Form Metrology

(Straightness, Flatness,
Squareness, Parallelism,
Roundness and Cylindricity
Measurements)
Product specifications for manufacturing:

Dimensions and dimensional tolerances,

Form/geometrical tolerances (straightness, flatness, squareness, parallelism,

roundness and cylindricity)

Surface finish
 Drawing showing tolerances

Maximum
Material
Condition

Position

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Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing

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 Straightness
A line/surface is said to be straight if the deviation of the distance of the
points from two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the
general direction of the line remains within a specific tolerance limit.

The tolerance for the straightness of a line is defined as maximum

deviation in relation to the reference line joining the two extremities of
the line to be checked.
Straightness

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Straightness

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 Methods of Straightness Measurement
 Using spirit level
 Straight edge
 Laser measurement system for straightness measurement
 Using autocollimator
Measurement of Straightness
using Autocollimator

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 Straightness measurement
Reflecting mirror Autocollimator
unit

Line on the surface table

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• Autocollimator is a Precise Instrument for small angular tilt measurements.
• Micro-Optic Visual Autocollimators ranging from 3 arc-secs to 0.5 arc-secs
resolution are available for Straightness, Squareness, Flatness, Rotary table
calibration in Machine Tool Industry.
• Wide range of Stands and accessories are offered to suit various applications.
Autocollimator with camera attachment available with software for
Straightness & Flatness for machine Geometry measurements..

• Some Autocollimators are equipped with highly accurate Micrometers. The

mounting Telescope tubes are made from high quality Stainless Steel material
to avoid rusting.
 Principle of working

Minute scale knob

Figure1: Principle of auto-collimation

Second scale knob

Figure 2: Optical system of an autocollimator: 1. Eyepiece,

2, 4 prisms, 3. Beam splitter, 5. crosswire, 6. lamp, 7. 8
reflectors, 9. Objective lens , 10. Plane of setting image
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 Applications of Autocollimator
Autocollimator in combination with a plane reflector serves for measurement of
extremely small angles and deviation from plane-ness. They are employed
economically for:

Testing of the precision surface plates and machined surfaces for straightness and
flatness.

Checking of alignment, parallelism and square-ness of machine tool guide-ways,

spindles, and carriages

Checking the precision indexing equipment such as dividing heads, rotary tables,
dividing circles

Calibration of angle gauges, V- blocks and precision polygons 14

 Straightness Measurement

1 second = 1/3600 x π/180 x 100,000 μm ≈ 0.5 μm

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Straightness Measurement

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 Problem-1

An autocollimator and a mirror unit with 100 mm base length are used for
measuring the straightness of a straight edge and the reading at different
positions are given below. It is estimated that 1 second of the autocollimator
reading corresponds to 0.5 μm linear deviation over the mirror base length in the
vertical direction. Find the straightness error using endpoint zero method?
 Computation of straightness error
Position Autocollima Diff. Rise or Cumulat Adjustme Error
tor mean from fall over ive rise nt to bring
reading the first 100 mm or fall both ends
reading base to zero
length

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 Cumulative rise or fall in µm End point zero method

Reflector position (mm)

The straightness error

=maximum error – minimum
error = (3 - (- 4) = 7μm.

Plots showing straightness error

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 Problem 2
An autocollimator and a mirror unit with 100 mm base length are used for
measuring the straightness of a straight edge and the reading at different
positions are given below. It is estimated that 1 second of the autocollimator
reading corresponds to 0.5 μm linear deviation over the mirror base length in the
vertical direction. Find the straightness error using endpoint zero method?

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Solution

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Straightness Tolerance

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Straightness Specification

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 Flatness measurement
• Flatness is simply the minimum distance between two planes, which covers all
irregularities of the surface under study.
• Methods of Flatness Measurement
1. Beam comparator used for Flatness testing
2. Flatness Measurement by Interferometry
3. Flatness Measurement by Laser measurement system
4. Flatness Measurement by Electro-mechanical Gauges
5. Flatness Measurement by Autocollimator
Flatness Specification

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Flatness Tolerances

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 Surface plate
• For establishing geometrical relationships, the flat surface is used as a reference
horizontal datum plane.

• It forms the practical basis of engineering measurements.

• Jobs and metrological instruments are kept on it for carrying out measurements.

• Materials used: cast iron, granite and glass block

• CI surface plates are available in three grades (grade 0, I, II):

Grade I: Maximum departure is of 9 microns over an area of 400 mm X 400 mm

of plate.

Grade II: Maximum departure is of 17 microns over an area of 400 mm X 400 mm

of plate.
Granite Surface Plates have high modulus of rigidity and moisture free.

Metallic objects can easily slide on their surface.

Sizes are available from 400 X 250 X 50 mm3 to 2000 X 1000 X 250 mm3

Glass Surface Plates are comparatively light in weight and free from burr and
corrosion.

Accuracy varies in the range of 0.004 to 0.008 mm.

Sizes are available from 150 X 150 mm2 to 600 X 800 mm2
 Made generally as per IS-7327-2003. Also available conforming to other standards like DIN-
876, BS-817, US Federal Specification GGG-P-463-C.
 Calibration: Each Surface Plate provided with Calibration Certificate traceable to National
Standards as per ISO 17025 [Source: Micro-flat Datums Pvt. Ltd.]
 Made from Grey Iron Casting
Conforming to Grade FG-220 of IS
210, casting duly stress relieved.

 Top working surface offered

precision hand-scrapped finish.

 Made generally as per IS-2285-2003.

[Source: Micro-flat Datums Pvt. Ltd.]

Flatness

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 Flatness test
Procedure for performing flatness test on a surface:

Carry out a normal straightness test on each generator.

Tabulate each set of results only as far as the cumulative error column.

Correct the ends of AC, AG and CG to zero. This gives the heights of points A, C
and G as zero and these points then constitute an arbitrary plane relative to
which the heights of all other points may be determined.

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Flatness test

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 Flatness test

From the above step, the height of O is known relative to the arbitrary plane
ACG = 000. As O is the common mid-point of AC, CG, BF and HD all points on AE
are now fixed. This is done by taking A = 0 and correcting O on AE to coincide with
the mid-point O on CG.

Correct all other points on AE by an amount proportionate to the movement of

its mid-point. Note that E is twice as far from A as the mid-point, its correction is
double that of O, the mid-point.

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As E is now fixed and C and G are set at zero, it is possible to put in CE and GE,
proportionally correcting all intermediate points on these generators.

The positions of H and D, and B and F, are known so it is now possible to fit in
lines HD and BF. This provides a check on previous evaluation since the mid-point
of these lines should coincide with the known position of O, the mid-point of the
surface.
Cumulative Errors of Lines of test

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 Flatness test on a sample surface

Three corners of a surface adjusted to zero to enable the height of the mid-point to be fixed
relative to a plane through the corners. This enables the height of the other corner to be
determined.

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Test - Continued

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Flatness

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Procedure for determining flatness

1. The end lines AB and AD etc., are drawn away from the
edges as the edges of the surface are not flat but get
worn out by use and can fall off little in accuracy.
2. Carry out the straightness test already described on all
the lines AB, BC, AC etc. and tabulate the readings up to
the cumulative error column.
3. Let a plane passing through the points A, B and D be
assumed to be an arbitrary plane, relative to which the
heights of all other points may be determined.
4. The ends of lines AB, AD and BD are corrected to zero
and thus the height of points A, B and D are zero.
5. The height of point ‘I’ is determined relative to the
arbitrary plane ABD = 000.
6. As I is the mid-point of line AC also, all the points on AC can be fixed relative
to the arbitrary plane by assuming A = 0 and correcting I on AC to coincide
with the mid-point I on BD.
7. In this way, all points on AC are corrected by amounts proportionate to the
movement of its mid-point.
8. The positions of H and G, E and F are known, so it is now possible to fit in lines
HG and EF. This also provides a check on previous evaluation since the mid-
point of these lines should coincide with the known position of mid-point I.
9. In this way, the height of all the points on the surface relative to the arbitrary
plane ABD are known.
10. The difference between the maximum positive and maximum negative value
is taken as the flatness error.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Position Mean reading Difference Rise or fall in Cumulative Adjustment Errors from
of Auto- from 1st interval Rise or fall to bring both straight line
collimator or reading (sec) length (mm) (mm) ends to zero (mm)
spirit level (mm)
(sec)
Runout is a 2D measurement that can be either be taken in the axial direction or in
the radial direction. When measuring in the radial direction, runout combines both
roundness and concentricity errors into one composite measurement.

Radial run-out is the result of a rotating component running off centre, such as a
ball bearing with an offset centre. This means that the rotating tool or shaft,
instead of being centrally aligned, will rotate about a secondary axis. In general,
cutting tools are more tolerant of radial run-out since the edges are parallel to the
line of cutting tending to keep the tool tip aligned. However, a rotating shaft may
be less tolerant of radial run-out since the centre of gravity is displaced by the
amount of run-out.
Axial run-out is the result of a rotating component not being parallel
with the axis, such as a drill chuck not holding the drill exactly in line
with the axis.

In general, cutting tools are less tolerant of axial run-out since the
tool tip tends to dig in and further increase run-out. However, a shaft
may be more tolerant of axial run-out since the centre of gravity is
displaced less.
Thank you