INTRODUCTION:

Rutherford established that atomic nucleus is the central core of every atom which
contains entire positive charge and more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom.

Whereas the size of an atom is of the order of 10−10 𝑚, the size of atomic nucleus is of
the order of 10−15m. Thus, most of the space around the nucleus of an atom is empty
space.

In this chapter, we shall study the constituents of the nucleus and how they are
held together. And also study size, mass, density and stability of nuclei.

COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS AND ATOMIC MASS:

ATOMIC MASS UNIT :

Atomic mass unit (amu or u) is defined as (1/12)th of the mass of a carbon 12 atom
(i.e. 𝑪𝟏𝟐 ).

𝟏 𝒂. 𝒎. 𝒖. ( 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝟏 𝒖 ) = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈

Energy equivalent to 1 a.m.u. (or 1 u).

𝟏 𝒂. 𝒎. 𝒖. ( 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝟏 𝒖 ) = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽

COMPOSITION OF A NUCLEUS:

Atomic number:

The number of protons present in a nucleus of an atom is known as atomic number. It is

denoted by Z.

Atomic mass number:

The sum of the number of protons (Z) and the number of neutrons (N) is called mass
number. It is denoted by A.

Thus, A = Z + N or N = (A-Z)
Nuclides are represented by notations .

𝑨
𝒛𝑿 𝑿 = 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝒁 = 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑨 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

ISOTOPES, ISOBARS AND ISOTONES :

ISOTOPES;

The atoms of a particular chemical element having same atomic number

(Z) but different mass number (A) are called isotopes.

12 14
Examples: 6𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6𝐶

☆They occupy the same position in the periodic table.

☆Chemical properties of the isotopes of an element are identical because

their physical properties may be different.

ISOBARS:

The atoms of different chemical elements having same mass number (A)
but different atomic numbers (Z) are called isobars.

☆ They have different chemical properties and physical properties.

𝟕 𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
Examples: 𝟑𝑳𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟒𝑩𝒆 ; 𝟏𝟖𝑨𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟐𝟎𝑪𝒂 are isobars.

ISOTONES:

The atoms of different chemical elements having the same number of

neutrons but different atomic numbers are called Isotones.
 𝟐𝟑 𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
Examples: 𝟏𝟏𝑵𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈 ; 𝟔𝑪 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟕𝑵

SIZE OF NUCLEUS:

The experiments show that the volume of a nucleus is directly

proportional to the mass number in it.

𝑉∝ 𝐴

4
𝜋 𝑅3 ∝ 𝐴
3
1
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴3

𝟏
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝑨𝟑

☆Where 𝑅0 is an empirical constant for all nuclei and R radius of

nucleus.

𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚 1 𝑓𝑚 (𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖) = 10−15 𝑚

NUCLEAR DENSITY:

mass per unit volume of the nucleus is called Nuclear density .

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝐴
𝜌= 𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 4 3
3𝜋𝑅
𝑚𝐴
𝜌= 3
4 1
3 𝜋 (𝑅0 𝐴 )
3

𝟑𝒎
𝝆=
𝟒𝝅 𝑹𝟑𝟎

𝜌 ≈ 2 × 1017 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
Thus, nuclear density is independent of mass number (A) and as such,
all nuclei have approximately the same density.
MASS-ENERGY EQUATION:

According to Einstein's equivalence relation of mass and energy we have

Total energy. 𝑬𝑻 = 𝒎 𝒄𝟐

This total energy is equal to the rest mass energy 𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 (where 𝒎𝟎 is the rest mass of a
particle) and the kinetic energy of the particle.

𝑬𝑻 = 𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 + 𝑲. 𝑬.

𝒎𝒄𝟐 = 𝒎𝟎 𝒄𝟐 + 𝑲. 𝑬.

𝑲. 𝑬. = (𝒎 − 𝒎𝟎 )𝒄𝟐

𝑲. 𝑬. = 𝚫𝒎 𝒄𝟐

Thus, kinetic energy of a particle = Change in the mass of the particlex ×(speed of
light in air)2.

MASS DEFECT :

Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of constituent nucleons
of a nucleus in the free state and the mass of the nucleus. It is denoted by 𝚫𝒎
NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY :

The total energy required to disintegrate the nucleus into its

constituent particles (i.e. nucleons) is called nuclear binding energy or
binding energy of the nucleus

☆Binding energy is basically the energy required to hold the nucleons in a

nucleus.

☆When nucleons form a nucleus, the mass of the nucleus is less than the
sum of the masses of nucleons.

☆ This decrease in the mass of nucleons (equal to mass defect) is

converted into energy in accordance with the equation E= 𝚫𝒎 c², which is
responsible to hold the nucleons in the nucleus.

NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON :

The average energy required to release a nucleon from a nucleus is

called binding energy per nucleon

𝚫𝒎 × 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽
𝑬𝒃𝒏 =
𝑨
where A is total number of nucleons (i.e. Mass number) and 𝚫𝒎 is mass
defect.

EXAMPLES :
BINDING ENERGY CURVE:

The curve obtained by plotting the binding energy per nucleon as a function
of mass number is called the binding energy curve.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON :

☆Binding energy per nucleon determines the stability of a nucleus.

☆The stability of a nucleus is proportional to the Binding energy/nucleon.

☆If binding energy per nucleon of the nucleus is less, the nucleus is less
stable whereas nucleus is more stable if its binding energy per nucleon is
higher.

BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON CURVE:

The variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number (A) for large
number of nuclei is shown in figure .

FROM THE GRAPH, IT IS CLEAR THAT:

(i)Average binding energy per nucleon for mass number < 3 is very small.

(ii) Some nuclei with mass number 3 < A < 20 have large binding energy per
nucleon than their neighbouring nuclei.
 4
For example, 2𝐻𝑒 , 𝐶612 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂816 have greater binding energy per nucleon
than their neighbours. So these nuclei are more stable than their
neighbours

(iii) For 30 < A < 62 binding energy per nucleon increases gradually till it
attains a maximum value 8.85 MeV per nucleon corresponding to A = 56
Thus, iron, nickel etc. are stable elements.

(iv) For nuclei having A > 62 binding energy per nucleon gradually
decreases. For uranium (𝐴 ≈ 238) , one of the heaviest natural element,
the value of B.E/nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.
CONCLUSION:

From the above graph, we conclude that

(i) The intermediate nuclei have large value of binding energy per nucleon,
so they are more stable.

(ii) The binding energy per nucleon has low value for both the light and
heavy nuclei. So they are unstable nuclei.

(iii) When a heavy nucleus splits up into lighter nuclei, then binding energy
per nucleon of lighter nuclei is more than that of the original heavy nucleus.
It means, nucleons of lighter nuclei are more tightly bound. Thus, energy is
released in this process. This process is called nuclear fission.

(iv) When two very light nuclei 𝐴 ≤ 10 combines to form a relatively heavy
nucleus, then binding energy per nucleon of heavy nucleus i.e., fused
nucleus becomes more than the lighter nuclei. In other words, the
nucleons of the fused heavy nucleus are tightly bound. Thus, energy is
released in this process. This process is called nuclear fusion.

Que :Draw a plot of BE/A versus mass number A for 2 ≤ 𝐴 ≤ 170. Use this graph to
explain the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion of two light nuclei.
Ans : (a) When a heavy nucleus break into two medium sized nuclei (in nuclear fission),
then BE / nucleon increases resulting in the release of energy.

(b) When two small nuclei combine to form a relatively bigger nucleus fusion,
BE/nucleon increases, resulting in the release energy.

Question: (i) Why is the binding energy per nucleon found to be constant for nuclei in
the range of mass number (A) lying between 30 and 170?

(ii) When a heavy nucleus with mass number A = 240 breaks into two nuclei, A = 120,
energy is released in the process.

Ans: (i) The binding energy per nucleon for nucleus of range, 30<A<170 is close to its
maximum value. So, the nucleus belongs to this region is highly stable and does not
show radioactivity.

(ii) The binding energy per nucleon is smaller for heavier nuclei than the middle ones,
i.e. heavier nuclei are less stable. When a heavier nucleus such as nucleus of mass
number 240 splits into lighter nuclei (mass number 120), the BE/nucleon changes from
about 7.6 MeV to 8.4 MeV. Greater BE of the product nuclei result in the liberation of
energy.

NUCLEAR FORCE:

Nuclear force is the force that binds protons and neutrons together in an atomic
nucleus.

PROPERTIES OF NUCLEAR FORCES:

1.Nuclear force is strong fundamental force in nature

The magnitude of nuclear force between two protons is 100 times the Coulomb's
electrostatic repulsive force and 1036 times the gravitational attractive force.

Nuclear force being most stronger than Coulombs repulsive force, is able to keep the
nucleons bound in very small nucleus

2.Nuclear force is mainly an attractive force.

The variation of Potential energy with distance (r) between the nucleons is roughly
shown in figure .
☆ Potential energy is least at distance 𝑟0 (= 0.8 𝑓𝑚).

☆When the distance between two nucleons is greater than 𝑟0 , the nuclear force
becomes attractive in nature

☆ When the distance between two nucleons is less than 𝑟0 , the nuclear force becomes
repulsive in nature.

3.Nuclear force is charge independent:

The interaction between two nucleons is independent of whether one or both nucleons
have charge on them.

☆ the nuclear force between proton-proton (p-p), proton-neutron (p-n) and neutron-
neutron (n-n) is same, so these forces are charge independent.

4.Nuclear force is short range force:

The nuclear forces between two nucleons exist only when the distance between
nucleons is comparable to the size of nucleus i.e., of the order of 10−15 m.

☆These forces cease to act as the distance between two nucleons exceeds 10−15 m.

5.Nuclear force is a saturated force:

Nuclear force becomes quickly zero when distance between two nucleus is just about 3
fm.

Thus, a nucleon can attract only the nearest neighbours and has no influence on other
nucleons.

6.Nuclear force is non-central force:

The force between two nucleons does not act along the line joining their centres and is
therefore called non-central force.

7.Nuclear force is spin dependent:

It has been observed that the nuclear force between nucleons, having parallel spins is
greater than the force between nucleons having anti-parallel spins. Thus, they are spin
dependent.

NUCLEAR STABILITY :

The presence of neutrons in a nucleus plays an important role in a nuclear stability.

The nuclear force between a proton and a neutron is greater than the electrostatic
force of repulsion between a pair of protons in case of light nuclei in which number
of protons is equal to the number of neutrons. Thus, light nuclei (A≤ 20) are stable.

☆as mass number (A) increases i.e., number of protons increases, then the
electrostatic force of repulsion between protons increases and a result of this, the
nucleus should not have existed.

Since a nucleus having large number of protons exists (e.g.. g U235 contains 92
protons), so the electrostatic force of repulsion between protons is compensated when
number of neutrons in the nucleus increases.

Thus, a large or heavy nucleus has more neutrons than protons.

These excess neutrons provide the extra nuclear force (attractive) to compensate the
electrostatic force of repulsion between protons.
A nucleus becomes stable if number of neutrons is equal to number of protons in
it.

Therefore, heavy nuclei become stable by converting a neutron into a proton by

1
emitting B-particle (−1𝑒 0 ) and antineutrino (0𝑛 1 − 1𝐻 + −1𝑒 0 + 𝜈̅ ) till the number of
neutrons is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus, heavy nuclei are
unstable (ie, radioactive).

Note :

For a stable nucleus, ratio of neutrons (N) and protons (Z) in a nucleus
should be 1 ie., N/Z=1
Question:

You are given two nuclei 3𝑋 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑌 4 . Explain, giving reasons, as to which
one of the two nuclei is likely to be more stable.
7 𝑁 4 4 𝑁 1
Answer : 𝐹𝑜𝑟 3 𝑋 , 𝑍 = 3 = 1.33 𝐹𝑜𝑟 3𝑌 , 𝑍 = 3 =
𝑁 7
0.33. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≈ 1 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 3 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑍

Question: In the following nuclear reaction, what does X stands for?

2 2 3
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑋.

(a) electron (b) positron (c) proton (d) neutron.

ANS. (d), 1H2 + 1H2 → 2He³ + on¹

235
Question: Complete the equation: 92𝑈 + 0𝑛 1 = ⋯
236
ANS. 92𝑈

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