PKM Educational Trust ®

R. R. Institute of Technology
Affiliated to VTU Belgaum and Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Recognised by Govt. of Karnataka,
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A+’
Since 1993
Raja Reddy Layout, Chikkabanavara, Bengaluru – 560 090 Department of Mechanical Engineering

Subject Turbomachines Semester :V

Course Code BME502 CIE Marks :50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P: S) 3:0:2:0 SEE Marks :50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 hours Theory + 8-10Lab slots Total Marks :100
Credits 04 Exam Hours :3
MODULE :1
Introduction: Definition of turbo machine, parts of turbo machines, Comparison with positive displacement machines,
Classification, Dimensionless parameters and their significance, Unit and specific quantities, model studies and its numerical.
(Note: Since dimensional analysis is covered in Fluid Mechanics subject, the questions on dimensional analysis should not be
given. However, dimensionless parameters and model studies may be given more weightage.)
Thermodynamics of fluid flow: Application of first and second law of thermodynamics to turbo machines, Efficiencies of turbo
machines, Static and Stagnation states, overall isentropic efficiency, stage efficiency (their comparison) and polytropic efficiency
for both compression and expansion processes. Reheat factor for expansion process. Simple Numerical on stage efficiency and
polytropic efficiency.
MODULE: 2
Energy exchange in Turbo machines: Euler’s turbine equation, Alternate form of Euler’s turbine equation, Velocity triangles for
different values of degree of reaction, Components of energy transfer, Degree of Reaction, utilization factor, Relation between
degree of reaction and Utilization factor, Problems.
General Analysis of Turbo machines: Radial flow compressors and pumps – general analysis, Expression for degree of reaction,
velocity triangles, Effect of blade discharge angle on energy transfer and degree of reaction, Effect of blade discharge angle on
performance, , General analysis of axial flow pumps and compressors, degree of reaction, velocity triangles, Numerical Problems.

MODULE :3
Steam Turbines: Classification, Single stage impulse turbine, condition for maximum blade efficiency, stage efficiency, Need
and methods of compounding, Multistage impulse turbine, expression for maximum utilization factor, Numerical.
Reaction turbine: Parsons’s turbine, condition for maximum utilization factor, reaction staging. Numerical.

MODULE:4
Hydraulic Turbines: Classification, various efficiencies. Pelton Wheel – Principle of working, velocity triangles, design
parameters, maximum efficiency, and numerical.
Francis turbine : Principle of working, velocity triangles, design parameters, and numerical problems
Kaplan and Propeller turbines: Principle of working, velocity triangles, design parameters and Numerical. Theory and types of
Draft tubes.

MODULE:5
Centrifugal Pumps: Classification and parts of centrifugal pump, different heads and efficiencies of centrifugal pump,
Theoretical head – capacity relationship, Minimum speed for starting the flow, Maximum suction lift, Net positive suction head,
Cavitation, Need for priming, Pumps in series and parallel. Problems.
Centrifugal Compressors: Stage velocity triangles, slip factor, power input factor, Stage work, Pressure developed, stage
efficiency and surging and problems.
Suggested Learning Resources:
TEST BOOKS
1. V. Kadambi and Manohar Prasad, An Introduction to Energy Conversion, Volume III, Turbo machinery, New Age International
Publishers, reprint 2008
2. M. S. Govinde Gowda, A Text of Turbo machines, 1st Edn, 2024, Iterative International Publishers (IIP), ISBN:9789362528841.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Principals of Turbo machines, D. G. Shepherd, The Macmillan Company (1964).
2. Fluid Mechanics & Thermodynamics of Turbo machines, S. L. Dixon, Elsevier (2005).
3. Turbines, Compressors & Fans, S. M. Yahya, Tata McGraw Hill Co. Ltd., 2nd edition, 2002.
4. B.K Venkanna, Fundamentals of Turbo Machinery, PHI Publishers
Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
CO1:Apply the Model studies and thermodynamics analysis of turbo machines.
CO2:Analyse the energy transfers in Turbo machine with degree of reaction and utilisation factor.
CO3:Classify, analyse and understand various type of steam turbine.
CO4:Classify, analyse and understand various type of hydraulic turbine.
CO5:Understand the concept of radial power absorbing machine and the problems involved during its operation.
MODULE :1
Introduction: Definition of turbo machine, parts of turbo machines, Comparison with positive displacement machines,
Classification, Dimensionless parameters and their significance, Unit and specific quantities, model studies and its numerical.
(Note: Since dimensional analysis is covered in Fluid Mechanics subject, the questions on dimensional analysis should not be
given. However, dimensionless parameters and model studies may be given more weightage.)
Thermodynamics of fluid flow: Application of first and second law of thermodynamics to turbo machines, Efficiencies of turbo
machines, Static and Stagnation states, overall isentropic efficiency, stage efficiency (their comparison) and polytropic efficiency
for both compression and expansion processes. Reheat factor for expansion process. Simple Numerical on stage efficiency and
polytropic efficiency.
1.1 Introduction to turbomachines:
1.1 Introduction:
The turbomachine is used in several applications, the primary ones being
• Electrical power generation,
• Aircraft propulsion
• Vehicular propulsion for civilian and military use.
The units used in power generation are
• Steam turbines,
• Gas turbines
• Hydraulic turbines,

• The turbomachines ranging in capacity from a few kilowatts to several hundred and even thousands of megawatts,
depending on the application.
• The turbomachines drives the alternator at the appropriate speed to produce power of the right frequency.
• In aircraft and heavy vehicular propulsion for military use, the primary driving element has been the gas turbine.
1.2 Turbomachines and its Principal Components:
Question No 1.1: Define a turbomachine. With a neat sketch explain the parts of a turbomachine.
Answer: A turbomachine is a device in which energy transfer takes place between a flowing fluid and a rotating
element due to the dynamic action, and results in the change of pressure and momentum of the fluid.

Parts of turbomachine
The following are the principal components of
turbomachine:
(i) Rotor,
(ii) Stator
(iii) Shaft.
(iv) Housing
i) Rotor is a rotating element carrying the rotor blades or vanes. Rotor is also known by the names runner, impellers etc.
depending upon the particular machine. Here energy transfer occurs between the flowing fluid and the rotating element due to
the momentum exchange between the two.
ii) Stator is a stationary element carrying the guide vanes or stator blades. Stator blades are also known by guide blades or
nozzle depending upon the particular machine. These blades usually control the direction of fluid flow during the energy
conversion process.
iii) Shaft is transmitting power into or out of the machine depending upon the particular machine. For power generating
machines, it may call as output shaft and for power absorbing machines; it may called as input shaft.
iv) Housing to keep various rotating, stationery and other passages safely under dynamic conditions of the flowing fluid.
E.g. Steam turbine parts and Pelton turbine parts.

Introduction to Turbo Machinery

A turbo machine is basically a rotating Machine
The rotating wheel is called a rotor / runner /impeller
The rotor will be immersed in a fluid Continuum
The fluid medium can be gas / steam /water / air
Energy transfer takes place either Turbine rotor
from rotor to fluid, or from fluid to rotor
Using working fluids to Boost output, either increase
or decrease pressure by using Machinery
Compression process Expansion process
Turbomachine in steam power plant
1.3 Positive displacement machine Ic engine link -https://youtu.be/Pu7g3uIG6Zo
In Positive displacement type, the volume of the system is kept on decreasing. The fluid is trapped in a space and
that space is kept on decreasing which causes increases in the pressure of fluid.
consider the following pumps, in all cases the pressure is increased when the volume is decreasing.
1.4 Positive-Displacement Devices and Turbomachines:
Question : Compare the turbomachines with positive displacement machines.
Answer: The differences between positive-displacement machines and turbomachines are given by comparing their modes of
action, operation, energy transfer, mechanical features etc. in the following table.
Sl NO Turbomachine Positive displacement machine
1 1. Action
(a) Dynamic (a) Nearly static
(b) Pressure and momentum of the fluid changes. (b) Volume of the fluid changes.
2 2. Operation (a) Usually it is the reciprocating motion of the mechanical
(a) Pure rotary motion of the mechanical element. element but some rotary positive displacement machines are
(b) Steady flow of fluid. also built.
(c) The fluid state will be the same as that of the Examples: Gear pump, vane pump.
surroundings when the machine is stopped. (b) Unsteady flow of fluid.
(c) Entrapped fluid state is different from the surroundings
when the machine is stopped and if heat transfers and leakage
3 are avoided.
3.Mechanical features
(a) Rotating masses can be completely (a) Because of the reciprocating masses, vibrations are more.
balanced and vibrations eliminated. Hence low speeds are adopted.
Hence high speeds can be adopted. (b) Heavy foundations are required.
(b) Light foundations suffice. (c) Mechanical design is complex because of valves.
(c) Design is simple (d) Weight per unit output is more.
(d) Weight per unit output is less.
 4 4. Efficiency of conversion process (a) High efficiency because of static energy transfer.
(a) Efficiency is low because of dynamic energy transfer. (b) The efficiencies of the compression and expansion
(b) The efficiency of the compression process is low. processes are almost the same.
5 5. Volumetric efficiency (a) Much below that of a turbomachine because of
(a) It is almost 100%. valves.
(b) High fluid handling capacity per unit (b) Low fluid handling capacity per unit weight of
weight of machine. machine.
6 6. Fluid phase change and surging No serious problems are encountered.
(a) Causes cavitation in pumps and turbines.
(b) Erodes steam turbine blades.
(c) Deteriorates performance.
(d) Surging or pulsation leads to unstable flow.
(e) Causes vibrations and may destroy the machine.
7 7.Operates between a moving fluid and a rotating element, Operates between a near static fluid and a slow moving
resulting in thermodynamic and dynamic action. surface resulting in thermodynamic and mechanical
action.

Fluid machine: Fluid machine is a device exchanging energy (work) between a fluid and a mechanical system.
In particular : a turbo machine is a device using a rotating mechanical system
Fluid machines are those devices that are used to either move fluid or extract energy from it. Broadly speeaking, fluid machines
are divided into two groups:
1) Positive-displacement machines 2) Turbomachines
Fluid Machinery • Fluid machinery is used to convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy or vice versa.
TURBOMACHINES
Question No : Explain with examples the power generating, power absorbing and power transmitting turbomachines

Turbo machines may also be classified as :

• Turbines, compressors, pumps, fans , blowers
• Incompressible or compressible
• Axial-flow, mixed-flow or radial-flow geometry
• Single stage or multi-stage
• Turbo-pump, turbo-compressor or torque-converter
• Impulse, reaction or impulse-reaction
1.5 Classification of turbo machines : https://youtu.be/k0BLOKEZ3KU
Question : Explain how turbomachines are classified. Give at least one example of each.

1. Based on energy transfer

a) Energy is given by fluid to the rotor - Power generating turbo machine E.g. Turbines
b) Energy given by the rotor to the fluid – Power absorbing turbo machineE.g. Pumps, blowers and compressors
2. Based on type of fluid flowing in turbo machine
a) Water b) Air c) Steam d) Hot gases e) Liquids like petrol etc.
3. Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes or blades, with reference to the axis of shaft rotation
a) Axial flow – Axial pump, compressor or turbine
b) Mixed flow – Mixed flow pump, Francis turbine
c) Radial flow – Centrifugal pump or compressor
d) Tangential flow – Pelton water turbine
4. Based on condition of fluid in turbo machine
a) Impulse type (constant pressure) E.g. Pelton water turbine
b) Reaction type (variable pressure) E.g. Francis reaction turbines
5. Based on position of rotating shaft
a) Horizontal shaft – Steam turbines b) Vertical shaft – Kaplan water turbines
c) Inclined shaft – Modern bulb micro turbines
Types of turbines based on direction of flow of fluid
Question No : What is an axial flow turbomachine? How is it
different from a radial flow turbomachine? Give one example
each.
1.6 Applications of Turbo machinery :
Some typical examples of turbomachinery used in various applications are listed below.
I .Aerospace Vehicle Application.
• Compressors and turbines are used in gas turbines for power and propulsion of aircraft, Helicopters,
• Unmanned aerospace vehicles,
• V/STOL(Short take off and landing) aircraft,
• Missiles,
• Turbines and pumps are used in liquid rocket engines utilized for the propulsion of space vehicles.
II.Marine Vehicle Application.
Turbomachinery components are used in
• power plants for submarines, hydrofoil boats, Naval surface ships, hovercraft, and so on and
• Propeller and propulsion plants used in ships, underwater vehicles, hydrofoil boats, and so on. Land Vehicle Application.
• Turbomachinery is an important component in the gas turbines used in trucks, cars, and high- speed train systems.
III. Energy Application.
• Steam turbines are used in steam, nuclear, and coal power plants;
• Hydraulic turbines are used in hydropower plants;
• Gas turbines are used in gas turbine power plants;
• Wind turbines also belong to this class.
IV. Industrial Applications.
• Compressors and pumping machinery are used in gas and petroleum transmissions and other industrial and processing
applications;
• Pumping machinery is used in fire fighting, water purification, and pumping plants;
• High-speed miniature turbo expanders are used in refrigeration equipment; compressors are used in refrigeration plants
1.7 Dimensionless parameters and their physical significance; specific speed; illustrative examples on dimensional
analysis and model studies.
A large number of variables are involved in describing the performance characteristics of turbomachines, these
variables are grouped into non-dimensional quantities, which are less in number (manageable number) than the
variable themselves. Then, in design or experimentation these non-dimensional quantities are
varied instead of the large number of parameters forming these groups.
1.7.1 Dimensional analysis :
From the previous description, we know that it is advantageous to reduce the number of variables into manageable
numbers by grouping these variables into non-dimensional quantities. The technique or procedure used to get non-
dimensional quantities is known as dimensional analysis.
The dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique that deals with the dimensions of the quantities (see Table 1.1)
involved in the process. It is based on the assumption that the process can be expressed by a dimensionally
homogeneous equation with certain variables.
1.7.2 Fundamental quantities :
Mass, length, time and temperature are called fundamental quantities since there is no direct relation between these
quantities.
1.7.3 Secondary quantities :
The quantities derived from fundamental quantities are called derived quantities or secondary quantities. Some
examples of derived quantities are area, volume, velocity, force, acceleration, etc.
1.7.4 Dimensional homogeneity :
An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the fundamental dimensions have identical powers of M, L, T
on both sides. Let us take an example:
1.7.5 Bucking ham π – theorem :
The Buckingham’s -theorem states that if there are n variables (independent and dependent variables) in a dimensionally
homogeneous expression (i.e. in a physical phenomenon) and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M-L-T), then
the variables are grouped into (n-m) non-dimensional independent terms. Each term is called π terms.Suppose a variable X1
depends upon independent variables X2, X3, ..., Xn, then the functional equation may be written as
X1 = f(X2, X3, ..., Xn)
Equation can also be written as f1(X1, X2, X3, ..., Xn) = C
where
C = constant ,f1 = some
In the above Eq. there are nfunction
variables. If these variables contain m fundamental dimensions, then according to
Buckingham’s -theorem, f1(π1, π2, , π3, , π4, ..., π𝑛 − 𝑚, ) = C
1.7.6 Procedure for Bucking ham π – theorem :
1. With the given data, write the functional relationship involving n variable.
2. Write the equation in its general form.
3. Choose m repeating variables and write separate expressions for each term, every term must contain the
repeating variables and one of the remaining variables. The number of repeating variables is equal to the number of
fundamental dimensions of the problem.
Following points must be considered while selecting repeating variables :
(a) As far as possible independent variables should be selected.
(b) The selection should be in such a way that
• First variable contains the geometric property,
• Second variable contains the flow property,
• Third variable contains the fluid property,
• Variables with geometric property in 1.7.7 Dimensions of some physical quantities :
turbomachines are:
(i) Length (l) i.e. blade chord or blade length
(ii) Diameter (d) i.e. rotor diameter
(iii) Thickness (t) i.e. blade thickness
(iv) Height (h) i.e. blade height
• Variables with flow property, i.e.
kinematic variables are:
(i) Velocity (u) i.e. blade velocity
(ii) Velocity (V) i.e. flow velocity
(iii) Speed (N) i.e. rotation speed
(iv) Volume flow rate (Q)
(v) Mass flow rate (m ) Table :1
(vi) Acceleration (a)
(vii) Angular velocity (ω)

• Variables with fluid property, i.e. dynamic

variables affecting the performance of
turbomachines are:
(i) Gas density (ρ) (ii) Dynamic viscosity (µ)
(iii) Bulk modulus (K) (iv) Pressure difference (p)
(v) Force (F) (vi) Power (P)
(vii) Elasticity (e) (viii) Surface tension ()
(ix) Specific weight (w) (x) Stress
1.7.8 Application of dimensional analysis to a general fluid flow problem :
Question No : Performance of a turbomachine depends on the variables discharge (Q), speed (N), rotar diameter (D), energy
per unit mass flow (gH), power (P), density of fluid (ρ), dynamic viscosity of fluid (μ). Using the dimensional analysis obtain
the π-terms.

Generalized turbomachine
For dimension analysis
 2
𝑐1 =0

3
 1.7.9.1 Capacity co-efficient or Flow co-efficient or
Specific capacity or Discharge co-efficient :
From equation 1

𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
=
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
4
𝑄
For a given value of π1 = 3 , it signifies that the
𝑁𝑑
ratio of blade velocity to jet velocity is fixed.
1.7.9 Significance of π – terms : Therefore, the shape of the velocity triangle can be
Question : Give the significance of the dimensionless terms (i) determined for any given machine.
Flow coefficient (ii) Head coefficient (iii) Power coefficient The flow coefficient signifies that the volume flow
with respect to turbomachines. OR, Explain capacity rate of fluid through turbomachines of unit runner
coefficient, head coefficient and power coefficient referring to a diameter and running at unit speed is same for both
turbomachines . the model and prototype. The flow coefficient is
constant for similar rotors.
 π𝑑𝑁 𝑚 1.7.9.3 Power co-coefficient or Specific power :
𝑢=
60 𝑠
From equation [3]
𝑉= 2𝑔𝐻

Specific discharge signifies that when the turbine is

operated under unit head and the chosen characteristic
dimension is unity, then the specific discharge remains the
same both for the model and prototype.
1.7.9.2 Head co-efficient or Specific head :
From equation [1]

Head coefficient is the ratio of the kinetic energy of the fluid (due
to H) to the kinetic energy of the fluid running at the rotor
tangential speed or it is the ratio of fluid head to kinetic energy of
the rotor.

Particularly in water turbines, ρ can be omitted. The

specific power of both the model and prototype will
remain the same if their efficiencies are the same.
1.7.9.4 Reynold’ number :Question : Discuss the effect But, Reynold’s number is an important parameter for
of Reynolds number on turbomachine. small pumps, compressors, fans and blowers. Their
performance improves with an increase in Reynold’s
From equation [4]
number.

π4 Term indicates the Reynold’s number 1.7.9.5 Specific speed (𝑁𝑆𝑝 ) :The parameter π5 can be
obtained by the combination of π1 and π2 ,
Effect of Reynold’s number :
In pipe flow the Reynold’s number is an important
parameter, which represents the nature of flow.
• If the Reynold’s number is greater than 3000, the flow
is termed turbulent.
• If it is less than 3000 the flow is called laminar.
• The values of Reynold’s number in turbomachines are π5 is the only non-dimensional parameter that does not
much higher than the critical values (Re = 4000). contain the linear dimension d of the runner wheel. The
parameter π5 is known as specific speed (𝑁𝑆 ). It is the
Most of the turbomachines use relatively low viscosity parameter of greatest importance in incompressible
fluids like machines.
• Air, Water and Light oil.
Therefore, the viscous action of the fluid has very little 5
effect on the power output of the machine.
Here the suffix P denotes pumps, fans, and
Specific speed of turbine (𝑁𝑆𝑇 ) :Question : Briefly explain High specific speed makes the size of turbine and
the significance of specific speed related to turbomachines. powerhouse small.
Another specific speed can be obtained by combining π1 For low head and high output, a high specific speed
and π3 as follows: turbine should be used.
• Thus, based on the existing conditions, the type of
turbine can be decided. Generally NST is used as a
guide to select a type of turbine under the given
conditions of head and flow (i.e. site conditions).
Exclusively ,above Equation is used for incompressible • However, such a rule of thumb is used to ensure
fluids, particularly the water turbine where ρ is omitted. maximum efficiency.
• Thus, when NST is very high, Kaplan is the best
6 selection to get a very high efficiency. When NST is
very low, higher efficiencies are possible only if the
Following information can be obtained for specific
Pelton wheel is selected.
speed of turbines.
(i) High speed propeller turbines (Kaplan, propeller) have 1.7.9.6 Alternate method for specific speed:Specific
high specific speeds. speed of turbine (𝑁𝑆𝑇 ) : Question No : Define specific
(ii) High head machines (Pelton wheel) have low specific speed of a turbine. Obtain an expression for the same in
speeds. terms of shaft power, speed and head. It is the speed of
Equations (6) represents the specific speed of a geometrically similar turbine working under unit
turbomachine head and developing unit power, i.e.
Different types of turbines have different ranges of
specific speeds.
• Impulse turbines have low specific speed,
• Francis turbine medium specific speed
 Specific speed of pump (𝑁𝑆𝑃 ) :Question : Define specific
speed of a pump. Derive an expression for specific speed
of a pump from fundamentals.
The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the
speed of a geometrically similar pump delivering unit
quantity (1 𝑚3 /s) of liquid against a head of one metre.

Equations (6) and (7) are same. Different types of

turbines have different ranges of specific speeds. 8
Impulse turbines have low specific speed, Francis
turbine medium and Kaplan turbine high. High specific
speed makes the size of turbine and powerhouse small.
For low head and high output, a high specific speed Equation (5) and (8) are same
turbine should be used. Thus, based on the existing
1.7.9.7 Unit Quantities: From definition of unit speed N = Nu when H = 1m
Question : Define unit quantities. Derive expressions to each Nu = kx1; k = Nu
of them. Substituting k in eqn 1 ; N = Nu √𝐻;
Answer:
. In hydraulic turbines, it is usual to define quantities as
𝑁
i. Unit flow, Therefore Unit speed : Nu =
𝐻
ii. Unit speed
iii. Unit power,
which are the values of the quantities under consideration per iii. Unit Power 𝑷𝒖 :Unit Power defined as the power of
turbomachine working under unit head .
unit head
We know that P = WQH
i. Unit flow (Qu) OR (Unit discharge ) : Unit flow is the flow that P α √𝐻 H as Q α √𝐻 for
occurs through the turbine while working under unit head. a given pump
We know that, Q =AV; Qα √𝐻 P α 𝐻 3/2 ;
for a given pump as V=√2𝑔𝐻; Q = k √𝐻 − eqn 1
From definition of unit discharge Q = Qu when H=1 m P = k 𝐻 3/2 − 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1
Qu = kx1; k = Qu From the definition of unit power P = 𝑃𝑢 when H=1m
Substituting k in eqn 1 ; Q = Qu √𝐻;
Pu = k x1; k = Pu
𝑄
Therefore , Unit flow: (Qu) =
𝐻 Substituting k in equation --- 1 ; P= Pu 𝐻 3/2 ;

ii. Unit Speed (𝑵𝑼) :Unit Speed is defined as a speed of the

turbomachine working under unit head 𝑃
Therefore Unit power : Pu =
𝐻 3/2
From flow coefficient gH𝛼 𝑁 2 𝐷2
For the given turbomachine
H α 𝑁 2 ; N α √𝐻 ; N = k √𝐻 – 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1
 𝑘𝑔
1.7.9.7 Dimensionless parameters and their physical Where, ρ = Density of the fluid ( )
𝑚3
significance 𝑁−𝑠
µ = Viscosity of fluid ( 2 ) , d = Diameter of pipe(m),
𝑚
In fluid mechanics, Dimensionless numbers or non- v = Velocity of flow (m/s)
dimensional numbers are those which are useful to determine
the flow characteristics of a fluid. Inertia force always exists if Importance: Reynolds number is applicable for closed
there is any mass in motion. Dividing this inertia force with surface flows as well as for free surface flows. Some
other forces like viscous force, gravity force, surface tension, applications where Reynolds number is significant for finding
elastic force, or pressure force, gives us the dimensionless the flow behavior are
numbers. • Incompressible flow through small pipes,
Question : Explain the following dimensionless numbers: • The motion of a submarine completely under water,
i) Reynolds's number (ii) Froude’s number, (iii) Weber’s • Flow through low-speed turbomachines, etc.
number, (iv) Mach’s number (v) Euler’s number. 2. Froude number :
https://youtu.be/YMBej-iRucU Froude number is the ratio of inertia force to the
Dimensionless Numbers in Fluid Mechanics : gravitational force. Froude number is significant in case of
Some important dimensionless numbers used in fluid free surface flows where the gravitational force is
mechanics and their importance is explained below. predominant compared to other forces.
1.Reynolds Number 2.Froude Number
3.Weber Number 4.Mach Number Where, L = length of flow (m) ,v = velocity of flow
5.Euler’s Number (m/s), g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Importance :
1. Reynolds number : Read More: Reynolds Experiment Froude number is useful to describe the flow in Open
Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous channels, Flow over notches and weirs, The motion
force. It describes the predominance of inertia forces to the of a ship in turbulent sea conditions (ship resistance),
viscous forces occurring in the flow systems. Flow over spillways, etc.
3. Weber number : 4. Mach number :
Weber number is the ratio of inertia force to the Question : Define Mach number and hence explain
surface tension. The formation of droplets or water subsonic flow, sonic flow and supersonic flow. Or, write a
note on Mach number. Or, Give classification of fluid flow
bubbles in a fluid is normally due to surface
based on Mach number and explain in brief.
tension. If Weber number is small, surface tension
is larger and vice versa. Mach number is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic
force. If the Mach number is one, then the flow velocity is
equal to the velocity of sound in the fluid. If it is less than one,
Where, then the flow is called subsonic flow, and if it is greater than
𝑘𝑔 𝑁
ρ = Density of fluid ( 3 ) ,σ = Surface tension ( ) one the flow is called supersonic flow.
𝑚 𝑀
d = Diameter of water droplet (m) ,
v = Velocity of flow (m/s)
Applications :
Weber number is less than 1 when surface tension is
predominant. It happens when the curvature of the Where,
liquid surface is small compared to its depth. v = Velocity of flow (m/s)
c = Velocity of sound in fluid (m/s)
This can be seen in different situations such as the
• Flow of blood in veins and arteries, Applications :
• Atomization of liquids, Mach number is useful to describe problems in high flow
• Capillary flow of water in soils, thin layers of fluid velocities. It is also used in aerodynamics to describe the
passing over surface, etc. speed of jet plane or missile in terms of speed of sound.
 5. Euler’s number : Complete similitude demands that both the model and
Euler number is the ratio of pressure force to the prototype must met the following similarity.
inertia force. i. Geometric similarity, ii. Kinematic similarity
𝑘𝑔
ii. Dynamically similarity
Where, F = Pressure force ,ρ = Density of the fluid ( 3 )
𝑚 i) Geometric similarity :
L = Characteristic length of flow (m), v = Velocity of flow (m/s)
It is the similarity of form or shape. The two systems,
Applications : the model and prototype are said to be geometrically
Euler’s number is significant in cases where pressure gradient similar if the ratios of all corresponding linear dimensions
exists such as flow through pipes, water hammer, pressure in of the systems are equal or homologous at all points.
penstocks, discharge through orifices and mouthpieces, etc. 𝑙𝑚 𝑏𝑚 𝑑𝑚
For geometric similarity : = = where l, b,
1.7.9.8 Model testing (study) : 𝑙𝑝 𝑏𝑝 𝑑𝑝
Many turbomachines are so large that only a single unit might and d are the length, width and depth respectively and m
be required for model testing. and p are the suffixes that indicate model and prototype.
Therefore, before a full-size machine is built, ii)) Kinematic similarity :
• It is necessary to test it in model form to obtain as much It is the similarity of motion. The two systems are
information as possible about its characteristics. considered to be kinematically similar if they are
• So that we may accurately transpose the results obtained geometrically similar and the ratios of components of
from the model to the full-size machine(prototype), velocity at all points are in homologous.
𝑽𝟏 𝒎 𝑽𝟐 𝒎 𝑽𝟑 𝒎
Model to prototype similarity conditions: For Kinematic similarity : = =
𝑽𝟏 𝒑 𝑽𝟐 𝒑 𝑽𝟑 𝒑
The principle of all model design is to prepare a model from Where V1 m, V2 m, V3 𝑚 are resultant velocities at
which its behavior can produce a trust worthy, consistent points 1, 2, and 3 in the model and 𝑉1 𝑝, 𝑉2 𝑝, 𝑉3 𝑝 the
and accurate prediction of the prototype performance. resultant velocities at the corresponding points in the
prototype.
iii) Dynamic similarity : Dynamic similarity is said to be exist Similitude :
between the model and the prototype, if they are geometrically It is a concept used in testing of engineering models.
and kinematically similar, and the ratios of the corresponding usualy, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical solution
forces acting at the corresponding points are equal. of fluid involving in a phenomenon.
𝑭𝟏 𝒎 𝑭𝟐 𝒎 𝑭𝟑 𝒎 It is the study of similarity(Geometric, Kinematic and
Fore dynamic similarity : = =
𝑭𝟏 𝒑 𝑭𝟐 𝒑 𝑭𝟑 𝒑 Dynamic similarities) between the model and prototype in
every respect , which mean model and prototype have
Where 𝐹1 𝑚, 𝐹2 𝑚, 𝐹3 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 1,2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 similar properties or model and prototype are completely
3 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 F1 p, F2 p, F3 p are similar.
the forces a the corresponding points in the prototype. A few examples, where models may be used are
• Ships in towing basins,
From Newton’s second law, inertia or reactive forces
• Air planes in wind tunnel,
Fi = (mass x acceleration) which is sum of the all the active
• Hydraulic turbines,
forces
• Centrifugal pumps,
Fi = Fp + Fg + Fv + Ft + Fe
• Spillways of dams,
Fp = Pressure force, Fg = Gravitational force, Fv = Viscous
• River channels
force, Ft = Surface tension force
• To study such phenomenon as the action of waves and
And Fe = Elastic force
tides on beaches, soil erosion, and transportation of
Perfect similarity requires the following conditions : sediments ets.

𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭𝒑 + 𝑭𝒈 + 𝑭𝑽 + 𝑭𝒕 + 𝑭𝒆 𝒎
i) = (1)
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒑 + 𝑭𝒈 + 𝑭𝒗 + 𝑭𝒕 + 𝑭𝒆 𝒑
𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭 𝒎 𝑭𝒈 𝒎 𝑭 𝒎 𝑭 𝒎 𝑭𝒆 𝒎
ii) ) = 𝒑 + + 𝒗 + 𝒕 + (2)
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒑 𝒑 𝑭𝒈 𝒎 𝑭𝒗 𝒑 𝑭𝒕 𝒑 𝑭𝒆 𝒑
Model analysis :
It is actually an experimental method of finding solutions of complex flow problems.

The following are the advantages of the model analysis

• Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow problem is obtained which help in
conducting tests.
• The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in advance from its model
• The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of model analysis to adopt most economical and safe design

Note : Test performed on models can be utilized to obtain useful information obtained by testing the model can be applied to
predict the performance of prototype only if a complete similarity exist between model and prototype.
Model analysis :
Model : It is a small scale replica of the actual structure.
Prototype : It is actual structure or machine.

Model
Prototype
Note : It is not necessary that the models should be smaller
than the prototype, they may be larger than prototype.
Model testing in wind tunnel
1.7.9.9 Laws of similitude : The similitude requirement between the model and
Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are prototype in these problems may be obtained from equation
obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous force or (1) by neglecting all forces except the gravitational forces.
gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or Equating the model to prototype reactive inertial force with
elastic force. As this is a ratio of one force to the other force, the corresponding active gravitational force
it will be a dimensionless number. These dimensionless
numbers are also called non-dimensional parameters.
The following are the important dimensionless numbers : 𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭𝒈 𝒎
i. Froude’s number = (i)
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒈 𝒑
ii. Reynold’s number
iii. Weber’s number 𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
iv. Mach number 𝝆𝑳𝟑 𝑳 𝑻−𝟐 = ρ𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟐 = 𝝆𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐
v. Euler’s number 𝐅𝐠 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐱 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝛒𝐋𝟑 𝐠
i) Froude’s law of similitude : It is the law in which
the models are based on Froude’s number which Substituting the dimensions of Fi and Fg in
means, in all free surface flow problems, gravitational the above equation (i) after simplification
forces are dominant.
Some example are : 𝑽 𝑽
=
• Notches 𝒈𝑳 𝒎
𝒈𝑳 𝑷
• Spillways
• Weirs The above equation is the Froud’s law of similitude. It
• Open channel flows states that the Froude number of model should be equal
• Canal structures ets to the Froude number of prototype.
The similitude requirement between the model and ii) Reynold's law of similitude : It is the law in which
prototype in these problems may be obtained from models are based on Reynold’s number, which means, in
equation (1) by neglecting all forces except the all fluid flow problems such as
gravitational forces. Equating the model to prototype • Pipe flow,
reactive inertial force with the corresponding active • Flow past two and three-dimensional bodies like
gravitational force i. Chimneys, ii.Towers, iii.Submarines,
iv. Automobile v. Trains, vi. Parachutes,
𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭𝒈 𝒎
= vii. Subsonic aircraft, viii. Drag of falling bodies
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒈 𝒑 (i)
ix. Boundary layer flow, viscous force is dominant.
𝑭𝒊 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝝆𝑳𝟑 𝑳 𝑻−𝟐 = ρ𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟐 = 𝝆𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐 Similitude is obtained from equation (1) by equating the
model to prototype ratio of inertia forces to similar ratio of
𝐅𝐠 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐱 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝛒𝐋𝟑 𝐠
viscous forces and neglecting all other forces.

𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭𝑽 𝒎
Substituting the dimensions of Fi and Fg in = (ii)
the above equation (i) after simplification 𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝑽 𝒑

𝑽 𝑽 Fi = 𝝆𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝒈𝑳 𝒎
𝒈𝑳 𝑷 𝒅𝒖 𝑽
Fv = µ 𝑨 = µ 𝑳𝟐 = µ LV
𝒅𝒚 𝑳
The above equation is the Froud’s law of similitude. It
states that the Froude number of model should be equal
to the Froude number of prototype.
 Substituting Fi and Fv in the equation (ii) , after simplification Inertia force : Fi = 𝛒𝐋𝟐 𝐕 𝟐
Surface tension force : 𝐅𝑻 = 𝛔 𝐋
𝝆𝑽𝑳 𝝆𝑽𝑳
= Substituting the Fi and Ft in the equation (iii) and after
µ µ
𝒎 𝒑 simplification
𝑽 𝑽
The above equation is the Reynold’s law of similitude which =
𝝈/𝝆𝑳 𝝈/𝝆𝑳
states that the Reynold’s number of model should be equal to 𝒎 𝒑
Reynold’s number of prototype. The above equation is Webber number which is similitude
law for the cases where surface tension is the dominant
iii) Webber’s law of similitude : It is the law in which
force. It states that Webber number of model and
models are based on Webber number which mean, in all fluid
prototype should equal.
flow problems involving surface tension force as dominant
force. The surface tension force involving in iv) Mach’s or Cauchy’s law of similitude : It is the
• Gas-liquid, and liquid-liquid interfaces and contact of such law in which models are based on Mach number where all
surfaces with a solid boundary , Droplet formation, fluid flow problems involving a force of elastic
• Capillary movement of soil moisture, compression or fluid compressibility effects .The following
• Capillary ripples in small channels, are cases involving a force of elastic compression.
• Discharge of orifice and weirs under very small heads etc. • Transonic and supersonic aerodynamics
• Shells
In all these cases, the pertinent similitude is obtained by • Bullets
equating the model to prototype ratios of inertia forces to the • Missiles and Rockets fired into air
corresponding ratios of surface tension forces and neglecting • Space craft carriers
all other forces from equation (1) as follows. • Water hammer problems and water entry problems of
𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭𝒕 𝒎 ballistic etc.
= (iii)
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒕 𝒑
 In all such cases relevant similitude is obtained from v) Euler’s law of similitude : The Euler’s number has been
equation (1) by equating the model to prototype ratio of introduced by Hunter Rose, which is dimensionless number. It
inertia forces to its elastic compression forces neglecting all is obtained by equating the ratio of inertia forces of model and
other forces. prototype and ratio of pressure forces of model and prototype.
𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭 𝒎
= 𝒆 (iv) From equation (1) considering inertia forces and
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒆 𝒑 pressure forces, neglecting all other forces.
𝑭𝒊 𝒎 𝑭𝒑 𝒎
Inertia force Fi = 𝛒𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐 = (v)
𝑭𝒊 𝒑 𝑭𝒑 𝒑
𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐅𝐞 = Inertia force Fi = 𝛒𝑳𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Bulk modulus of elasticity x area = K 𝐋𝟐
Substituting Fi and Fe in the equation (iv) ,after simplification 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐅𝐏 = 𝛒𝐋𝟑 𝐋𝐓 −𝟐 =
𝑽 𝑽 𝛒 𝐋𝟐 𝐋𝟐 𝐓 −𝟐 = ρ 𝐋𝟐 𝐕 𝟐 = ρ𝑽𝟐 𝑳𝟐 = △p 𝑳𝟐
=
𝑲/𝝆 𝑲/𝝆 𝑷
𝒎 Substituting the Fi and Fp in the above
equation (v) and simplifying , we obtain
Since 𝑲/𝝆 = Sonic velocity C
𝑽 𝑽 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐕 𝐕
= is a Mach number or Cauchy number = 𝐎𝐑 =
𝑲/𝝆 𝑪 △p/𝛒 △p/𝛒 △p/𝛒 △p/𝛒
𝐦 𝐩 𝐦 𝐩

It is the Mach law of similitude for flow problems in V V

= is called Euler number, Euler law of similitude
△p/ρ C
which compressibility forces are dominating. The law
states that equality between Mach numbers of model requires that the model Euler number has considerable
and prototype should be the basis for predicting practical significance in modeling hydraulic turbines and
prototype performance from model result. pumps, because in these hydraulic turbines pressure is the
dominating parameter.
Problems on Model to Prototype :
1) A single-stage centrifugal pump with impeller
diameter of 30 cm rotates at 2000 rpm and lifts 3 𝑚3 of
water per second to a height of 30 m with an efficiency
of 75%.Find (a) the number of stages and (b) the
diameter of each impeller of a similar multistage pump
to lift 5 𝑚3 of water per second to a height of 200 m,
when rotating at 1500 rpm.
Data : (Model) (Prototype)
Single stage centrifugal pump Multistage
centrifugal pump
𝐷1 =30cm = 0.3 m Ns = ? 𝐷2 = ?
𝑁1 = 2000 rpm 𝑄2 =5 𝑚3 , 𝐻𝑡 = 200 m
𝑄1 = 3 𝑚3 𝑁2 = 1500 rpm
𝐻1 = 30 m
η =75%
2) A turbine model working under a head of 2 m runs
at 170 rpm and has a diameter of 1 m. A prototype
turbine develops 22 MW under a head of 250 m with
a specific speed of 100. Calculate (a) the scale ratio
and (b) the power developed by the model.

3) A single-stage centrifugal pump works against a height

of 30 m, running at 2000 rpm, supplies 3 𝑚3 /𝑠 and has an
impeller diameter of 300 mm. Calculate (a) the number of
stages and (b) the diameter of each impeller required to
pump 6 𝑚3 /𝑠 of water to a height of 220 m when running
at 1500 rpm.
4) An out put of 10 Kw was recorded on a turbine, 0.5 From the last column of the table :Francis turbine
diameter, revolving at a speed of 800m, under a head of 20m. is suitable
What is the diameter and output of another turbine which
works under a head of 180m at a speed of 200rpm when their
efficiencies are same. Find the specific speed and name the
turbine can be used.

Data: 1st turbine (Model ) 2nd Turbine(Prototype)

P1 = 10kW P2 = ?
D1 = 0.5 m D2 = ?
N1 = 800rpm N2 = 200rpm
H1 = 20m H2 = 180m
TABLE OF SPECIFIC SPEEDS OF VARIOUS TURBINES
5) In a reservoir model built to a scale of 1: 200, the rate of flow through the sluice into the canal is 2Lpm and it takes 28.6 hours
to drain the reservoir. Predict the prototype discharge and the time of emptying the reservoir.
Solution : Froude’s law of similitude is applicable in a free surface flow problem like this reservoir problem.
𝐿𝑚 1 𝐿𝑃 2 𝑚3
Scaleratio (model to prototype) = , OR = 200, 𝑄𝑚 = 2𝐿𝑝𝑚 = (1𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 10−3𝑚3 ) 𝑇𝑚 =
𝐿𝑃 200 𝐿𝑚 60 𝑋 1000 𝑠
28.6 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠, 𝑄𝑝 = ? 𝑇𝑝 = ?
𝑳𝒑 𝟑/𝟐
𝑉 𝑉 𝑄𝑝 = 𝑄𝑚
𝑳𝒎
=
𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝐿 2 m3
𝑚 𝑝 = X 2003/2 = 18.85 Answer
60 X 1000 s
Rearranging to get velocity ratio, since velocity
related to discharge 𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑚 𝐿 𝐿
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 = Since velocity (V) = = T=
𝑉𝑃 𝐿𝑝 𝑠 𝑇 𝑉
=
𝑉𝑃 𝐿𝑝
𝐿𝑟 𝐿𝑟
Velocity ratio of model to prototype and Discharge ratio of Time ratio 𝑇𝑟 = -= = 𝐿𝑟
𝑉𝑟 𝐿𝑟
model to prototype
𝑇𝑚 𝐿𝑚 𝑇𝑚 𝑇𝑚
3/2 = 𝑇𝑝 = = 𝑇𝑚 X 2001/2
𝑉𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑉𝑟 𝐴𝑟 = 𝐻𝑟 𝐿2 𝑟 𝐿𝑟 𝐿2 𝑟 = 𝐿𝑟 𝑇𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑚 1
𝐿𝑝 200

𝟑/𝟐
𝑄𝑚 𝑳𝒎 𝑳𝒑 𝟑/𝟐 𝑇𝑝 = 28.6 x 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 2001/2
= 𝑄𝑝 = 𝑄𝑚
𝑄𝑝 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒎
𝑇𝑝 = 404.46 hours = 16,85 day Answer
6) A 1:10 reduced scale model of a submarine is tested in wind tunnel. The design speed of the submarine is 15 knots (1knot =
1.852kmph). The specific gravity of sea water is 1.026 and its kinematic viscosity is 0.014 stoke. The density of air in the wind
tunnel is 1.22 kg/m3 and its kinematic viscosity is 0.046 stoke. Calculate the velocity of air, if the drag measured on the model is
1133N, Predict the power required to drive the prototype submarine.

Data:
Solution : Since this is an immersed body problem,
Reynolds law of similitude is applicable.
• Scale ratio (model to prototype)
Lm 1 Lp
• = OR = 10,
LP 10 Lm
15 𝑋 1.852 𝑋 1000 𝑚
• Vp = 15 Knots = = 7.716
60 𝑋 60 𝑠
• Specific gravity of sea water = 1.026,
• Kinematic viscosity of sea water (νp ) = 0.014 stokes
kg
• Density of air in the wind tunnel (ρm ) = 1.22 3 ,
m
• Kinematic viscosity of air(νm ) = 0.046 stokes .
• Velocity of air (Vm ) = ? When Fm = 1133 N
• Power required to drive the prototype submarine ,
• Power of prototype (Pp ) = ?