression, electrical concepts, and ultrasonic
radiation.
• An interface is the boundary between two immiscible (incapable of being mixed) fluids with different densities (e.g. oil and
water). Interface measurement finds the boundary between two liquids stored in the same tank, each with a different
density.
The selection of a specific method of measuring level is often based on the following considerations:
➢ Material Accessibility
➢ Cost Turbulence Dipsticks: The earliest instruments used for level
➢ Accuracy Pressure measurement were perhaps sticks or poles with
➢ Level Range calibrated scales to test the depths of streams, Crude as
this method seems, it is accurate to about 0.1% with
Rod Gauge ranges up to about 20 ft.
A rod gauge is a dipstick that is inserted
into the material being measured. It is the
same type of device used to indicate oil
level in a car. Mainly used for calibration of
any level measuring instruments.

Sight Glass
Sight glasses are used for high-pressure
applications and for hot or corrosive fluids Level measurement by slight glass

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Dip Stick Level Measurement
 BASICS OF LEVEL-MEASUREMENT
Accurate measurements of level are essential to provide good control in the process industries.
There are several reasons to monitor the level of materials in containers:
1. To ensure that enough material is available to complete a particular batch-production process.
2. To prevent an industrial accident caused by overfilling an open container.
3. To prevent the overfilling of a closed container or an enclosed system due to overpressure.
4. To prevent a heating element from overheating and being destroyed by ensuring that a container holding heated liquid does
not become empty. Point level measurements detect if the interface is at a
predetermined point. Generally, this type of detection is used
to signal either a low-level limit when a vessel needs to be
refilled or a high-level limit beyond which a vessel will
overflow. The output of point level measurement devices
typically produces On-Off or 1- or 0-state digital signals.

Continuous level measurement locates the interface point

within a range of all possible levels at all times. The output of
continuous level-measurement devices typically produces
an analog signal between 4 and 20 mA, which is both
proportional and linear to the level.
The electrical signal can be converted into information that
represents various quantitative values used to indicate levels.
They include:
Height: In units of feet or meters
Percentages: Percent full or percent of measured span
Volume: In gallons, cubic feet, or liters
Weight: In pounds, tons, or kilograms 26
Level-Measurement Methods: Float Methods
27
Rod gauges and sight glasses give visual indication of level. However, they do not produce a feedback signal in
automated control applications.
Buoyancy Method
➢ Float-Type Level Indicator

A float-type level instrument taking continuous measurements A magnetic float moves with the liquid level to actuate the
magnetic Reed switch within the unit system
➢ A float providing the point method of measurement is often ➢ Another type of float type level measurement consists
connected to an electrical switch. The switch activates a light of a magnetic toroid as part of a buoyant device with a
or buzzer for high- and low-limit indication. One type of float guide tube, or stem, through its center. One or more
switch Reed switches are placed inside the guide at desired
levels.
➢ Float devices can also be used for automatic control. ➢ As the liquid level changes, the float moves. When it
Connecting the float element to the stem of a flow-control valve comes close to the Reed switch, the magnetic field
with a linkage allows water to replenish a vessel if the level be- closes the switch’s contacts. The switch closure
comes too low indicates a point level measurement.
Level-Measurement Methods: Displacement Methods 28

The displacement level sensor is somewhat different from a float sensor in that its probe is weighted so it actually sinks
in the measured fluid. However, the probe has Bouyancy, meaning it tends to float as the liquid rises up over it.
Displacement level sensors operate on Archimedes’ principle: A body immersed in a fluid, either partially or fully, is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The mathematical equation for this principle is
where,
𝑩 = 𝝆𝒗 B buoyancy force
p the weight density of the fluid
V volume of the displaced fluid

A displacer transmitter is fitted to the top of a tank or more usually in a chamber which is valved to the tank, and comprises a
displacer element which is suspended from a hanger - either a torque tube or a spring - connected to the transmitter/switch
head. The displacer element is designed to be heavier than the liquid in which it is being used so that, even when fully immersed
in the liquid, it still exerts a downward force on the hanger.

Displacement sensors are especially appropriate for measuring liquid–liquid

interfaces, that is, two liquids that do not mix together, such as oil and water,
different chemicals in the same container, and slurries.

Two typical applications are monitoring water condensation in fuel storage tanks
and separating chemical emulsions in process systems.
Calculating the weight force

Displacer diameter

29
Level-Measurement Methods: Purge Method
Another pressure-based system is commonly referred to as a bubbler. The bubbler, or purge, is one of the oldest
methods of level determination. This type of system can measure such materials as water, oil, corrosive liquids,
molten metal, pulp, and fine powders. A bubbler system at both low and high levels

Rotational Suppression Method (Self-study) 30

Level-Measurement : Electronic Sensors
Conductive probe sensors are used in single- or multiple-point measurement systems to detect the presence of a
conductive liquid.
• The advantage of conductive probes is their low
cost and simple design.
• The disadvantage is that they are limited to point
measurements and can only be used with
conductive liquids.
• A material is considered conductive when it has a
conductivity value greater than 10 micro-siemens
per cm.
Conductive level probes
Capacitive probe sensors are used for continuous level measurement. The principle of operation is based on the theory
of capacitance. According to this theory, the value of a capacitor can be changed by varying the size of one or more plates
or by changing the dielectric.

The capacitance is directly proportional to the level of the measured contents.

• Capacitive level probes are simple to use and are relatively inexpensive.

• A limitation is that their accuracy is dependent on the condition of the liquid.

• The presence of solids in the liquid, or exposure to a large temperature change, will cause the
dielectric to vary

Ultrasonic sensors (Self study) 31

Capacitive probe
Level-Measurement : SERVO

➢ The servo powered level gauge uses a bi-directional motor attached to

a displacer and cable.
➢ A displacer float is attached to the wire which is stored on a measuring
drum.
➢ The servo motor is controlled by an electronic weighing balance which
continuously senses the buoyancy of the partly immersed displacer. In
an equilibrium condition, the apparent weight of the displacer balances
against the force of the balancing springs when partly immersed in the
fluid.
➢ A level rise or fall causes a variation in buoyancy.
➢ The detector controls an integration circuit in the bi-directional motor
which turns the measuring drum, thus raising or lowering the displacer
until the balance position is restored.
➢ Servo tank gauges are normally mounted on the top of the tank on a
stilling well.
➢ Servo level gauges may also be used for interface measurements.

https://www.emerson.com/documents/automation/engineering-guide-engineer-s-guide-to-level-measurement-2021-edition-en-77708.pdf 32
Activity for you!

• Describe how many level controller and level idicators are required in a distillation column.

• What type of level controller and level indicator will be suitable for use in distillation column ?

33
Selecting a Level Sensor
What are the physical properties of the medium?
• Is it a solid or a liquid?
• Will foam, vapor, or mist be present?
• Does the material contain chunks or voids?
• Is the material prone to density changes?

What are the chemical and thermal properties?

• Corrosive
• Flammable
• Caustic
• Sterile

34
 QUIZ
1. A dipstick is -------------(a direct, an indirect) measurement device.

2. Point measurements are used to determine .

a. high-level limits
b. low-level limits
c. both high- and low-level limits

3. Capacitance measurements are made to determine the

level by method(s).
a. point
b. continuous
c. both point and continuous
4. In a purge level-measurement system, the rate at which the bubbles leave the tube as the
level of the contents rises.
a. increases
b. decreases

5. Water is stored in a vessel at 60 degrees Fahrenheit. A pressure gauge at the bottom of the
tank reads 40 psi. What is the height of the water?

35
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Flow Rate

36
Objective of this topic
• Describe the importance of measuring and controlling flow in industrial processes.

• Describe the operation of the mechanical measurement instruments used to determine flow rate

• Describe the operation of the electronic sensors used to measure flow:

• State a rule that describes the placement of flow sensors in a pipe system.

• Select the most appropriate flow-measuring device for a particular application.

37
Example of a complete flow control system

Flow control system used to batch process soft drinks

38
Why do we need to control the flow?
To provide good control in the process industries, accurate measurement of flow is essential.
Three reasons to monitor the flow of materials are:
1. To ensure that the correct proportions of raw materials are combined during the manufacturing process.
2. To ensure that ingredients are supplied at the proper rate during the mixing and blending of the materials.
3. To prevent a high flow rate that might cause pressure or temperature to become dangerous, overspills to occur,
or machines to overspeed.

Units of measurements
Volumetric Flow Rate (Q) = Velocity X cross sectional area
Mass Flow Rate = Mass density or weight density X Q

39
Fluid Flowmeter Classification
Differential pressure flowmeters
• The most commonly used orifice. The
disadvantage of the primary element’s design
is that the plate has sharp corners on which
where, solid materials can catch.
Q = Flow rate • Therefore,\it is not used to measure slurries,
K = A constant determined by the orifice size and dirty fluids, or corrosive liquids.
type of liquid • To measure these types of fluids, alternative
P = Differential pressure across the orifice plates restriction devices have been developed.

• This has a constriction with an elliptical contour shape. Since there are no sharp edges at the inlet
side, there is less friction to the flow.

• Therefore, because of its slope, it is used to measure steam and high-capacity applications that
deal with dirty or corrosive liquids.

• This consists of a converging inlet section in which the cross section decreases in size. The high-
pressure reading is taken at the incoming portion of the pipe just before it converges. As the diameter
becomes smaller, the velocity of the fluid increases, resulting in a decrease of pressure. The low-
pressure reading is taken at the location of the orifice with the smallest diameter.

• Since the Venturi tube has no sudden change in contour, solid particles tend to slide through its
throat. Therefore, this style is recommended when measuring slurries and dirty fluids. The
40 based on
disadvantage of this style is that the resulting measurements are not as accurate as those
plates with sharp-edged orifices.
Fluid Flowmeter Classification
Positive Displacement Methods
• Positive displacement (PD) devices are rotary instruments that mechanically make direct measurements to determine flow.
• They operate by separating the fluid into segments of known values, and passing them downstream through the pipe.
• Multiplying the count times the known volume of each segment provides a volumetric measure of flow.

• The measurements taken from PD meters are accurate. However, because they are self-powered, they extract some energy
from the system.
• Also, since they consist of mechanical parts, they are prone to wear. 41
Electronic Sensors: Mass Flowmeters
Mass flowmeters measure the actual quantity of mass of a flowing liquid. Unlike volumetric flowmeters, which are affected
if the pressure and temperature of the medium they are measuring are altered, mass flowmeters are not affected
as much when these changes occur.
Processes that require mass flow measurements are combustion (which is based upon the mass flow rate of air and fuel), gas
consumption, and the chemical reaction of ingredients.
The two most common types of mass flow meters are the Coriolis mass flowmeter and the thermal mass meter.
Thermal mass meter
• An advantage of thermal mass meters over the mass
flowmeter is that they do not require temperature or pressure
compensation to make accurate measurements as conditions
vary.
• For liquids, they are capable of making measurements for a
wide variety of applications, including slurries, interface,
high viscosity, turbulence, and the presence of foam. For
gases,
• they can measure combustion airflow, compressed air/gas,
and aeration airflow.

Rotor Flow Detectors (self study) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VUL0xWfUeY 42

Electronic Sensors: Thermal flowmeters
Thermal flowmeters that use a thermistor have only a sensor tip that
is inserted into the flow stream.

They do not become clogged and can detect very low flow rates.

It works on the principle of thermal conductivity.

• Thermistor sensing head 1 is mounted inside a pipe. As fluid

passes, it carries away heat from the thermistor.

• The higher the rate, the cooler the thermistor becomes,

increasing its resistance.

• The result is that the bridge becomes more unbalanced and

the output voltage goes higher.

• A meter with a flow rate scale is connected across the output

terminals and it indicates the increase.

43
Electronic Sensors: Coriolis Meters
It was the French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis who discovered the
effect that flowing air experiences a lateral force, which was named after him –
the Coriolis effect. The first take home message is: the Coriolis effect explains
the deflection of flowing air moving in a rotating system. In fact, the Coriolis
effect is a mass inertia effect.

How does a Coriolis flow meter work?

One type of device that measures mass flow of liquids is the Coriolis mass
flowmeter.
➢ It features a U-shaped tube for fluids to flow through, as shown in Figure
(a). Fluctuating currents are sent through coils mounted near the tube.

➢ The magnetic forces they generate cause the tube to vibrate, similar to a
tuning fork, as shown in Figure (b).

➢ As fluids flow through the tube, kinetic energy is produced by its speed
and mass. The energy from the liquid tends to resist the vibrating motion
of the tube, causing it to twist sideways, as shown in Figure (c).
The degree of deflection is directly and linearly proportional to the mass of liquid passing through the U-tube. Magnetic
position sensors are mounted on both ends of the tube to measure the amount of twist. The outputs from each sensor are
conditioned into standard signals before they are sent to display units or to control equipment.
44
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=31jYXlnu-hU
Electronic Sensors: Coriolis Meters

https://www.emerson.com/en-
us/automation/measurement-
instrumentation/flow-
measurement/coriolis-flow-
meters

With reference to Figure, a particle (dm) travels at a velocity (V) inside a tube (T). The tube is rotating about a fixed point (P),
and the particle is at a distance of one radius (R) from the fixed point. The particle moves with angular velocity (w) under two
components of acceleration, a centripetal acceleration directed toward P and a Coriolis acceleration acting at right angle:
at (centripetal) = w.2r
at (Coriolis) = 2w.v

In order to impart the Coriolis acceleration (at) to the fluid particle, a force of at (dm) has to be generated by the tube. The fluid
particle reacts to this force with an equal and opposite Coriolis force:
Fc = at(dm) = 2wv(dm)

Then, if the process fluid has density (D) and is flowing at constant speed inside a rotating tube of cross-sectional area A, a
segment of the tube of length X will experience a Coriolis force of magnitude:
Fc = 2wvDAx
Because the mass flowrate is dm = DvA, the Coriolis force Fc = 2w(dm)x and, finally:
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Mass Flow = Fc / (2wx)
How will you measure the flow rate of petrol in pipe ?

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 Electronic Sensors: Ultrasonic Flowmeters
• A liquid-measuring device called an ultrasonic flowmeter . It operates on a
principle of sound propagation in a liquid called the Doppler effect.

• As current pulses are sent by an oscillator through a piezoelectric transducer, it

vibrates and produces sound waves that are transmitted upstream into the
flowing liquid.

• Each ultrasonic wave is reflected from particles or gas bubbles in the fluid back to
a receiving element. The receiver is a piezoelectric device that detects pressure
fluctuations created by the pulsating sound waves.

• This transducer converts the sound into electronic pulses that are processed by
the measuring instrument circuitry.
Applications:

• A typical application for an Ultrasonic Flow Meter is measuring flow of

liquid in full pipes, also measurement of liquids such as water,
wastewater, acids and solvents, chemicals and hydrocarbons and oils.

Doppler effect
• It is also used to monitor and control heating, ventilation and air
conditioning systems. They are perfect for applications where flow
disruption is simply not an option.

• Ultrasonic flowmeters are not suited for clean fluids because they require
particles from which the sonic pulses are reflected. For this reason, and
because the sensor is placed outside the pipe, they are ideal for dirty
liquids and slurries.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JRKlR4YgMHw https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/doppler.html
Time-of-Flight Flowmeter
• The ultrasonic flowmeter using the Doppler approach requires reflective objects in the fluid. Therefore, it is ineffective
when measuring clean fluids. When very clean fluids are used, the time-of-flight ultrasonic method is generally
recommended.

• The time-of-flight approach operates on the principle that the speed of an ultrasonic sound wave will increase when
transmitted in the direction of flow, and decrease when transmitted against the direction of flow movement.

• An analogy is that an airplane can fly faster when traveling in the direction of the prevailing wind current than it
can when flying against the wind. • One requirement for this type of meter is that the liquid being
measured must be relatively clean. Any particles in the fluid may
absorb or scatter the signal and make the reading inaccurate.

• The advantages of ultrasonic flowmeters are that they are

noninvasive and that the absence of obstructions does not create a
pressure loss. Their limitations are that they are relatively expensive
and are not as accurate as some types of flowmeters.

Sound waves are -------(accelerated/slowed) when they travel in the same direction of a fluid they are passing
through

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O4zT05BhMUc 48
Where to place the flowmeter?
As fluid encounters obstacles, such as valves or other geometric obstructions in the piping, the flow profile may become
distorted and swirl. One of the effects of swirl is that fluid flows in a direction that is not parallel to the pipe, but in a direction
across the diameter to the pipe. Fluids flowing in such random paths can take more time to move past the point of
measurement and cause the reading to become inaccurate.
How to select a flowmeter?
• Is the fluid a gas or a liquid?
• Is the fluid corrosive?
• Is the fluid electrically conductive?
Correction • Does the fluid contain a slurry or large solids?
• What is the fluid viscosity?
• Will the fluid density or viscosity change?
• Is there a need for a noninvasive approach?
• What is the need for accuracy and repeatability?
• What is the cost?

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Solid Flow Measurement

where,
F = Mass flow rate in lb/min
W = Weight of a material on a
section of length
S = Conveyor speed in ft/min
L = Length of the weighing
platform

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 QUIZ
A. The pulses transmitted upstream in an ultrasonic flowmeter are waves.
a. electromagnetic
b. sound
c. light
d. infrared

B. The Coriolis mass flowmeter ---------------(is, is not) capable of measuring slurry material.

C.Rotameters can measure .

a. gases
b. Liquids
c. both gases and liquids

D.Suppose the differential pressure increases by 25. How much has the flow rate increased if K = 1?

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Next Class:
➢ Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
➢ Pneumatic Control System

Books for reading about instruments:

1. Industrial Pressure, Level, and Density Measurement, Gillum, Donald R.
2. Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, Third Edition, Robert P.
Benedict
3. Industrial Automated Systems Instrumentation and Motion Control,Terry L.M. Bartelt

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ML Project

Design a tool (excel based tool/other) to find out what type of T,P,L,F measuring instrument will be
suitable for a specific application.

https://ieee-ims.org/sites/ieeeims/files/2021-01/Deep%20Learning%20Topical%20Guide.pdf
https://opg.optica.org/view_article.cfm?pdfKey=49958bc0-b7f9-4386-ba734001580275a0_470035

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SUPPLEMENTARY

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